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THEOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OP
CoPnIGBT @ 1974 BY WILLIAM
nm
OLD TuSTAMl!.NT
B. EERDMANS PuBLISHINQ Co.
All rights reserved
Revised edition
1977
Trans/aJed from
TllEoLOOJSCHES WOllTERBUCH
ZUM
.
ALTEN TBsTA.MBNT
1-4
1970, 1971, 1972 by
Lieferungen
Published
VBILAO w. KOHLHAMMEll GMBH STVn'GAllT, w. GER.MANY
Reprinted l 997
•
Library of- Congress Cataloging in Publiation Data
Botterweck, G
Johannes.
Theological dictionary of the Old Testament.
Translation of 1beologi.sches Worterbuch
zum
Alten Testament.
1.
Bible.
0.
T.-Dictionaries Hebrew.
2. Hebrew language Dictionaries-English.
I. ltinggren, Helmer, 191711. Title.
BS440.BS713
ISBN
221.3
joint author.
73-76170
0-8028-2325-4
Printed in the United States
of America
•
CONTENTS
Page
Editors• Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V
Cantributors
.
Abbreviations
. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . V
.
. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
•
XI
Transliteration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
1:JN
:'l:JN
T
·abh ['abJ father (Ringgren)
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
'abhadh ['abad}; :i1:i�: ll�lt; Jii��perish, destroy(Otzen) . . . . . . . . . 19
'abhah 'iiba show intention
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
. Johnson
r (Botterweck) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
'iibhtr 'iibfr ; ':ilK stron • Mi
elrud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
One
.
:JN
C�?.iJlt
li1tt
i'�lt
C1N
:1�1N
•
'abhal ['iiflal]; a,�K; ';i�� mourn (Baumann)
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
'ebhen 'eben] stone (Ka elrud
.
.
. . . . .
. . .
. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. .
.
.
. . 48
'abhriihiim ['aflriihiim] Abraham (Clements) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
'iidhon ['iigon];
'
i
·addtr; ni:ttt mi b
lord. the Lord (Eissfeldtt)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
(Ahlstrom) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
. .
aass
1o
•adhiimah •adiimll land
'iihabh ['iihafl]; :i;i;Jtt ; :l;:tl(;
'ohel · a,:itt tent
.
och .
. .
er
.
.
.
.
. .
.
. .
. . . . . . .
:l;:tk love (Wallis; Bergman, Hald.ar)
.
. 75
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
. . . . . .
.
.
. .
'obh ['opJpit; spirit; necromancer (Hoffner)
.
.
. . .
. .
. .
n;�l.C fool, foolish (Cazelles)
.
.
. . . . . . . 99
.
.
. . . . . 1 18
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.30
'iiviih ['iiwa}; :'1}lC (:'t):j); :1)�1::1 ; 0'�1�1' desire (0. Mayer)
·;,11 ['ewtl];
.
. . . . . . . . . . 1.34
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
'iiven f 'iiwen]; l,.tt '1?.�9 negative power; evildoers (Bernhardt)
.
. . . . . . 140
147
liiN
'ath
·ot� s·1
1 67
e]fme er
�
�
· �
· �
· �
· '---'=-..>:
====�
:..L.
�
.,_ �
· ·�
�
· '-'· ·�
·�
·�
·��
· �
· '-'· ·�
·�
·�
· ·�
·�
�
· �
· ·�
· '---'· --=..:
�
·
188
'iich 'iih ; nin
'echiidh ['elµ'ig} one (Lohfmk; Bergman) . .
. . .
. .
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
193
•
x
Contents
intc
'iMN
..
-·
•
n'iMN
. '
•·:
-
:"l�'N
..
T
·achir [·ab.er1 other (Erlandsson) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
·ach"rfth [•ati0rl!J after(wards}; end; last (Seebass).
.
.
.
.
. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
207
·- ·abJi {'tiyapj; :l�11C; il "� enemy (Ringgren) .. . ............. . 212
-1
a i
em
·A
em
...
fl·
.
'1s"' i1
c•"'
"
·
W'N
""'
'?�.�
·akhal {'ii�L];
•
204
·ach0re 'ah.0re after
ts
h
"
N
·
n"'"
'"'
•
•error
..
Zobel .
. .
man· woman Brats1otJs . .
·
.
.
.
.
.
.
.. .
..
.
.
.
.
. .
..
.
.
.
.
.. .
.
. .
..
.
.
.
2 19
.
.
222
?.�k: i1a$?�\(; f17'��; ?1tS�; ?1��; n?,��7'; n?,:J�7'
eat, food ( Onos so.n) .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
•
. . . . . . 236
?N
242
••
:i?N
TT
C':''f?N
'.'I
•
?'?N
.
n
:"ll�?N
TT :
l�l$
�N
·
-·
'iinan;
il ,�M; 1�1C; l'l�N
.
.
. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
•e
- x..
1Wi>
..
••
-:
'itUN
. .
.
.
.
. . 267
(be) faithful, believe; truth (Jepsen) . . . . . . . . 292
�lt; T'�lt; T�tc�
il
be stro
Schreiner)
mankind Maass
. . . . ..
.
.
.
..
.
..
.
.
.
.
. .
. . .. .
.
'erets
,,ll;
•eres ·
.
. .
.
.
.
345
.
.
.
.
.
.
. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
. .. .
.
36 1
.
363
\.
\. \.
i'Qj{; K':;lt;
r:i�(
,' 11)W lion1 (Botterweck) ......... . 374
land Ottosson; Ber
Sch arbett)
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . . .
.
388
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
·rr; :ii��
curse
·e.sh ['es];
ilWl.C fire (Hamp; .Bergman. Krecber) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 18
.
•
•0sheriih f '0§era] Asherah (De Moor)
blessed (Cazelle s)
'eth 'et
·
CY
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
with Preuss . .
.
be•-er · iil
. weU H emtz
. . . . . . . 429
. .
,
.
.
.
.
. .
.
.
..
0
..
0
•
0
o
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
t
o
.
o
..
.
.
o
o
.
.
.
.
.
.
t
.
..
.
.
o
•
•
I>
.
.
.
.
.
.
I
.
.
o
o
0
•
438
. . . . . . 445
. ...
.
t
.
.
.
.
.
. 449
.
.
.
.
.
463
466
•
1�i
11l
323
-
Kellermann
T
.
'iinaph r·anap ]; ,,� anger (E. Johnson) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
•
:iiwac
.
.
,,�
. .·g �ar�· it�.,�;
•
.
.
'i�k; i��; :'l?�l'.C; :'1?1?tt; i9t$�; i�tc� say (Wagner) . . . . . . . . 328
:t0r.01i ark Zobel .
•
.
.
CDK
f'1�
.
261
n,l�?tt widow (Hoffner) . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 287
·amats ['timas]; �k ;
"' h
•e1ws
ri.�tt
(Scharbert) ...................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
euss
'almiinihi {'al"riin_O}:
WilN
'.'I
curse
.
•e11l worthless thin
·amar;
T
lC; :i?tc�
o.· 1111
' god ; God c run
•el-h"'
- ggren ) .
i�K
-
il
•allllz 1·a1tt ;
biighadh {bosadJ; i�� act faithl�ly (Erlandsson) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
badhiidh biidad · i ·ii· alone Zobel
·
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
473
ABBREVIATIONS
AANLR
AA SOR
AB
ABAW
ABL
ABR
ABRT
abs.
acc.
AcOr
act.
adj.
adv.
AF
A/K
AFNW
A/0
AgAbh
AH
AHAW
AHDO
AHw
A/ON
AJA
AJSL
Akk.
AKM
AN
AnAcScFen
AnAeg
A nBibl
Anclsr
ANEP
ANET
Atti dell'Accaden1ia Nazionale dei Li1icei, Rendiconti
Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research
The Anchor Bible
Abhandlungen der Akaden1ie der Wissenschaften, Berlin
R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Letters, 1-14, Chicago, 1892-1914
Australian Biblical Review, Melbourne
J. Craig, Assyrian and Babylonian Religious Texts, Leipzig, 1895-97
absolute
accusative
Acta Orientalia
active
adjective
adverb
A.' gyptologische Forschungen, Gliickstadt
Arcliiv fur Kulturgeschichte
A rbeitsgemeinschaft fur Forschung des Landes Nordrhein-West/alen
Archiv Iur Orientforschung
Agyptologiscl1e Abhandlungen
Analecta Hyninica, ed. G. Dreves and C. Blume, Leipzig, 1886-1922
Abhandlungen der Heidelberger Akade1nie der Wisse11schafren
A rchives d'Histoire du Droit Oriental
W. von Soden, A kkadisches Handworterbuch
Annali dell'lstituto Universitario Orientate di Napoli
American Journal of Archaeology
The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures
Akkadian
Abhandlungen zur Kunde des Morgenlandes (Leipzig), Wiesbaden
J. J. Stamm, Die akkadisclze Namengebung. MV)fG, 44 (1939)
Anna/es Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae
Analecta Aegyptiaca
Analecta Biblica, Rome
R. de Vaux, Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions, trans. 1961
The Ancient Near East in Pictures, ed. J. B. Pritchard, Princeton, 1954, 21969
Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, ed. J. B. Pritchard,
·
21955, 31969
AnOr
AnSt
ANVAO
AO
AOAT
AOB
AOT
AP
APAW
APNM
Arab.
Aram .
ArbT
ARM
ArOr
ARW
ASAW
ASKT
Assyr.
AST/
AT
Analecta Orientalia
Anatolian Studies, London
A vhandlinger utgitt av det Norske Videnskaps-Akademi i Oslo
Der Alte Orient, Leipzig
Alter Orient und Altes Testament, Neukirchen-Vluyn
Altorientalische Bilder zum Alten Testament, ed. H. Gressmann, 21927
A ltorientalische Texte zum Alten Testament, ed. H. Gressmann, 21926
A. E. Cowley, A ramaic Papyri of the Fifth Century B.C., Oxford, 1923
Abhandlungen der Preitssische Akadernie der Wissenschaften, Berlin
H. B. Huffmon, Amorite Personal Names in the Mari Texts, Baltimore, 1965
Arabic
Aramaic
Arbeiten zur Theologie, Stuttgart
Archives Royales de Mari, Paris
Archiv Orientalni, Prague
Archiv fur Religionswissenschaft, Leipzig, Berlin
Abhan,dlungen der Siichsischen Akademie der W�ssenschaften in Leipzig
P. Haupt, Akkadische und Sumerische Keilschrifttexte, Leipzig, 1882
Assyrian
Annual of the Swedish Theological Institute in Jerusalem, Leiden
Alte Testament
•
XII
Abbreviations
ATA
ATD
AThANT
ATR
Aug
AuS
BA
Alttesta1nentliche Abhandlungen, Milnster
Das Alte Testament Deutsch
Abhandlu11gen zur Theo/ogie des A/ten und Neuen Testan1ents, Zurich
Anglican Theological Review, Evanston
Augustinianum
G. Dalman, Arbei1 und Sitte in Paliistina, 1928-1942
TJ1e Biblical Archaeologist, New H.aven
Bab.
Babylonian
BAfO
BAH
BASOR
BAss
BBB
BDB
Beihefte zur Archiv fur Orientforschung
Biblio1heque Archeo/ogique et Historique, Paris
Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
Beitriige zu Assyriologie
Bonner Biblische Beilriige
Brown-Driver-Briggs, A Hebrew and E11glish Lexicon of the Old Tes1ame1it
BE
Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
BeO
BethM
BETL
BFChTh
BHHW
BHK
BHS
BHTh
Bibi
Bib/Res
BietOr
BiLe
BiLi
BIN
BiOr
BJRL
BK
BL
BLA
Bibbia e Oriente
Beth Mikra
Bibliorheca Epherneridum TJ1eologicaruni Lovaniensium
Beitriige zur Forderung Christlicher Theologie, Gtitersloh
Biblisch-Historisches Handworterbuch, ed. L. Rost and B. Reicke, 1962ff.
Biblia Hebraica, ed. R. Kittel
Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, ed. K. Elliger and W. Rudolph, 1968ff.
Beitriige zur His1oriscl1en Theologie, Tilbingen
Biblica, Rome
Biblical Research
Biblica et Orientalia
Bibel und Leben
Bibel und Liturgie
Babylonian Inscriptions in the Collection of James B. Nies, New Haven
Bibliotheca Orie11talis, Leiden
Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, Manchester
Biblischer Kommentar zum A/ten Testament, ed. M. Noth and H. W. Wolff
Bibel-Lexikon, ed. H. Haag·
H. Bauer-P. Leander, Grammatik des Biblisch-Aramaischen, 1927
BlachereChouemi
BLe
BMAP
BMB
R. Blachere-M. Cbouemi-C. Denizeau, Dictionnaire Arabe-Fran.fais-Anglais
H. Bauer-P. Leander, Historische Gra1nmatik der hebriiisclien Sprache, 1922
E.G. Kraeling, The Brooklyn Museum Aramaic Papyri, 1953
Bulleti1i du. Musee de Beyrouth
Bo
Unpublished Bogazkoy tablets (with catalog number)
BoSt
BOT
BRL
BS
BSAW
Boghazkoi Studien
De Boeke.n van het Oude Testament, ed. Grossow, van der Ploeg, et al.
K. Galling, Biblisches Reallexikon, 1937
Bibliotheca Sacra, Dallas
Berichte uber die Verhandlungen der Siiclisischen Akademie der Wissen­
schaften zu Leipzig
Berichte der Siichsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften
Biblische Studien, Neukircben
The Bible Translator, London
Biblisch-Theologisches Handworterbuch zur Lutherbibel und zu neueren Vber­
setzungen, ed. E. Osterloh and H. Engeland
B. Meissner, Babylonien und Assyrien, I 1920, II 1925
Bibel und Kirche
Bible et Vie Chretienne
Beitriige zur Wissenschaft vom A/ten (und Neuen) Testament, Stuttgart
W. G. Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature, Oxford, 1960
BSGW
BSr
BT
BThH
BuA
BuK
BVC
BWA(N)T
BWL
•
•
XIII
Abbreviations
BZ
BZA W
BZ/r
BZTS
CAD
Blblische Zeitschrlft, Paderborn
Beil1e/1e i.ur Zeirschri/t fur die A lttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Berlin
Biblisclre Zeitfragen
Bonner Zeitschrift fiir Tlreologie und Seelsorge
The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago,
1956ff.
CahRB
Cahiers de la Revue Biblique
CahTD
Cahiers du Groupe F. Thureau-Dangin, I, Paris, 1960
CANES
Corpus of Ancient Near Eastern Seals in North An1erican Collections, I,
Washington, 1948
CAT
Commentaire de l'Ancien Testament
CBQ
Catltolic Biblical Quarterly
CBSC
The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges
CChr
Corpus Christianorum, Turnbout
CD A, B
Damascus Document, Manuscript A, B
CH
Codex Hammurabi
Chrt.g
Ch.ronique d't.gypte
CIH
Corpus lnscriptionum Hitnjariticarum (=CIS, IV)
CIS
Corpus lnscriptionum Semiricarum, 188lff.
CML
G. R. Driver, Canaanite Myths and Legends, Edinburgh, 1956
CollBG
Collationes Brugenses et Gandavenses, Gent
comm.
commentary
ComViat
Communio Viatorum, Prague
conj.
conjecture
const.
construct
ContiRossini K. Conti Rossini, Chrestomathia Arabica meridionalis epigraphica, 1931
Copt.
Coptic
Commentaar op ltet Oude Testament, ed. G. C. Aalders, Kampen
COT
Comptes-rendus de l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Paris
CRAI
Compte Rendu de . . . Recontre Assyriologiq1le Internationale
CRRA
Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets, etc. in the British Museum,
CT
London, 1896ff.
The Egyptian Coffin Texts, ed. A. de Buck and A. H. Gardiner, 1935ff.
CT
CTA
A. Herdner, Corpus des Tablettes en Cuneiformes A lphabetiques Decouvertes
a Ras Shamra-Ugarit I/II, Paris, 1963
Concordia Theological Monthly, St. Louis
CTM
Cultura Blblica, Segovia
CultBibl
Die Christliche Welt
cw
F. Cabrol-H. Leclercq, Dictionnaire d'A rcheo/ogie Chretienne et Liturgie,
DACL
Paris, 1907ff.
Dictionnaire de la Bible
DB
Dictionnaire de la Bible, Supplement, ed. L. Pirot, A. Robert, H. Cazelles,
DBS
and A. FeuilJet, 1928ff.
Cb.F.Jean-J.Hoftijzer, Dicrionnaire des Inscriptions Semitiques de l'Ouest,
DISO
Leiden, 1965
dissertation
diss.
DissAbs
Dissertation Abstracts
DID
Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, 1955ff.
DLZ
Deutsche Literaturzeitung
DN
name of a deity
Dansk Teologisk Tidsskrift, Copenhagen
DTT
EA
Tell el-Amarna Tablets
EB
Die Heilige Schrift in deutscher Vbersetzung. Echter-Bibel, Wiirzburg
EGA
R. M. Boehmer, Die Entwicklung der G/yptik wahrend der Akkad-Zeit,
Berlin, 1965
Egyptian
Egyp.
·
•
XIV
Einl.
EJ
EKL
EMiqr
EnEl
Eng.
Er/ThSt
Erlb
EstBib
EstEel
Ethiop.
ETL
EvQ
EvTh
ExpT
FreibThSt
FRLANT
FzB
gen.
GesB
GF
-
GGA
GHK
Gilg
GK
Gk.
GI
GLECS
Greg
GSAT
HAT
Hatt.
HAW
Heb.
Hitt.
HNT
HO
HSAT
HThR
HUCA
IB
ICC
IDB
IEJ
/LC
impf.
impv.
In
inf.
in loc.
Introd.
IPN
•
Abbreviations
Einteitung
Encyclopaedia Judaica
Evangelisches Kirchenlexikon, Gottingen, I 1956, II 1958
Entsiqlopediii Miqrii.it-Encyc/opaedia Biblica, Jerusalem
Bouma Etish
English
Erfurter Tfteologische Studien
Eranos-Jahrbuch
£studios Bfblicos, Madrid
£studios Eclesidsticos
Ethiopic
Ephemerides Theo/ogicae Lovanienses
Tlie Evangelical Quarterly
Evangelische Theo/ogie, Munich
Tlie .Expository Times, London
Freiburger Theologische Studien
Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des A lten und Neuen Testaments,
Gottingen
Forschung zur Bibel
genitive
W. Gesenius-F. Buhl, Hebriiisches und aramiiisches Handworterbuch, 171921
A. Alt, The God of the Fathers, trans. in Essays on Old Testament History and
Religion (1966), 1-77
Gottingische Gelehrte Anzeigen
Hand-Kon1mentar zum A lten Testament, ed. W. Nowack, Gottingen
Gilgamesh Epic
W. Gesenius-E. Kautzsch, Hebriiische G rammatik, 2s 1909 ( Kautzsch-Cowley,
Gesenius' Hebrew Gra1nmar, 21910)
Greek
Inscriptions in the E. Glaser collection (Old South Arabic)
Comptes Rendus du Groupe Linguistique d'£tudes Chamito-Semitiques, Paris
Gregorianum
Gesammelte Studien zum Alten Testarnent
Handbuch zum A /ten Testament, ed. 0. Eissfeldt, 1st series
ffattic
Handbuch der A ltertumswissenschaft, ed. W. Otto, Munich, 1929ff.
Hebrew
Hittite
Handbuch zum Neuen Testament, ed. G. Bomkamm
Handbuch der Orientalistik, ed. B. Spuler, Leiden, 1952ff.
Die Heilige Schrift des A lten Testaments, ed. E. Kautsch-A. Bertholet,
41922123
Harvard Theological Review
Hebrew Union College Annual, Cincinnati
The Interpreter's Bible, ed. G. A. Buttrick, 1951-57
The International Critical Commentary
The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, ed. 0. A. Buttrick, I-JV, 1962
Israel Explora.tion Journal, Jerusalem
J. Pedersen, Israel. Its Life and Culture, 1926, 31953, 4 vols. in 2
imperfect
imperative
Interpretation
infinitive
on this passage
Introduction (to)
M. Noth, Die israelitischen Personennamen. B WANT, 3/10, 1928
�
=
Abbreviations
•
•
JrishThQ
IA
Ja
IAOS
JBL
JBR
JCS
/EA
JEOL
JES
JJS
JNES
JNWSL
JoPh
JPOS
JQR
JR
IRAS
JRH
JSOR
JSS
JThC
ITS
Jud
K
KAI
xv
Irish Theological Quarterly, Maynooth
Journal Asiatique, Paris
Enumeration according to A. Jamme (Old South Arabic)
JotJrttal of the A1nerica1z Oriental Society
Journal of Biblical Literature
Journal of Bible and Religion, Boston
Journal of Cuneifor1n Studies, New Haven
Journal of Egyptian Arcliaeology, London
Jaarbericl1t . . . Ex Oriente Lux, Leiden
Journal of Ecumenical Studies
Journal of Jewish Studies, London
Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Chicago
Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages
Tlte Journal of Philology
Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society, Jerusalem
Jewish Quarterly Review
Journal of Religion, Chicago
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, London
Journal of Religion and Healtlz
Journal of the Society of Oriental Research, Toronto
Journal of Semitic Studies, Manchester
Journal for Theology and the Church
Journal of Theological Studies, Oxford
Judaica
Tablets in the Kouyunjik collection of the British Museum
H. Donner-W. Rollig, Kanaaniiische und aramliische /nschriften, I 21966,
11 21968, III 21969
KAR
E. Ebeling, Keilschrifttexte aus Assur religiosen lnhalts, 1915-1919.
KAT
Kommentar zum Alten Testament, ed. E. Sellin, continued by J. Herrmann
KAV
0. Schroeder, Keilinschriften aus Assur versckiedenen lnhalts
KB
Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek, ed. B. Schrader
KBL
L. Koehler-W.Baumgartner, Hebriiisches und aramiiisches Lexikon zum A/ten
Testament, 21958, 31967ff.
KBo
Keilschrifttexre aus Boghazkoy
KHC
Kurzer Handcommentar zum A /ten Testament, ed. K. Marti
KISchr
Kleine Schriften (A. Alt, 1953-59; 0. Eissfeldt, 1962ff.)
KUB
Keilschrif tenurkunden aus Boghazkoi
KuD
Kerygma und Dogma, Gottingen
Lane
E. W. Lane, An Arabic-English Lexicon, London, 1863-1893
Lat.
Latin
LD
Lectio Divina
Leslau, Con- W. Leslau, Ethiopic and South Arabic Contributions to the Hebrew Lexicon
tributions (1958)
Levy, WTM J. Levy, Worterbuch uber die Talmudim und Midraschim, 21924= 1963
LexSyr
C. Brockelmann, Lexicon Syriacum, 21968
Lidz.Eph
M. Lidzbarski, Ephemeris fur semitische Epigraphik, 1900-1915
LidzNE
M. Lidzbarsk.i, Handbuch der nordsemitischen Epigraphik, 1898
lit.
literally
LRSt
Leipziger Rechtswissenschaftliche Studien
LSS
Leipziger Semitische Studien
LThK
Lexikon fur Theologie und Kirche, 1930-38, 21957ff.
LUl'l
Lunds Universitets A rsskrift
LXX
Septuagint
MAOG
Mitteilungen der Altorientalisclien Gesellschaft, Leipzig
MBPAR
Munchener Beitriige zur Papyrusiorschung und Antiken Rechtsgeschichte
MD.AI
Mitteilungen des Deutschen A rchiiologischen Jnstituts in Kairo, Wiesbaden
Abbreviations
XVI
MdD
MDOG
MeyerK
MIFAO
MIO
MKAW
MKPA W
•
MPG
MPL
ms.
MT
MThS
MThZ
Mus
MUSI
MVAG
n.d.
NedGTT
NedThT
NKZ
n.n.
NovT
NRTh
NS/
NTS
NTT
obj.
OECT
OIP
OLP
OLZ
Or
OrAnt
OrNeer
OTL
OTS
OuTWP
PAAJR
par.
pass.
PBS
PEQ
perf.
Phoen.
PJ
PN
PN
PNU
prep.
PRU
PSBA
E. S. Drower-R. Macuch, Mandaic Dictionary, Oxford, 1963
Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft, Berlin
Kritisch-exegetischer Kommentar uber das Neue Testament, initiated by H. A.
W. Meyer, Gottingen
Mernoires publies par /es me111bres de l'lnstitut Fran�ais d'Archeologie
Orientate au Caire, Cairo
Mitteilun,r:en des lristituts filr Orienrforschung, Berlin
Mededeli11gen der Kon. Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen,
Amsterdam
Monatsbericlrte der Koniglich-Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Berlin
Patrologia Graeca, ed. J. P. Migne, Paris
Patrologia Latina, ed. J. P. Migne, Paris
manuscript
Massoretic Text
Munchener Theo/ogische Studien
Miinchener Theologische Zeitschrift
Le Museon, Revue d'ttudes Orienta/es
Melanges de l'Universite St.Joseph, Beirut
M'irteilungen der Vorderasiatisch-Agyptischen Gesellschaft (Berlin), Leipzig
no date
Nederduirse Gereforrneerde Teologiese Tydskrif
Nederlan,ds Theologisch Tijdscl1rift, Wageningen
Neue Kirchliche Zeitschrift, Erlangen, Leipzig
no name
Novum Testamentum, Leiden
Nouvelle Revue Theologique, Paris
G. A. Cooke, A Text-Book of North-Semitic Inscriptions, Oxford, 1903
New Testament Studies, Cambridge
Norsk Teologisk Tidsskrift, Oslo
object
Oxford Editions of Cunei/01m Texts, London, 1923ff.
Oriental Institute Publications, Chicago, 1924ff
Orientalia Lovaniensia Periodica
Orie11talistische Literaturzeitung (Leipzig), Berlin
Orienta/la. Commentarii periodic/ Pontificii Jnstituti Biblici, Rome
Oriens Antiquus
Orientalia Neerlandica, Leiden
The Old Testament Library
Oudtestamentisclie Studien, Leiden
De Ou Testamentiese Werkgemeenskap in Suid-Afrika, Pretoria
Proceedings of the American Academy for'Jewish Research
paralleVand parallel passages
passive
Publications of the Babylonian Section of the University Museum,
Philadelphia
Palestine Exploration Quarterly, London
perfect
Phoenician
Paliistinajalzrbuch, Berlin
name of a person
H. Ran.ke, Die iigyptischen Personennamen, 1935·1952
F. Grondahl, Personennamen der Texte aus Ugarit, Rome, 1967
preposition
Le Palais Royal d'Ugarit, ed. Cl. Schaeffer, Paris
Proceedings of the Soci�ty of Biblical Archaeology, Bloomsbury (London)
.
•
·
·
XVII
Abbreviations
ptcp.
Pun.
participle
Punic
PV
PW
Parole di Vita
A. Pauly-0. Wissowa, Real-Encyclopiidie der classischen A lterrums­
•vissenscha/t, 1894ff.
Pyr.
Pyramid Texts, ed. K. Sethe
Quaestiones Disputatae, ed. K. Rabner and H. Schlier, 1959ff.
H. C. Rawlinson, The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia, London, 1861-
QuaestDisp
R
RA
RAC
RAR
RB
RdM
RE
Rf:.g
1909
Revue d'Assyriologie et d'A rcheologie Orientale, Paris
Reallexikon fur Antike und Clzristentum, ed. Th. Klauser, 1941ff.
H. Bonnet, Reallexikon der agyptischen Religionsgeschichte
Revue Biblique, Paris
Die Religionen der Menschheit, ed. C. M. Schroder
Real-Enzyklopiidie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche, 31896- 1913
Revue d'Egyptologie
repr.
reprint, reprinted
RES
RES (with
number)
RevQ
RevRef
RGG
RHA
RRJE
RHPR
RHR
RivBibl
RLA
RLR
RLV
RoB
RS
RScR
RSO
RSPT
RT
Revue des Etudes Semitiques, Paris
Repertoire d'Epigraphie Semitique
Revue de Qumran, Paris
La Revue Reformee
Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 81957-1965
Revue Hittite et Asianique, Paris
Revue de l'Histoire Juive en Egypte
Revue d'Histoire et de Philosophie Religieuses, Strasbourg, Paris
Revue de l'Histoire des Religions, Paris
Rivista Biblica, Rome
Reallexikon der Assyriologie, ed. G. Ebeling and B. Meissner, Berlin, I 1932,
TI 1938, III 1, 2 1957/59
Revue de Linguistique Romane
Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte, ed. Max Ebert, Berlin, 1924-1932
Religion och Bibel. Nathan Soderb/om-Sallskapets Arsbok
Ras Shamra
SAT
Revue des Sciences Religieuses
Rivista degli Studi Orientali, Rome
Revue des Sciences Philosophiques et Theologiques, Paris
Recueil de Travaux relatifs a la philologie et a l'archeologie egyptiennes et
assyr1ennes
Revue de Theologie et de Philosophie, Lausanne
Enumeration in G. Ryckmans, Inscriptions sudarabes I-XVII;
Le Museon, 40-72
A. Falkenstein-W. von Soden, Sumerische und akkadische Hymnen und Gebete
Die s11merischen und akkadischen Konigsinschriften, ed. F. Thur�au-Dangi.n
(=VAB, l)
Die Schriften des Alten Testaments in Auswahl, trans. and ed. H. Gunkel, et al.,
SAW
SBAW
SBM
SBS
SBT
SchThU
SerHier
SDA W
SEA
Sitzungsberichte der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien
Sitzungsberichte der Bayerischen A kademie der Wissenschaften, Munich
Stuttgarter .Biblische Monographien
Stuttgarter Bibel-Studien
Studies in Biblical Theology
Schweizerische Theo/ogische Umschau, Bern
Scripta Hierosolymitana. Publications of the Hebrew University, Jerusalem
Sitzungsberichte der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin
Svensk Exegetisk A rsbok, Lund
•
RTP
Ry
SAHG
SAK
Gottingen
XVIII
Abbreviations
Sem
Se1nitica
Seux
J. M. Seux, Epithetes Roya/es Akkadiennes et Sumeriennes, Paris, 1968
F. Delitzsch, Sumeriscl1e Grammatik
SG
SgV
SIT
SL
SMSR
SNumen
SNVAO
Sammlung gemeinverstliruilicher Vortriige und Schriften aus dem Gebiet der
Tlieologie und Religionsgeschichte, Tilbingen
Scottisli Jour11al of Theology, Edinburgh
A. Deimel, Sun1erisches Lexikon, Rome, 1925-1937
Studi e Materiali di Storia del/e Religioni (Rome), Bologna
Supple1nents to Numen
Skrifter utgitt av Det Norske Videnskaps-Akademi i Oslo
Soq.
Soqotri
SPA W
SSA W
SSN
StANT
StOr
StSem
StTh
StudGen
Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akadentie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin
Sitztlngsberichte der Siichsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig
Studia Semitica Neerlaruiica
Studien zum A/ten und Neuen Testament, Munich
H. L.Strack-P. Billerbeck, Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud urui
Midrasch, 1923-1961
Studia Orientalia, Helsinki
Studi Semitici
Studia Theologica, Lund, Aarhus
Studium Generale, Heidelberg
subj.
subst.
suf.
Su.m.
subject
substantive
suffix
Sumerian
Syr.
Syriac
St.-B.
SVT
Synt
Supple1nents to Vetus Testamentum, Leiden
C. Brockelmann, Hebrliische Syntax
TDOT
TGUOS
Syria. Revue d'Art Oriental et d'Archeologie, Paris
Teologinen Aikakauskirja
Textes Cuneiforrries du Musee du Louvre
Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, ed. G. Kittel and G. Friedrich,
trans. G. Bromiley
Theological Dictio�ary of the Old Testament
Transactions of the Glasgow University Oriental Society
Th.
Theol.
Theologie
Theology (of)
Syr
TAik
TCL
TDNT
THAT
Theologisches Handworterbuch zum A/ten Testament, ed. E. Jenni and
C. Westermann, Munich, 1971
ThB
Theel.Diss.
ThLZ
TlzR
ThSt
ThStKr
ThViat
Theologische Biicherei
Tlreologisclie Dissertationen, Basel
Theologisclie Literaturzeitung, Leipzig, Berlin
Theo/ogische Rundschau, Ti.ibingen
Theologische Studien, Zurich
Theologische Studien und Kritiken, Berlin
Theologia Viatorum
Theologische Zeitschrif 11 Basel
Tigr.
trans.
Tigrinya (Tigrii
i a)
translated
TlrZ
TrThSt
TrThZ
TS
TuThQ
TynB
VET
VF
Trierer Theologische Studien
Trierer Theologische Zeitschrift
Theological Studies
Theologische Quartalschrif t, Tilbingeo, Stuttgart
Tyndale Bulletin
Ur Excavations. Texts, London, 1928ff.
Ugarit-Forschungen
Abbreviations
Ugar.
Urk.
UT
UVA
VAB
VAS
VD
VG
VT
Vulg.
WbAS
WbMyrh
Whitaker
WMANT
WO
WTM
wus
wz
WZKM
ZA
Z.A'S
ZAW
ZDMG
ZDPV
ZE
ZEE
ZMR
ZNW
ZRGG
ZS
ZST
ZThK
zz
XIX
Ugaritic
Urkunden des iigyptischen Altertums, ed. G. Steindorf£
C.H. Gordon, Ugaritic Textbook, Rome, 1965
Uppsala Universitets Arsskrift
Vorderasiatische Bib/iothek
Vorderasiatiscl1e Schriftdenkmii/er der ki:iniglichen Museen zu Berlin
Verbum Domini, Rome
C. Brockelmann, Grundriss der verg/eichenden Grammatik der semitischen
Sprachen, 1908-1913
Vetus Testa1nentun11 Leiden
Vulgate
A.Erman-H. Grapow, Worterbuch der iigyptischen Sprache, 1-V
Worterbuch der Mythologie, ed. H. W. Haussig
R. E. Whitaker, A Concordance of the Ugaritic Literature, 1972
Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alte1i und Neuen Testament, Neukirchen
Die Welt des Orients, Gottingen
J. Levy, Worterbuch uber die Talmudim und Midraschim, 21924=1963
J. Aistleitner, Worterbuch der ugaririschen Sprache, 81967
Wissenschafrliche Zeitschrift
Wierrer Zeitschri/t fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes
Zeitschrifr fur Assyriologie (Leipzig), Berlin
Zeitschrift fiir Agyptische Sprache und A /tertumsku11de (Leipzig), Berlin
Zeitscl1rift fiir die A lttesta1nentliche Wissenscl1aft (Giessen), .Berlin
Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenliindischen Gesellschaft (Leipzig), Wiesbaden
Zeitscltrift des Deutschen Paliistina-Vereins (Leipzig, Stuttgart), Wiesbaden
Zeitschrif t fi.i.r Ethnologie
Zeitschrift filr Evangelische Ethik, Giitersloh
Zeitschrift fiir Missionskunde und Religionswissenschaft, Berlin
Zeitschrift fiir die Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft (Giessen), Berlin
Zeitschrif t fur Religions- und Geistesgeschichte, Cologne
Zeitschrift fur Semitistik und verwandte Gebiete, Leipzi g
Zeitschrift fur die Syste1natische Theologie (Giltersloh), Berlin
Zeitscltrift fur Theologie und Kirche, Tiibingen
.Die Zeichen der Zeit
indicates cross-reference within this Dictionary
TRANSLITERATION OF HEBREW
CONSONANTS
Hebrew
Consonant
Technical
Usage
•
Nontechnical
Usage
•
•
b
b
bh
bh
1
g
g
l
gh
gh
,
d
d
,
db
db
,,
h
h
,
v,w
v
T
z
z
n
ch,�
ch
t
t
,
y
y
:!l
k
k
:>
kb
I
kb
I
m
m
n
n
s
s
l
•
•
�
l
D
•
•
p
p
ph
ph
ts, s
ts
i'
q
q
.,
r
r
s
s
sh, s
sh
n
t
t
n
th
th
•
Transliteration of Hebrew
VOWELS
Hebrew
Vowel
Technical
Usage
Nontechnical
Usage
a
a
a
a
-
.
-·
-
a
a
e
e
e
e
•
·
••
'
ey
•J
-
e
�
e
••
..
e
••
e
e
•
1
1
"
1
1
0
0
0
0
•
•
•
•
'
•
•
•
-
0
•
0
0
\
u
"
-
,,
•
'
u
u
a1
at
•
'
•
u
-
av
-·
•
av
at
a1
h
h
•
:JK 'abh
T
Contents: I. The Word. D. ''Father" in the Ancient Near East Outside the OT: 1. Egypt;
2. Mesopotamia; 3. The West Semitic Region. DI. The OT: 1. Linguistic Usage; 2. The
Role of the Father (Including beth •abh); 3. Theological: a... Sleeping with One's Fathers";
b. The God of the Fathers; c. Th.e Land Promise to the Fathers; d. God's Saving Deeds to
the Fathers; e. Teaching and Example of the Fathers; f. The Sins of the Fathers; g. The
Fathers in the Royal Dynasty; h. Community Identification with the Fathers; i. Acknowl­
edgment of the Sins of the Fathers; 4. God As Father: a. Proper Names; b. Yahweh As
Father of the People; c. Yahweh As Father of the King; d. Isa.9:5(6).
I. The Word. The word
"ab(u) is found with slight variations in all Semitic
languages. All attempts to trace the word back to. a triliteral root must be re­
garded as failures. Instead it is to be understood, with Kohler, 1 as an onomato­
poetic word imitating the babbling sounds of an infant, i.e., as a child's word.
"abh. On ''Father'' in the OT: G. Ahlstrom, Psalm 89 (Lund, 1959); B. Alfrink, ..L'expres­
sion siikab ·;m 'abotiiw," OTS, 2 (1943), 106-118; Alt, GF; B . Colless, "Dio la Patro," Biblia
Revuo, 4/4 (1968), S-19; F. M.Cross, ''Yahweh and the God of the Patriarchs,'' HThR, SS
(1962), 225-259; L. Dilrr, Das Ert.iehungswesen im AT und im antiken a/ten Orient. MVAG,
3612 (1932); J.W.Gaspar, Social Ideas in the Wisdom Literature of the OT (Washington,
1947); J. Hempel, Gott und Mensch im A T. BWANT, 312 (21936); J.P.Hyatt, ..Yahweh as
'the God of my Father'," VT, 5 (1955), 130-36; R.Knierim, Die Hauptbegriffe fur Sunde Im
A T (1965); M. J. Lagrange, "La patemite de Dieu dans l'AT," RB, 5 (1908), 481-499; H.G.
May, ..The God of my Fath.er-a Study of Patriarchal Religion," JBR, 9 (1941), 155-58; Noth,
JPN; Pedersen, ILC, I-D, III-IV; J. G.Ploger, Literarkritische, formgeschichtliche und stil­
kritische Unter.suchungen tum Deuteronomium. BBB, 26 (1967); J. R. Porter, The Extended
Family In the OT (London, 1967); J. Scharbert, Solidarltiit in Segen und Fluch Im A T und
in seiner Umwelt. BBB, 14 (1958}; de Vaux, Anclsr; J. N. M. Wijngaards , The Dramatization
of Salvlfic History in the Deuteronomic Schools. OTS, 16 (1969).
On II. ''Father'' in the Ancient Near East Outside the OT: A.Erman-H. Ranke, Agypten
und iigyptisches Leben im Altertum (1923); H. Grapow, Die bildlichen Ausdriicke des Agyp­
tischen (1924); Grondahl, PNU,· J. Klima, Gesellschaft und Kultur des alten Mesopotamiens
(Prague, 1964); R.Labat, Le caractere religieux de la royaute assyro-babylonienne (Paris,
1939); Ranke, PN, I-D; J. Sainte-Fare Garnot, L'hommage aux dieux ... d'apres les textes
des pyramides (Paris, 1954); A. van Selms, Marriage and Family Life in Ugaritic Literature
(London, 1954); Stamm, AN; K. Tallqvist, Aklcadische Gotterepitheta. StOr, 7 (1938); J.
Zandce, De Hymnen aan Amon van Pap. Leiden I 350 (Leiden, 1947).
•
t
•
ZAW, SS (1937), 169ff
•
:lK
2
I
II.
'abb
''Father'' in the Ancient Near East Outside the OT.
1. Egypt. The Egyptian word for ''father'' is It. 2 In most cases this word is
used of an earthly father. 3 It is also used in the broader sense of ''ancestor,
forefather,'' often in the plural.
This word is used figuratively in expressions like ''I was a father to the child,''
and he was ''a father to orphans, a husband to widows.'' An official was said to
be ''a good father to his people.'' The king was referred to as ''father of the two
countries'' or as ''the good bearer of water, who keeps his army alive, father and
mother to all men.'' 4- It is clear that these expressions contain above all compar­
isons based on the idea of a father providing for the needs of his children.
It is noteworthy that the Egyptian terms used for relatives are limited to the
most intimate family relationships (father, mother, son, daughter, brother, sister).
This indicates that only the small family unit was felt to play a crucial role in
Egyptian social life. The same thing was true in the public administration, where
originally the highest public offices were held by royal princes. 5
An outstanding feature of Egyptian family life was the reverence the son show­
ed to his father. He was responsible for his father's funeral, an.d for offering the
sacrific.e at his tomb. E.g., the provincial prince Khnumhotep boasts: ''I have
e�alted the name of my father, and have supplied the place of the cult of the
dead and the provisions which are necessary for it.'' 6 But also more generally,
Egyptian literature often contains admonitions that a person show love, gratitude,
and respect to his parents.
It was the father's duty to educate the children, as is clear in that many of the
Egyptian books of wisdom claim to be a father's teaching for his son. 7 They
emphasize that it is good when the son obeys his father. 8
Since the families and genealogies of the gods have an important place in
Egyptian mythology, ''father'' is often used as a divine epithet. Thus, Osiris
above all is known as the father of Horus, e.g., in Pyr. 650b he is called ''the
father of Horus, who begat him''; 9 and Horus is said to be ''the one who acts
in his father's behalf'' (n4 tt.f). 10 Several gods are known as ''father of the
gods'' (it n!r. w), among them Atum, Re, Nun, Geb, Ptah. u The primal- and
creator-god boasts that he was ''without father and mother," or that he is ''the
bull of his mother'' (Kamutef), i.e., .he begat himself {above all, Amon and
Min). 12 ''Father of fathers, mother of mothers,'' i.e., primal-father and primal-
.
2 Wb.AS, I, 141f.
s It is used of animals as well as of people. WbAS, I, 14/15.
4- Orapow, 132f.
IS Heick-Otto, Kleines Worterbuch der Aegyprologie (1956), 96f.
e Erman-Ranke, 184.
1 Diirr, 15.
s Ibid., 32f.
9 Sainte-Fare Garnot, 120ff.
to Ibid., 135ff.
11 Zandee, 93f.
12 /UR, 364.
:sac ·abh
3
T
mother, also occur as divine epithets. Strange as it may seem, one and the same
God can appear as father and mother: thus Ptah, Osiris, Amon. 13 Amon is often
called ''father and mother (or merely father) of mankind,'' which in particular
emphasizes his function as creator (cf. Aton, who is described as ''mother and
father of everything which bas been made,'' and the sun-god, who is called
''mother of the earth, father of mankind''). 14
From the first Intermediate Period on, there are also proper names which
characterize a given individual as son of a god. Such a designation was limited
to kings in the Old Kingdom. The reason for this change is that the social unrest
in the first Intermediate Period broug.ht about a democratization. In the New
Kingdom names like ''Amon is my father," ''Chons is my father,'' etc., appear.
According to Ranke, this indicates a deepened piety. 15
Finally, the king is designated as ''father of the child, nurse of the infant.'' 16
The priestly title
it ntr,
''divine father,'' which refers to a priest of the highest
rank, has not been explained satisfactorily. 17
a. As M. Lambert has demonstrated, ts the Sumerian lan­
guage has at least three different expressions for ''father'': (i) a, later a-a, ''father' '
2. Mesopotamia.
=
''begetter''; (ii)
ab-ba, ''father''
=
''head of the family''; and (iii)
ad-da, which
is found only in texts from Nippur, and to which the Elamite word for ''father''
is related. The difference between the first two terms is evident, e.g., in two epi­
ab-ba dingir-dingir-e-ne, ''father of all gods," i.e.,
world of the gods; and a-a-kalam-ma, ''father of the
thets of En-lil: he is called
the
Pater familias
of the
land,'' i.e., begetter and creator of the world.
.
b. Like the other Semitic languages, Akkadian has only one wo�d for ''father,''
viz., abu(m), which is used to convey both of these nuances. When it means
''father'' in the physical sense, it often appears alongside or is used as a synonym
for bana, ''begetter." Sometimes a distinction is made between alidanu, ''the
physical father,'' and ''step-father'' or ''foster-father.'' 19 But abu is also used
with reference to other tnen: kings speak of their predecessors on the throne as
''my father'' (there are also instances in which the plural means ''ancestors''); a
king or a protector of the people is addressed as ''my father and lord'' (abi beli,
or some similar expression); cf. TCL, 14, 13:27: ''Thou art my father and my
lord, I have no other father but thee.'' The sheiks of the semi-nomadic peoples
is Zandee, 93; Kees
,
Der Gotterglaube im A/ten Agypten (21956), 162.
1� Grapow, 133.
llS Ranke, PN, II, 233f., 238; cf. 226, 243.
ie Grapow, 133. The royal title tty is also related to the word
(21956), 217.
It; cf.
Kees,
Totenglauben
11 Was the original meaning "father of daughters,,, who lived in the harem of the god?
RAR, 256.
18 GLECS, 9
19
(1960-1963), 52f.
Driver-Miles, Assyrian Laws (1935), 223.
4
:lit 'ibh
'
were called abu, particularly in Mari but also later. In some cases abu means
,
''official," ''administrator,' or ''master''; of particular interest is the expression
abu ummani kalama, ''a master of all trades.'' 20 The Mesopotamian family was
essentially patriarchal, but the authority of the father over the children was not
entirely absolute. It is true that he could expose a child, but he did not have the
power of life and death over his child. According to Sumerian laws, a son who
acted contrary to his father was sold into slavery. The Code of Hammurabi
requires punishment for the son who smites his father (CH § 195), and states
that the father may disown his son or give his children into se.rvitude for debts
he has incurred. 21
As in Egypt, so in Mesopotamia the education of the child was considered to
be the responsibility of the father. For example, we read in EnEl VII, 147: ''Let
the father tell about it (i.e., the creation) and teach it to his son.'' 22 It was the
duty of the sons to maintain the ancestral cult, though this was not regulated by
law, but was founded on ancient custom. And yet, in documents having to do
with the distribution of the paternal inheritance, often the heirs must accept the
responsibility of maintaining the ancestral cult. 23
It is also the responsibility of the father· to support and to protect his family.
From comparisons and other types of expressions (for illustrations cf. CAD),
we become acquainted with the characteristics that were considered essential
for a man to be a good father in the view of Mesopotamian society. For example,
we find such statements as these: ''The king treated his servants as a father treats
his sons'' ; ''let me learn from this whether you love me as a father''; it is said
,
to be abnormal for a ''father and mother to abandon their son. , 2• Conversely,
something was considered to be wrong if ''sons despised their father'' or if ''a
son and a father were angry with each other.''
There are several indications of a feeling of an intimate relationship between
the generations in Mesopotamian literature. We find this description of calamity
in the Erra Epic: ''The son will not be concerned about the health of the father,
nor the father about the health of the son' ' ; in incantation texts there is also
an allusion to ''curse through father or mother," but it seems best not to under­
stand this in the sense of a child being responsible for his parents, crimes; 26
indirect examples arc th.e deprecatory references to a king's sons who raise up a
revolt against their father or kill him. n
Frequently the gods are designated as
abu. To some extent this is to be under­
stood literally in connection with the idea of genealogies of the gods. But this
title also appears without genealogical connections. Anu, Enlil, Sin, Assur, etc.
are called abu ilani, ''father of the gods.'' Quite often Nanna-Sin is designated
simply as ''father,'' but he is also referred to as abu kibrati, ''father of the world
20 BWL, 158111.
21 Klima, 190f.
22 DUrr, 67.
28 Klima, 191.
U BWL, 70/11, Theodicy.
26 Scharbert, S3ff.
n CAD, .r.v., la, conclusion.
5
regions,'' and abu �a/mat qaqqadi, ''father of the blackheaded ones'' (i.e., men).
Anu is called abu §a ilatzi banu kalama, ''father of the gods, creator· of all,'' and
abu §ame u ersetim, ''father of the heaven and of the earth.'' 21 Here it is clear
that the word ''father'' is synonymous with creator or originator, and also an
expression for power and authority.
Occasionally, the relationship between god and man is characterized as a
father-child relationship. Thus a certain god is said to show mercy as a father,
or to forgive as a father. It has been said that ''they spoke of Marduk as one
would speak of a father and a mother.'' Such a statement refers primarily to the
kindness and care of the deity. It was natural, then, for the tutelary god of some
man to be addressed as abi, ''my father.'' 28
There is a particular problem connected with statements in which a king
asserts that he has no other father or mother than a certain deity. 29 Scholars are
divided as to whether such a statement is intended to convey the idea that the
king was physically the product of a divine begettal, or merely that the deity
gave the king special protection. 80
Perhaps this question can be settled by referring to tqe use of abu in proper
names. A few proper names, such as "Anum-ki-i-a-bi-ia, ''Anu is like my father,''
merely suggest that the deity's behavior is similar to a father's behavior. Others,
like SamaJ-abi, ''Shamash is my father,'' Sin-Abwu, ''Sin is his father,'' and the
like, indicate unequivocally that the god who is named is considered to be the
.man's father. Stamm understands these names as ''expressions of prospective
trust''; they are analogous to the names which refer to a man as a son of the
deity or as begotten by him. 31 It is certain that there is no mythology here, but
rather a man is simply described as standing under special divine protection. a
But we cannot be sure about names in which abi, or the like, seems to be a sub­
stitute for a divine name, as j.n Abi-nasir, ''my father protects,'' Abi-iddina, ''my
father has given,'' etc. Noth regards abu as a theophorous element, 11 which is
certainly true in many cases (especially with reference to the tutelary god), a.
but there are other cases in which it seems to refer to the earthly father, as Stamm
has argued.
•
3.
The West Semitic Region. West Semitic literature is little different from
Akkadian in the way it uses the word ''father.'' 85 Most of the examples refe.r to
the earthly father; thus, e.g., Mesha (line 2 of the Mesha Inscription), Al}iram
(KAI, 1.1), Barrakib (KAI, 215.18), and Panammuwa (KAI, 214.Sf.) speak of
their fathers in a literal sense. In the Ugaritic texts, Keret and Danel are men21
Tallqvist,
29
Labat, 57; Engnell, Studies in Divine Kingship (Uppsala, 1943), 16.
Sjoberg, RoB, 20 (1961), 14-29.
Stamm, 208f.; cf. 222.
Dhonne, La religion assyro-babylonienne (1910), 196f.
IPN, 66ff.
Stamm, S4f.
DISO.
28
ao
11
82
aa
M
85
tf.
Stamm, S4f.
:nc
6
'
"ibh
tioned as fathers. The plural is used to refer to the forefathers, 36 and the expres­
sion byt "b is used for the family or the dynasty. 37 In the Ugaritic texts, a certain
•
(vul ture)'' 88 is
mentioned in conjunction with ''$ml,
the mother of the eagle.'' 39 It is obvious in this case that a mythofogical couple
represent the (species) eagles. Ugaritic also has the word l)tk, which (probably
with different vocalizations) sometimes means ''father'' and sometimes ''origin.''40
''Hrgb,
father of the eagle
There are numerous examples of the metaphorical use of
"b
in West Semitic
literature. For example, Kilamuwa says: ''I was a father to one person, and a
mother to another, and a brother to yet a third.'' •1 And in the Karatepe Inscrip­
tion we read, ''Baal made me a father and a mother of the Danuna, ' 42 a state­
'
ment which obviously is describing the king as protector and sustainer of his
people. Ahikar is called ''father of all Assyria'' (55). This expression means that
he was the counsellor, because the land was dependent on the counsellor as a
child on his father.
In the Ugaritic te$, Danel c.alls El his father, as when he says: ''O Bull El,
my father." 4s It i'> not absolutely clear whether this means that the king is the
son of the god, becal:)se the god Baal uses the same expression, 44 and the bull
El is said .to be Baal's father. 45 As a divine epithet, ·b is applied to El: he is
called •b bn ii, ''father of the sons of the gods'' (i.e., of the pantheon), 46 •b •dm,
''father of mankind'' (i.e., of the h11man race), '7 and b snm, 48 an epithet which
has not yet been explained satisfactorily. At first it was assumed that this expres­
sion meant ''father of the years'' (so still Driver); but now many scholars doubt
this, and it is thought that snm is a place name, or the son of El, 49 or El's celestial
habitation. 50
It is interesting that some Aramaic inscriptions state that some king was put
on the throne because of the righteousness (or loyalty, �dq) 51 of his father. 52
The Aqhat Epic refers to certain responsibilities which a son has to his father.
But these have to do with cultic assistance primarily. 58
•
86
a1
38
39
'°
41
42
43
"
'6
46
4:1
f8
49
50
KAI, 215.16; cf. DISO, 5.
DISO, 3; JUI, 24.S; 214.9; 215.2f.
CTA, 19 [I D], 121.
CTA, 19 [I D], 135.
Van Selms, 94; cf. also UF, 1 (1969), 179, n. 4.
KAI, 24.lOf.
KAI, 26 1.3.
CTA, 17 en DJ, I, 24.
CTA, 2 [lllABJ, m, 19.
CTA, 2 [Ill AB], I, 16f.; 6 [I AB], VI, 27; etc.
CTA, 32, 2S.
CTA, 14 [I K], I, 37, 43, etc.
CTA, 6 [I AB], I, 8; 4 en AB], IV, 24; 17 en D], VI, 49.
UT, Glossary.
wus.
51 See KAI, 215.11.
52
KAI, 215.19f.; 216.4f.; cf. 215.lf., where only the father is mentioned.
53 CTA, 17 [Il DJ I, 27-34; Koch, ZA, N.P. 24 (1947), 214ff.; similarly already Engnell,
136f.
,
lit ·abh
•
7
often appears as a theophorous element in proper names. Sometimes it is
used as a substitute for a divine name, as in ·brm, abi-rluni, ''the father is exalt­
ed�'' 'brpi, abi-rapi, ''the father heals'' (or '''Rapi' is the father''?). Sometimes
it explicitly refers to a god as father, e.g., 'bmlk, abimilku, 5f ·bb.l, 55 ·!r'b, aJ-tar­
a-bi, 56 raSap-abi, rsp·b ·brsp. 51
Noth has shown that names containing •b and •J.i are phenomena that may be
found generally in North Semitic literature, and therefore concludes that they
originated at a time ''in which the North Semitic territory was an entity complete
within itself.'' 58 Gradually, this type of name becomes more and more infrequent
among the individual peoples, although new names using ·b and •IJ, appear. Further,
it is to be observed that ·1ya occurs as well as •bya, and "lkrb as well as 'bkrb,
which indicates that most probably •b is actually a theophorous element.59 Accord­
ing to Noth, this is to be explained in that in the ancient Northwest Semitic tribal
religion, the tribal god was regarded as father (or brother) of the tribe. This con­
cept gradually disappeared, but a number of proper names reflecting it lingered
on. ''But as tribal ancestor, the deity was not only begetter of the tribe, but also
head, leader, and protector.'' 60 It cannot be determined whether the main em­
phasis should be placed on the physical begetting or on the protection and .care
of the god. It is probable that the latter came more and more into the foreground.
•b
m.
The Old Testament.
1. Linguistic Usage. In addition to ''earthly father,'' the Hebrew word "abh
has a number of meanings in the OT. (a) It refers to a grandfather (Gen. 28:13;
perhaps also 49:29). (b) It is used of the founding father or ancestral father
(David, 1 K. 15:11; 2 K. 14:3; 18:3), especially of a tribe or people (Shem, Gen.
10:21; Abraham, Gen. 17:4f.; Isa. 51:2; Moab and Ben-Ammi, Gen. 19:37f.;
Esau, Gen. 36:9,43; Jacob, Dt 26:5; Isa. 43:27; the patriarchs, Dt. 1:8; 6:10;
9:5; 29:12 [Eng. v. 13]; 30:20; 1 Ch. 29:18). Often the term ''the fathers'' is used in
the sense of the first or the foimer generations of the people, i.e., the forefathers
(e.g., in Ex. 3:15; 20:5; Nu. 20: 15; 1 K. 14: 15; Isa. 51:2; Jer. 7:22; 16:1 lf.; Ps.
22:5[4]; 44:2[1]; 106:7). (c) 'abh sometimes means the founder of an occupation
or of a way of living (e.g., Jabal is called the father of those who dwell in tents and
have cattle, Jubal is said to be the father of musicians, Gen. 4:20; Jonadab, the
son of Rechab, is called father, i.e. founder. of the Rechabite movement, Jer.
35:6,8; cf. 1 Mace. 2:54). This is probably related to the way of thinking that
motivated guilds of priests, singers, and prophets to trace their origin back to
6�
Grondahl, 315, 360.
55 KAI, S.1; 184.4.
56 Grondahl, 323, 378.
57
ISS
59
60
Ibid., 349, 361, 408f.; Huffmon, APNM, 154.
JPN, 66ff.
Stamm, 53, expresses doubts about this interpretatior: of certain Akkadian names.
Noth, JPN, 15.
8
some ancestral father. 81 (d)
is applied to a man who is considered worthy
of special honor, e.g., an older man (1 S. 24:12(11]), a teacher or prophetic
·abh
master (2 K. 2:12; 6:21 ; 13: 14), a priest (Jgs. 17.: 10; 18:19; cf.
a word used by a wisdom teacher to address his students).
beni, ''my son,'' as
(e) 'abh sometimes
means a protector, who to some extent takes the place of a father (Ps. 68:6
[5], ''father of the fatherless,'' so also Sir. 4:10; Job 29:16, ''a father to the
poor ''; Isa. 22:21, ''a father to the inhabitants of Jerusalem.'' (f) "abh is used
to designate a counsellor (Gen. 45:8; 1 Mace. 2:65; 1 1:32). 62 (g) "abh also can
mean creator {of the rain, Job 38:28).
The reason •abh has so many different meanings in the OT is probably that
the Semitic languages originally referred to a distinction between the generations.
and were not concerned to denote exact relationships between people. Con­
sequently, each representative of the older generation was called
•abh, and each
1::1 ben. This explains
representative of the younger generation was called a -.
how "abh can be used as a title of honor. l.n most cases, however, the Hebrew
linguistic use of this word corresponds with our own.
2.
The Role of the Father (Including beth 'abh).
The social life of Israel
was closer to that of the Semitic nomadic peoples than to the city culture of the
ancient Near East. The dominant factors in her social structure were the tribe
and the clan. rather than the viJJage, the city, and the district. As among the
Bedouins, a well-rounded life was thoug.ht to be possible only within the fellow­
ship of the tribe. 63 As a result, an individual's parentage and genealogy were
considered to be of great importance. Thus the tribal father or original ancestor
was very significant. In Deutero-Isaiah (51:2), ''Abraham your father'' is used
as an example from which one may learn and take courage.
In the Israelite family, the father has almost unlimited authority. He is master
of the house; the children are taught to honor and fear him (Mal. 1 :6). He con­
trols the other members of the family as a potter controls his clay (Isa. 64:7 [8]).
Yet ''he is not an isolated despot, but the centre from which strength and will
emanate through the whole of the sphere which belongs to him and to whic.h he
belongs. When a man is called father, it really implies the same thing, kinship
and authority also being expressed by the name of father. To the Israelite the
name of father always spells authority. Naaman is called father by his servants
(2 K. 5:13). The priest is called the father of the cultic community of which he
is the head (Jgs. 18: 19), and Elijah is called father by his disciples (2 K. 2: 12).
Round the man the. house groups itself, for111ing a psychic community, which is
et
Cf. A. Haldar, Associations of Cult Proph�t3 (Uppsala, 1945), 36ff. Quell, TDNT, V,
961, n. 5: ''patron," differs from this view. Schubert, 61, writes: ''The OT conveys a different
idea here from the Phoenician mythology in Philo Byblius, where different gods arc con­
sidered to be inventors of different occupations and skills."
a Cf. de Boer, SYT, 3 (1955), 57ff. According to B.runner, ZAS, 86 (1961), 99, the Hebrew
in Gen. 45:8 is the same as the Egyptian expression Jt n[r in the sense of "tutor of the crown­
prince."
II Scharbert, 76ff.
9
::111T •abh
stamped
by him.
Wives, children, slaves, property are entirely merged in this
unity.'' " ''It is a terrible fate when one'� father (and mother) forsakes him (Ps.
27:10); and for one to have no father is reason to lament (Lam. 5:3).'' 65
In light of this, it was natural for the ''family'' to be called ''the father's house''
(Heb. beth •abh, which is analogous toAkk . bit abi). Unfortunately, the terminol­
ogy in the OT is not very consistent on this point. In addition to ''family'' (Ex.
12:3; 1 Ch. 7:2), beth 'abh can also be used to refer to a subdivision of a clan,
which is composed of several families (Nu. 3:24; 34: 14), or even to a tribe {17:17
[2] ; Josh. 22:14), or to a different group (Ex. 6:14; Nu. 1 :2). 66 As Elliger has
shown, 87 Lev. 18 presupposes the situation which existed in a typical ancient
Israelite household (''father's house''), ''in which, under normal conditions, four
generations lived together.'' 68
Most examples of the expression beth abh occur in lists, or the like, and
provide little information about family ''consciousness.'' But Gen. 12 is quite
clear. Here Abraham is commanded to leave his land, his kindred (moledheth),
and his family (beth 'abh) in order to look for the promised land. This narrative
shows clearly that the mandatory separation of Abraham from his kindred is
unprecedented (cf. 20:13; 24:7). Similarly, in 2:24 leaving father and mother
involves separating oneself from the old family and building a new one, in which
the man becomes, in due course of time, the father of the family.
In the Legal material of the OT, the rights of the father appear only fragmen­
tarily. From Ex. 21:7 we learn indirectly that a father could sell his daughter as
a female slave. Older narratives show that the father could take away the birth­
right of his firstborn son (Gen. 49:4; 1 K. l : l lff.), but the Deuteronomic law
explicitly forbids such a practice (Dt. 21: 15-17). Deuteronomy represents a later
stage of development with regard to other laws as well. In Gen. 38:24, Judah
himseH pronounces the death penalty on his daughter-in-law, while in Dt. 21:1821 the punishment of a rebellious son is left to the elders of the city.
Dt. 21:18 indicates indirectly that it was the duty of the children to obey their
parents. The fifth (or fourth) commandment in the Decalog goes deeper: ''Honor
(kabbedh) your father and your mother'' (the reason given here for obeying this
commandment is a later addition). But this commandment is intended not only
for the children, but also (and primarily) for the adults in the household; and
what it emphasizes above all else is not obedience to parents, but an attitude of
respect for them.
The Wisdom Literature has much more to say on this subject than does the
Legal material of the OT. There the major emphasis is on the mutual respon­
sibilities of parents and children. 69 The father's authority is undisputed: thus, it
is a disgrace for a son to treat his parents wrong (Prov. 19:26) or to curse them
•
M
Pedersen, ILC, I, 63.
8G Hempel, 133.
88 Wolf, JBL, 6S (1946), 48.
87 ZAW, 61 (19SS), 1-25.
88 HAT, 4 (1966), 239; cf. Porter, 6t
et Oaspar, 29ff.
•
10
:JM •abb
'
(20:20; cf. also 28:24). But the responsibility of the father appears indirectly in
Job 5:4, where the children of a foolish man have no protector. The first require­
ment of a father is to fear God; then he will be a refuge to his children (Prov.
14:26). There is a major emphasis in the Wisdom Literature on the importance
of training children: a father must discipline his son, or else he will destroy him
(19:18); he must train up a child in the way he should go (22:6); he must teach
his son wisdom, if he wishes to be glad (10: 1 ; 23:24). Several passages indicate
that bodily punishment played an important role in the child's training (3: 12;
4:3f.; 6:20-27; 13:1,24; 29:17f.). 70
At the same time, it is the responsibility of the children to hearken to their
father (Prov. 23:22) and in this way to make their parents glad (15:20; 23:22,25).71
3.
In many expressions in which "abh(oth.) occurs in the OT,
there is a strong feeling of a bond between the gene_rations.
Theological.
a.
''Sleeping with One's Fathers." Perhaps this feeling is reflected most clearly
by the expression shakhabh ·im "abhothav, ''he lay down with his fathers'' (Gen.
47:30; Dt. 3 1 : 16; 2 S. 7: 12; and 35 times in 1-2 K. and 2 Ch.). As Alfrink has
shown, this expression almost exclusively refers to kings, and only in cases in
which a king died a natural death. The expression ne'esaph ·el ·ammav, ''he was
gathered to his people,'' has a similar meaning, but it is found only in the Penta­
teuch! However, the expression ne •esaph •el •abhothav, ''he was gathered to his
fathers,'' appears outside the Pentateuch' (cf. Jgs. 2:10; 2 K. 22:20 = 2 Ch. 34:28).
According to Pedersen, all these expressions grew .out of the custom of bury. ing a person at the family grave. 72 But the fact that the burial is usually men­
tioned separately seems to oppose this explanation. (And yet, 1 K. 1 1 : 21 makes
etc., is synonymous with
David ''sleeps with his
fathers'' and Joab ''�ies.'') In agreement with this, the use of these expressions
it clear that
shakhabh,
muth;
does not always correspond to actual burial places. 73 But in spite of this, the
original idea must have been that the deceased is united in death with his fathers
or relatives who died before him (-. ;,aci; she•ol). Later these formulas became
stereotyped, and were not always used consistently.
,
b.
In the Exodus traditions, Yahweh is referred to
several times as ''the God of the fathers,'' e.g., in Ex. 3 : 1 5 (E): ''Yahweh, the
God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of
Jacob, has sent me to you'' (cf. 3:6, ''I am the God of your father, the God of
The God of the Fathers.
Abraham, the God of Isaac; and the God of Jacob''). Here the present form of
the text emphasizes the continuity between the God who reveals himself to Moses
and the God who guided the patriarchs. In the patriarchal narratives, the old
10 Cf. Diirr, 114f.
11 Gaspar, 102f.
12
ILC, ii 480f.
73
Alfrink, 118.
:2lC 'ibh
11
T
Pentateuch sources contain recollections that ''God of the fathers'' was an ancient
divine name (Gen. 26:24-J; 28: 13-J; 3 1 :5,29,42-E), which originally referred to
the personal protector-god and family-god of the patriarchal characters. Such
personal gods are found among the Sumerians, where ''the god of the man''
appears as his special protector and personal advocate. 74 In Old Assyrian
documents, there is an allusion to '' Ashur and the god of thy father'' as witnesses,
and in Mari there is an oath ''by the god of my father." 7u Finally, Alt has shown
that about the beginning of the Christian Age, gods of an individual were coming
to be identified with the major gods of the pantheon. 76
In later literature of the OT, the formula ''God of the fathers'' plays a certain
role. In Deuteronomy ( l : l l,2 1 ; 4: 1 ; 6 : 3 ; 1 2 : 1 ; 26:7; 27:3; 29:24(25]), it is used to
emphasize the continuity between the author's generation and the earlier genera­
tions in Israel. 77 In the Chronicler's work (1 Ch. 12:17; 2 Ch. 20:33; 24:18,24;
29:5; 30:7; 36: 1 5 ; Ezr. 7:27), it is used consistently to emphasize the heinousness
of apostasy (''to forsake the God of their fathers," or the like, e.g., 2 Ch. 34:33)
or the efficacy of returning to God (2 Ch. 19:4; 30:22; 34:32). But on the whole
this expression has become rather stereotyped, and is used interchangeably with
''Yahweh your/our God'' (13:12; 28:9; 29:5; 30:7; 34:33). This solemn formula
emphasizes the intimate connection of the present with ancient history and with
the faith of the forefathers. 78
c.
The Land Promise to the Fathers.
Quite often the Deuteronomic preaching
refers to God's saving deeds to the fathers. Yahweh loved and chose the fathers
(Dt. 4:37; 10: 15), but the covenant he made with them is in reality a covenant
with the present generation, which now experiences again the sealing of the
covenant in the cult (5:3). Generally, the fiction that those who are addressed in
Deuteronomy experienced the exodus themselves is maintained, and interest is
concentrated on the land promise. Without limiting himself to a stereotyped
formula, the Deuteronomic preacher repeatedly asserts in different ways that
Yahweh had sworn (nishba·) to give the land of Canaan to the fathers: 1:8,35;
6: 10,18,23; 7 : 1 3 ; 8: 1 ; 9:5; 10: 1 1 ; 1 1 :9,2 1 ; 19:8; 26:3; 28: 1 1 ; 30:20; 31:7; cf.
also Josh. 1:6; 5:6; 21:43; Jgs. 2 : 1 ; 1 K. 8:40. 79 The different ways of expressing
this idea by the frequent repetition of the theme but with the continual appear­
ance of new words, emphasizes the importance of this assertion. The expression
''Yahweh has sworn'' has a counterpart in ''the land which the Lord your God will
give (ntn) you,'' which appears 23 times in Deuteronomy. 80 Here the divine
promise that Israel will possess the land is considered to be fundamental to the
existence of the people in the cultic Now (but this statement does not assume
S. N. Kramer, The Sumerians (Chicago, 1963), 126.
Hyatt, 131f.
76 Cf. Alt, May, Cross.
11 See below, c and d.
78 Scharbert, 201.
79 Ploger, 63ff.; Wijogaards, 73ff., 77ff.
so Wijngaards, 77f.
74
75
12
�'
'abb
the e.xistence of a special Conquest Festival, as Wijngaards supposes). The ex­
pression nishba· la'abhoth, ''he swore to the fathers,'' is also used with reference
to the covenant (Dt. 4 : 3 1 ; 7:12) and other promises (7:8; 13: 18[17)). It occurs
also in Ex. 13:5,11 and NQ. 14:23, which are to be regarded as Deuteronomistic
additions (Nu. 1 1 : 12b may also be an addition).
d.
God's Saving Deeds to the Fathers.
Two passages in the Deuteronomistic
history refer repeatedly to God's deeds to the fathers: Josh. 24 (the amphictyonic
assembly at Shechem) and 1 K. 8 (the consecration of the temple). In the first
passage, Joshua recalls that the fathers o.nce lived beyond the River (Euphrates)
(24:2), that Yahweh brought them out of Egypt (24:6,17), but that they still
served other (-+ "\MM ·acher) gods and were punished (24:14f.). In the second
passage, Solomon first mentions the covenant Yahweh made with the fathers
through the exodus (1 K. 8:21), then he prays that God might fulfil what he had
promised to his father David (8:23-26), refers once more to the fact that Yahweh
brought the fathers out of Egypt (8:53), and expresses this wish: ''The Lord our
God be with us, as he was with our fathers . . . that we may keep the command­
ments which he commanded our fathers'' (8:57f.). The thought here is that the
saving deeds of God in the past are a kind of guarantee of more saving deeds in
the future: Yahweh will deal with the present generation as he dealt with the
fathers. In the cultic celebration, that which happened to the fathers is present
once again: ''Not with our fathers, but with us'' (Dt. 5:3).
The saving deeds of Yabweh to the fathers are treasured by the godly, and
they receive courage and confidence from them. The author of a national Psalm
of Lament uses what Yahweb did for the fathers and what the fathers related
(Ps. 44:2(1)) as the point of departure for his prayer: just as Yahweh gave his
people victory in the past, may be also help now. In Ps. 22, a (royal?) Psalm of
Lament, the author says: ''In thee our fathers trusted; they trusted, and thou
didst deliver them�' (v. 5 (4]); in the final analysis, this is what gives the psalmist
hope (cf. also Jgs. 6: 13). Furthermore, the more didactic Ps. 78 draws instruction
from the salvation history: the things our fathers have told us, w.e will tell to the
coming generation (vv. 3f.), viz., that God gave a law to the fathers, which they
were to teach to their children (v. 5), so that they could order their lives accord­
ingly. This psalm also refers to the exodus miracle (v. 12) and condemns the
disobedience of the people {cf. also 106:7). Thus the history of the fathers is a
living heritage, from which one can receive courage and faith, or a warning.
e.
The book of Deuteronomy em­
phasizes the responsibility of the fathers to instruct their children and to teach
Teaching and Example of the Fathers.
them to love God (6:7). Certa.in psalms put this teaching in a cultic context, e.g.,
Isa. 38:19 (the Psalm of Hezekiah): ''the father makes known to the children thy
faithfulness''; similarly also Ps. 22:31(30). In both passages, the worshipper is
praying for deliverance from ''death,'' which he promises to proclaim ''in the
great congregation'' (Ps. 22:23,26[22,25]). 81 Josh. 4:21 also speaks of a cultic
81 H. Ringgren, Israelite Religion (trans. 1966), 235.
13
tradition: When the children ask their fathers, ''What do these stones mean?''
the fathers will tell them the story of the crossing of the Jordan. In a similar
way, the fathers were to tell their children the tradition of the exodus in the
Passover festival (Ex. 12:24ff.; 13:8). The Deuteronomist emphasizes the father's
duty to teach God's commandments to his children (6:7; cf. also 32:7,46). Ps.
78:5f. deals with God's saving deeds in general, which are to be handed down
•
from generation to generation ; and Gen. 18:19 refers to God's charge to Abraham
as a father to teach his children and his household the righteous life. 82
In this way there is formed a continuity between the generations, in which the
fathers give instruction and provide an example. It may be good or it may be
bad for children to follow the example of the fathers. There are many warnings
in the OT against following the bad example of the fathers (Ps. 78:8,57; Ezk.
20:18; Zee. 1:4; 2 Ch. 30:7f.; cf. Jer. 9:13[14]; 23:27; implicitly also Am . 2:4).
Dt. 32: 17 mentions a violation of a good tradition: they sacrificed to gods whom
their fathers had never feared.
f. The Sins of the Fathers. A special type of connection between the genera­
tions is reflected in an ancient confession formula. As a commentary on the
commandment to worship one God alone, this has been inserted after the com­
mandment forbidding the manufacture of graven images (Ex. 20:5f. = Dt. 5:9f.).
It also occurs in the narrative that tells of Moses' interview with Yahweh
on Sinai (Ex. 34:7) and in an intercessory prayer of Moses (Nu. 14:18). The
formula affirms that Yahweh, the jealous God, ''visits the sins of the fathers on
the children, the grandchildren, and the great-grandchildren.'' u In the Decalog
this statement stands in contrast to the promise that Yahweh will ''show stead­
fast love to thousands (of generations?},'' if one keeps his commandments. The
basic idea this statement conveys is that the steadfast love and faithfulness of
God are infinitely more powerful than the inevitable consequence of sinning
against his jealous holiness (--.. :'IMl? qin "ah). But it also acknowledges and em­
phasizes the solidarity between the generations in deeds and their consequences.
The retribution for sins is said to extend over a household for four generations,
while God's grace is said to extend to a thousand generations. M In the final
section of the Holiness Code, the same principle is applied to the case where the
people continue in sin and must go into exile: then those who are left in the land
''shall pine away . . . because of their (own) iniquity; and also because of the
iniquities of their fathers they shall pine away like them'' (Lev. 26:39-those who
are left behind in Judah when the Babylonians have carried the Jews into exile
lament in a similar way: ''Our fathers sinned, . . . and we bear their iniquities,''
82
On this see DUrr, 107£.
sa Scharbert, 127f.; Knierim, 205.
M Using as the basis of his argument the ancient 'Scheme of curse and blessing, Scharbert,
128, 180, explains this formula somewhat differently: the curse continues to be effective only
into the fourth generation, while the blessing continues to be effective for an infinite period
of time.
:iac ·abh
14
'
Lam . 5:7; cf. also Isa. 65:7). Here the sons are not without guilt. They have
imitated their fathers. ''Fathers and sons are regarded . . . as being of one and
the same mind, and destruction will come upon both of them alike.'' s;_; Further­
more, Lev. 26:40 contains the people's confession of their own sins along with
the sins of their fathers, which was common in the postexilic period. 86
A rigid interpretation of this same principle appears in the proverb quoted
by Jeremiah (31 :29) and Ezekiel (18:2): ''T.he fathers have eaten sour grapes,
and the children's teeth are set on edge." In both passages this proverb is reject­
ed as false. The passage in Jeremiah looks forward to a new age, in which the
old laws will no longer be valid. In Ezekiel this proverb is connected with the
question of individual responsibility: it is not useless to return to God, for punish­
ment is not finally determined by the sins of the fathers. Jer. 32: 18f. contains a
kind of dilemma between the concept of individual responsibility and the idea
of a collective continuity from one generation to the next; actually, this dilemma
is never reconciled in the OT: on one side stands the solidarity of the generations,
and on the other the responsibility of the individual (when Dt. 24:16 states that
the children shall not be put to death because of the sin of the fathers [this verse
is quoted verbatim in 4 K. 14:6], it is dealing with civil penal law, not with divine
retribution).
g. The Fathers in the Royal Dynasty. The writers of the Deuteronomic history
also repeatedly state this dilemma in the relationship between the fathers and
their descendants. In the narrative dealing with ·the Davidic dynasty, on the one
hand, God remains faithful to his promise to David, so that a descendant of
David will always sit on the throne; even when David's descendant was un­
godly, Yahweh ''gave him a lamp in Jerusalem . . . , because David did what was
right in the eyes of the Lord'' (1 K. 15:4f.). 87 On the other hand, the writers
of the Deuteronomic history evaluate each individual king on the basis of his
own religious attitude and behavior. If a king behaves ''like his father (David),''
his reign is considered to be a time of blessing (1 K. 15: 1 1 ; 22:43; 2 K. 14:3 ;
15:3,34; 18: 1-7; 22:2; 23:25). If, however, a king does that which is displeas­
ing to Yahweh ''like his father," ''like his fathers," or the like (statements such
as this must refer to wicked fathers), he is censured, and his reign is regarded
as a time of disaster (1 K. 15:3; 2 K. 2 1 :19ff.; 24:19; or 23:32,37). ''By their
religious behavior, the individual kings were thought to exhibit a certain solidarity
either with David and the fathers who were loyal to the Yahweh covenant, or
with the fathers who broke the covenant.'' 88
h. Community Identification with the Fathers. The promises to the patriarchs
are never mentioned in the preexilic prophets. And yet, from time to time they
85 Scharbert, 202.
86 See below, i.
11 Scbarbert, 197.
88 Ibid.
15
:>.c 'abh
T
•
mention a different kind of community identification with the fathers. The fathers
sinned; even the patriarch Jacob was a deceiver (Hos. 12:4[3]), and the Israelites
living today are like their fathers (9:10; Am . 2:4). The generations are alike in
their apostasy: ''a man and his father go in to the same maiden'' (Am. 2:7).
''The divine judgments come, not because of the sins of the fathers, but because
the present generation has sinned like the fathers. Between fathers and sons
stands a solidarity of attitude which is rebellion against God.'' 89
Jeremiah also knows of this relationship of apostasy. The fathers have already
forsaken Yahweh: ''What wrong did your fathers find in me that they went far
from me?'' (Jer. 2:5). But the sons, i.e., the present generation, act the same way.
They are stiffnecked, worse than their fathers (7:26); they go after the Baals like
their fathers (9:12f.[13f.]; 23:27), they have turned back to the iniquities of their
forefathers {11: 10), and they sacrifice to the queen of heaven like their fathers
(44: 17). The example of the fathers is at work in the religious activities of the
present generation and brings upon it a punishment that will destroy fathers and
sons together (6:21; 13:14; 16:3f.; cf. 6:11,13). 90 Allusions to the promises to the
fathers and the covenant which Yahweh made with them serve only to emphasize
the apostasy (7:22; 11:3,7). In fact, according to 31:32, the covenant with the
fathers will be transcended by a new covenant in which the inner renewal of
the man guarantees covenant loyalty. It is in this context that the promise of
the people's return to the land which was given to the fathers (30:3) belongs.
Also, the promise that the people will remain in the land of their fathers (25 :5)
is given on the condition that they turn from their evil way. On the other hand,
3:1 8 an.d 16:15 (which contain the promise that the exiles will retu.m to the land
of Palestine) are probably later additions.
Ezekiel also declares this identification in apostasy, e.g., 2 : 3: ''they and
their fathers have transgressed against me''; 20:24: ''their eyes were set on their
fathers' idols''; cf. 16:44: ''like mother, like daughter.'' All generations will
suffer punishment (9:6); fathers and children will even eat one another (5:10).
But at the same time, Ezekiel knows of a future restoration, in which the people
shall dwell in the land where their fathers {the patriarchs) dwelled, with their
children and their children's children (37:25). The return to the land which
Yahweh gave to the fathers implies both the renewal of the covenant (36:28note the covenant formula!) and the recognition of the power and nature of
Yahweh (20:42). The land promised to the fathers will again become the inherit­
ance of Israel (47:14). This restoration also means a return to the old relation­
ship between Yahweh and the fathers.
Deutero-Isaiah knows the prophetic tradition that the fathers have sinned
(Isa. 43:27; cf. 48:8). But at the same time he stands in the tradition of the
poetry of the Psalms which reflects a positive attitude toward the fathers: ''Look
to Abraham our father'' (51:2). In the other postexilic prophets, emphasis is
placed on the idea that there is a solidarity between fathers and sons in sin (Zee.
89 Ibid
.•
211.
oo Cf. ibid., 214ff.
:Jae
'abh
•
16
1 :2f.; 8 : 14f.; Mal. 3:6f.): Therefore Yahweh will requite ''your iniquities and
your fathers' iniquities together'' (Isa. 65:6f.).
i. Acknowledgment of the Sins of the Fathers. The feeling of solidarity be­
tween the generations in sin is also expressed positively in the confession of sins:
''Both we and our fathers have sinned'' (Ps. 106:6; so similarly Jer. 3:25; 14:20).
2 K. 22:13 affords a concrete example: ''Great is the wrath of the Lord that is
kindled against us, because our fathers have not obeyed the words of this book•'­
however, this verse does not speak of ''our'' sins. Lev. 26:40 (H; postexilic redac­
tion?) predicts that the dispersed Israelites will confess their own sins and the
sins of their fathers. We find this type of confession as a liturgical formula in the
prayer of repentance of the postexi,ic community (Ezr. 9:6f.; Neh. 1:6; Dnl. 9:16;
Tob. 3:3; cf. Bar. 1 : 16f.; 3:4ff.). 91 It is difficult to detern1ine the extent to which
this fonnula had already been formed in the preexilic period, because the date
of most of the relevant passages is uncertain. Jer. 3:25 may be a liturgical expan­
sion, but Jer. 14:20 shows that ''the confession of the
·avon
of the fathers along
with one's own was already practiced in the preexilic Jerusalemite cult." 92 It is
worthy of note that the first certain evidence for this is to be found in Jeremiah,
the great ''individualist.''
4.
God As Father.
a. Proper Names. ·abh appears as part of many proper names in the OT. In
most such names the "abh serves as a theophorous element: "abhi"asaph, ''(my)
father has gathered,'' "abhighayil, ''(my) father has rejoiced (?),'' "abhidhan,
''my father has judged,'' "abhidha•, ''the father has taken knowledge (of me),''
·abhihudh, ''(my) father is majesty'' (or ''may he be praised''}, "abhihayil, ''(my)
0abhichayil, ''(my) father is might,'' "abhitubh, ''my fath.er is
goodness," "abhital, ''my father is dew,'' "abhinadhabh, ''my father has shown
himself to be generous,'' "abh(i)ner, ''my father is a lamp,'' "abhino ·am, ''my
father is grace'' (or a Tammuz epithet ?}, "abhisaph, ''father has added,''
"abhi·er.er, ''my father is help,'' "abhiram, ''(my) father is exalted'' (-+ c;i-uac
"abhraham), "abhishagh (meaning uncertain), ·abhishua ·, ''father is help:'
"abhishur, ''(my) father is a (protecting) wall,'' "ebhyathar, ''father is/gives abun­
father is fear,''
dant(ly}.'' To some extent, all the names may be traced back to old names which
reflect the idea that the tribal deity was the ancestor of the members of the tribe,
but the extent to which this concept was still alive in biblical Israel is uncertain. ·
It is possible that in some cases certain gods are called ''father,'' as perhaps
"abhi"el, ''(my) father is El'' (1 S. 9: 1 ; 14:51; Saul's grandfather); but cf. "eli"abh,
''my God is father''; and also •abhimelekh, ''my father is Milk'' ( = Molech or
Melekh) (or ''king''), "abhshalom, which means either ''the father is (the god)
Shalom'' or ''the father is peace.''
91
Ibid., 202, 247.
02 Knierim, 208.
"abhital and 1abhino·ani might also be included
lte ·abh
17
f
in this group, if Tal is a god of the dew and if No'am, ''the delightful one," is an
epithet for Baal or Tammuz. Finally, in the names yo'abh and 'abhiyyahu,
Yahweh is designated as father, probably in the sense of ''protector.'' We cannot
be sure about the significance of •abhiyyam, which, indeed, h.as been interpreted
"abhiyya(hu)
(1 K. 14:31; 15: 1-7), but probably should be understood differ­
ently (''my father is truly [mi] x''?). 93
as
b. Yahweh As Father of the People. Other than in proper names, Yahweh is
called father very rarely in the OT. 9� Occasionally he is compared with a father:
as a father, he pities his children (Ps. 103:13); he reproves the man whom he
loves as a father reproves the son in whom he delights (Prov. 3 : 12). These
passages are particularly interesting because they show what characteristics of
the father were considered to be the most important. The same thing is true
mutatis mutandis of Nu.
1 1 : 12, where Moses asks reproachfully whether he had
conceived and brought forth the people, and thereby intimates indirectly that
Yahweh is the mother (!) of the people. The real point of this figure is that
Yahweh cares for the people and is responsible for their existence.
Yahweh is also designated the father of the people of Israel. Already in Ex.
4: 22{J) Yahweh calls Israel his firstborn son and demands his release from
Egypt that he might serve him. Here, Yahweh makes his claim on the Israelites
and confirms that he is acting in their behalf. Two more examples of this occur
in the Song of Moses, Dt. 32. In v. 6, we read: ''Is not he your father, who created
(� i'lli' qanah) you, who made you and established you?'' The reference to
Yahweh as the creator and founder of his people establishes his claim to their
gratitude. ''To make'' and ''to establish'' are part of the regular creation termino­
logy. The meaning of qanah is disputed, and in any case can be used of creation
(Prov. 8:22) as well as of child-bearing (Gen. 4:1). It cannot refer to physical
begetting in Dt. 32:6. This is more probable in v. 18, which speaks of ''the Rock
that begot (yaladh) you'' and of ''the God who gave you birth (cholel)." But again,
this verse is probably not speaking of a mythological begetting by a rock deity,
because elsewhere in this song tsur is used figuratively in the sense of refuge
(vv. 15,37), as it is ordinarily. Just as little can Jer. 2:27 be used to support the
hypothesis of a myth of a birth from the rock, for this passage rebukes those
''who say to a tree, 'You are my father,' and to a stone, 'You gave me birth."'
Both � T' "ets and � l:lat •ebhen are a part of the regular terminology used in
polemics against idols. Thus, Jer. 2:27 simply means that those whom the prophet
rebukes tum to idols as creators and protectors.
Hosea uses the figure of the father in speaking of God in 1 1 : 1f., although the
word •abh does not actually occur here: Yahweh called Israel out of Egypt as his
son, trained him as a good father, and showered him with his care. Similarly, in
Isa. 1 : 2 Yahweh says that he brought up children who have rebelled against him.
Both of these passages refer to the disappointment of Yahweh's hope that his
children would love
him
in return. The same thought is found in Jer. 3:19: ''I
us So KBLS.
9'
Lagrange; Hempel, 131ff.; Colless.
18
:1�·abh
thought you would call me, My father, and would not tum from following me'';
a child is loyal to his father, but Israel has forsaken his God. Another passage
in Jeremiah (31:9) emphasizes the paternal love and care of Yahweh: he will
protect those who are returning home, ''for I am a father to Israel, and Ephraim
is my firstborn.'' This language has some affinities with that in Ex. 4:22.
The other relevant passages emphasize in particular the authority of the divine
father. Isa. 45:9-11 is especially characteristic. Here a father is compared with
a potter: as a father does not have to give an account for his actions to his children
and as a potter has the clay completely at his disposal, so Yahweh, the creator,
has his people at his disposal and deals with them according to his will, and they
have no right to question
him. The same idea is expressed in Isa. 64:7(8):
''Thou
art our Father; we are the clay, and thou art our potter; we are all the work of
thy hand''-here in a prayer for paternal compassion. The power of the heavenly
father to help and to redeem is emphasized in Isa. 63:16: Israel feels himself
separated from his earthly fathers; now Yahweh is the on.ly father who can help;
he is ''the Redeemer (-+ ?Kl go"el) from of old." Finally, once Malachi speaks
of God as father and creator: ''Have we not all one father? Has not one God
created (� ati:i bara ) us? Why then are we faithless to one another, profaning
the covenant of our fathers?'' (Mal. 2:10); the fact that Israel is a son carries with
it the idea of accepting his responsibility as a son. In another passage, Malachi
emphasizes the authority of Yahweh which Israel had despised: a person honors
and fears his father, but Israel does not honor and fear his divine father (1 :6).
It follows from all this that the idea of God as father of the people of his own
possession does not occupy a central place in the faith of Israel. This is only one
of many figures which the OT uses to describe the relationship between Yahweh
and Isra.el. These figures seem to have been created generally ad hoc; mythological roots are hardly to be ascertained.
•
"
•
c. Yahweh As Father of the King. The idea of the king as son of God is a
more firmly established characteristic of OT thought than that of Israel as
Yahweh's son, and yet it is not found very often. The classic example of this
concept occurs in Ps. 2:7: ''You are my son, today I have begotten you,'' which
clearly is a type of adoption formula. This statement is complemented in the
Nathan prophecy, where we read: ''I will be his father, and he shall be my son''
(2 S. 7:14; cf. 1 Ch. 28:6). In a little greater detail, Ps. 89:27f.(26f.) says that the
king will call Yahweh. ''Father, God, and Rock of his salvation," and Yahweh
will make him the firstborn and the highest of the kings of the earth.
The real significance of these statements is disputed. The idea that they refer
to a physical begetting hardly seems probable; it is more likely that they think
of the king's relationship to Yahweh in terms of adoption. 95 Ps. 2:7 can be under­
stood as an adoption formula. It is worthy of note that the poets in Pss. 2 and 89
both call on God as father in a situation in which the authority of the king is
being threatened. Thus, the sonship of the king is considered to be a divine
96 Ahlstrom, 111f.; Kraus, BK, XV, 19.
19
:Jl( 'ibh
•
guarantee of
his
power and authority. It
is divine
power that gives the king
his
power.
Among the titles of the king whose coming is announced in
Isa. 9 (in v. 5(6] he is called ''son'') is found the epithet 'abhi "adh. The meaning
of this expression is obscure. ·adh can mean ''booty''; and if 'abhi "adh could
d.
Isa. 9:5(6).
be interpreted as ''father of booty'' in the sense of ''one who takes booty,'' this
would fit the context of the whole passage very well. But this translation is doubt­
ful, since there are no other examples in which •abh is used in this way. If we
take ·adh in the sense of ''eternity,'' this expression may be understood as a royal
epithet meaning ''father of eternity,'' i.e., father (protector, etc.) for all the future,
which would agree well with pele' yoets, and in and of itself is not incompatible
with the other royal titles that occur here. 96
Ringgren
96 Cf. 0. Kaiser, Isaiah 1-12. OTL (trans . 1972), 129; on the connection of the idea "eternal"
with the king, see Ps. 21:5,7(4,6).
Contents: I. Etymology, Occurrences. ll. "Wander Off." Ill. 1. The Hiphil and the Piel
with a Divine Subject; 2. The Qal of Divinely Willed Destruction. IV. 1. The Hiphil and
the Piel in General Usage; 2. The Qal in General Usage. V. 'abhaddon = The Underworld.
I.
Etymology, Occurrences. In the Northwest Semitic languages, the primary
meaning of 'abhadh is ''to perish."1 Occasionally, the meaning ''wander off, run
away'' also appears, especially with reference to animals, e.g., in 1 S. 9:3,20; the
Sabbath Ostracon, line 3 ; 2 in Ugaritic perhaps of men, 3 and in the obscure
Canaanite gloss in Papyrus Anastasi I, 23. ' In the other Semitic languages this
meaning is more widespread (Arabic, Ethiopic, etc.).
'iibhadh. M. A Beek, "Das Problem des aramiischen Stammvaters (Deut. XXVI S)," OTS,
8 (1951), 193-212; E. Jenni, ''Faktitiv und Kausativ von i::llC 'zugrunde geben'," Hebriiische
Wortforschung. Festschrlft fur W. Baumgartner. SVT, 16(1967), 143-157; J. Lewy, "Grammat­
ical and Lexicographical Studies," Or, N.S. 29 (1960), 20-45, esp. 22-27; A. Oepke, 0art6AA.uµl,"
etc., TDNT, I, 394-97; D. Yellin, "Some Fresh Meanings of Hebrew Roots," JPOS, 1 (1920).
lOf.
.
1 See DISO, the lexicons in Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac, Ugaritic, etc.; cf. also Jenni, 151.
2 A. Dupont-Sommer, Sem, 2 (1949), 31.
3 CTA, 2 [Ill AB], IV, 3.
4: But see ANET, 477.
i:uc 'abhadh
20
- ·
This seems to indicate that the basic meaning ''to run away'' developed into
the meaning ''to perish,'' as an animal normally is Jost when it wanders away
from the herd. This same type of development is usually thought to apply also
in Hebrew usage. i;
In Akkadian the problem is more complicated. The more modem Akkadian
lexicons assume that there are two roots •bt: I . ''to destroy'' (passive ''to be
destroyed, to fall to pieces''), and II. ''to escape, run away'' (only of men, e.g.,
slaves and warriors). 6 One must therefore seriously consider the possibility that
in the other Semitic languages, also, two originally independent homonymous
roots have coalesced. 7 However, no final answer to the etymological question
can be given.
In the OT, the verb "abhadh occurs more than 100 times in the qal, about
40 times in the pie! and about 25 times in the hiphil. In addition to this, we find
the nouns 'abhedhah, 'abliedhan, "obhedhan, and 'abhaddon. A root "bd II, ''to
endure,'' an.d the noun derived from it, "obhedh, ''duration," is independent of
"bd I. 8
II. ''Wander Off.'' Only in the qal do both principal meanings, ''to perish''
and ''wander off," occur in the OT. In 1 S. 9:3,20, the verb is used in the concrete
sense, referring to animals that have run away from the herd. But it appears more
often in the figurative sense: Israel is like sheep whose shepherds (kings and
others in positions of responsibility in the society) have forsaken and neglected
them, and who consequently are wandering aimlessly (Jer. 50:6; Ezk. 34:4,16).
Or they feel that their shepherd (Yahweh) has forsaken them (Ps. 1 1 9 : 1 76).
'abhadh in Dt. 26:5 is
("obhedh) Aramean was my
significant: 'arammi ·obhedh "abhi, ''a
father,'' or (as many scholars render it)
wandering
''an Aramean on the point of destruction.''9 Albright clearly prefers a third mean­
ing which is close to Akk. abatu II: ''a fugitive Aramean.'' 10 This interpretation of
The use of
the word does not occur elsewhere in the OT; it refers specifically to the Jacob
Story (Jacob flees from Esau). The rendering ''wandering," which has parallels
in Akkadian, 11 has more to recommend it, because it encompasses the entire pa­
triarchal history and in this way emphasizes the relationship of the early Israelite
tribes with the Arameans, who lived a nomadic life.
m. 1 . The Hiphil and the Piel with a Divine Subject. The meaning ''to
perish'' (qal) and ''to cause to perish, to destroy, to annihilate'' (piel and hiphil)
is more frequent. In order to get a general view of the subject and object of this
5
Jenni, 148f. with additional literature, and OT lexicons, esp. Konig.
6 CAD, Ill, 41-47; AHw, I, 5 abiitu(m); von Soden puts the second meaning under
niibutu(rn), since it appears only in the N-stem. CAD takes a different approach. Lewy, 2229, adopts a transitive meaning "to leave," or the like, for • bt II.
7 Concerning the original distinction in meaning see Brockelmann, YG, II, 137.
s See Yellin.
9 Beek, 199-201, 21lf., mentions other possible translations; see also Konig, KAT, m,
in loc.
10 From the Stone Age to Christianity (1957), 238.
11 Taylor Prism, V, 22f.; see Mazar, BA, 25 (1962), 101.
21
verb and thus determine its meaning more exactly, it seems best first of all to
investigate the causative forms, the piel and the hiphil. The question here is
whether there is really a difference between the piel and the hiphil of 'abhad�.
Jenni argues that the primary significance of the piel is factitive (producing a
condition), while that of the hiphil is causative (producing an action). There­
fore, the hiphil usually takes persons as an object, but the piel takes both persons
and things. The hiphil more often refers to the future, while the piel is used of
the present or in general statements. On the whole, these distinctions are valid;
but Jenni himself emphasizes that there are a number of exceptions. These
distinctions can hardly have theological significance.
When one examines the approximately 65 occurrences of the transitive forms
of the verb •abhadh, the piel and the hiphil, two things stand out: in almost half
the passages Yahweh is the subject, 12 and more than half the passages deal with
military and political situations. Thus it is not surprising that in many passages
Yahweh is depicted as a ''warrior," who destroys and overthrows the nations,
e.g., Israel's enemies at the exodus and the conquest (Dt. 8:20; 1 1 :4). In the
prophets in particular, one often encounters the idea that Yahweh will destroy
the heathen ''at the end of the days.'' But it is noteworthy that "abhadh is used
only in the prophets of the seventh and sixth centuries B.c. (concerning Assyria,
Babylon, Egypt, Ammon, etc.): Zeph. 2:5,13; Jer. 49:38; 5 1 :55; Ezk. 25:7,16;
28:16; 30:13; Ob. 8. In more general terms, the book of Jeremiah speaks of the
destructive power of Yahweh and his prophet (1:10; 12:17; 18:7), using the
characteristic Jeremian words ''to break down'' and ''to pluck up."
In the prophetic preaching, similar threats are also directed against Israel:
Yahweh will use the nations to destroy Israel (Jer. 15:7; 25: 1 0 ; cf. Dt. 28:63; Jer.
31 :28). The image of Yahweh as the one who destroys in war probably has two
roots: (1) the ancient Israelite figure of Yahweh as a war-god, 13 and (2) the
cultic-mythical idea of ''the revolt of the nations'' in the New Year Festivat. 1•
But Yahweh acts as more than a warrior. All forces in the nation and society
which oppose God must submit: Yahweh destroys transgressors of the Law (Lev.
23:30; Dt. 7: 10), liars (Ps. 5:7 [Eng. v. 6]), and those who oppress the righteous
{Ps. 143:12). This idea surely originated in the cultic sacral law, 15 and may be
connected with the idea of Yahweh as the destroyer of the heathen cult (Ezk.
6:3; cf. Mic. 5:9ff.[10ff.)).
Sometimes in military contexts the verb •abhadh is used in the piel and hiph­
il to describe how Israel destroys heathen nations, or heathen nations Israel.
Actually, the difference between these passages and those already mentioned,
in which Yahweh was the author of destruction, is not great. In any case, ac­
cording to OT thought Yahweh is the one who guides historical events. When
12 Jenni, 152.
ta Cf. H. Fredriksson, Jahwe als Krieger {Lund, 1945); G. von Rad, Der Heillge Krieg
Im alten Israel (•1965).
1t See esp. S. Mowinckel, Psalmenstudien, Il (1922), 57-65, 254-276.
15 See, e.g., G. von Rad GSA.T (1958), 225-247; H.-J. Kraus, Die prophetische Verkundi­
,
gung des Rechts (1957).
22
Israel destroys its enemies (Dt. 7:24; 9:3; Nu. 24:19; Est. 9:6,12), or when the
heathen, as Yahweh's instrument, destroy Israel (Josh. 7:7; 2 K. 13:7; 24:2; Dt.
28:51; Lam. 2:9; etc.), Yahweh is behind it.
2. The Qal of Divinely Willed Destruction. The intransitive form of the verb
•abhadh (qal) complements what has just been said about the piel and the hiphil.
Although it is not specifically stated, in many cases it is quite clear that Yahweh
is the author of the described destruction, as that of Egypt (Ex.10:7), the Canaan­
ites (Dt. 7:20), the Philistines (Am. 1 :8; Zee. 9:5), Moab (Nu. 21 :29f.; Jer. 48:8,
46), Tyre (Ezk. 26:17), or all of Israel's enemies (Jgs. 5:31; Ps. 2: 12; 9:4[3];
10:16; 80: 17[16]; 83: 18[17) ; Isa. 4 1 : 1 1 ; 60:12). They all will come u.nder divine
judgment and perish; the same thing will also happen to Israel because of her
disobedience to the law (Lev. 26:38; Dt. 28:20,22; Jer. 9 : 1 1 (12]) and her idolatry
(Dt. 4:26; 8:19f.; 1 1 : 17; 30:18; Josh. 23:13,16). In most of these passages there
recurs the typical expression va·abhadhtem me·a1 ha·arets, or the like, ''and you
shall perish from the land . . . . '' Thus, in these texts, which deal with the acquisi­
tion of the land, the divine punishment consists in God's driving his people out
of the land. Other passages state even more directly that the people shall perish
in exile (Jer. 27:10,15; Ob. 12; cf. Isa. 27: 13).
In Wisdom Literature and in the Psalms which are related to it, we encounter
reminiscences of the sacral-legal use of •abhadh in the qal: anyone in the com­
munity who acts wickedly shall perish (Ps. 1:6; 37:20; 73:27; Job 4:9; 18:17;
20:7; Prov. 1 1 : 10; 28:28 [in these passages, the predominant subject is � ,rt*,
rasha·, ''the wicked, the criminal''] ; cf. also the references in 4QpPs37 3:4,8).
The same is true of the liar (Prov. 19:9; 21 :28). More concretely, the biblical text
states that the house of Ahab and those who took part in Korah's revolt will
perish (2 K. 9:8; Nu.16:33; cf. Est. 4:14).
IV.
1 . The Hiphil and the Piel in General Usage. The passages dealt with
above refer more or less clearly to divinely willed destruction. In addition,
•abhadh is used in a more general way for destruction of enemies in political
and religious conflicts (2 K. 10:19; 1 1 : 1 ; 19:18; Jer. 46:8; cf. also Jer. 40:15
and the Mesha Stela, KAI, 181.7), for ill-treatment of the people by kings and
princes (Jer. 23: 1 ; Ezk. 22:27), and for removal of idols (Nu. 33:52; Dt. 12:2f.;
2 K. 21 :3-all in the piel; cf. the qal in Jer. 10:15, and the Aramaic peal in Jer.
10:11). In Wisdom Literature this word often designates the destruction done by
fools, by the wicked, or by human vice (always in the piel: Prov. 1 :32; 29:3;
Eccl. 7:7; 9:18; cf. Ps. 1 19:95; Eccl. 3:6(?] and lQS 7:6). 16
2.
The Qal in General Usage. Finally ·a.bhadh in the qal exhibits a variety
of nuances: A dozen passages refer to things and persons who vanish or perish
(weapons: 2 S. 1 :27; property: Dt. 22.: 3; cf. CD 9:10; caravans: Job 6: 18; etc.).
Of greater theological interest is the use of this word in prophetic texts where
16 See Jenni, 152.
i:i-'
• abhadh
'"
-
23
the verb describes how in critical times, when evil increases, good attributes and
positive ideas vanish (truth: Jer. 7:28; knowledge of the law: Jer. 1 8:18 ; Ezk.
7:26; wisdom and good counsel: Isa. 29:14; Jer. 1 8 : 1 8 ; 49:7; Ezk. 7:26; cf. Ps.
'
146:4; Dt. 32:28 and CD A 5:17; righteousness: Mic. 7:2; courage: Jer. 4:9; etc.).
The two plai.nly stereotyped expressions ''the place of refuge (manos) is lost,''
i.e., there is no place of escape (Arn. 2 : 1 4 ; Jer. 25:35; cf. Ps. 142:5[4]; Job 1 1 :20),
and ''hope (-+ nipn tiqvah) is lost'' (EzJc. 19:5; 37: 1 1 ; cf. Ps. 9:19(18] ; Job 8 : 1 3 ;
Sir. 41:2; 1 1 QPsa 22:8; etc.) should also be included here. Quite understandably,
idiomatic meanings of •abhadh developed: thus the participle
•obhedh
often
means ''poor'' (Job 29:13; 3 1 : 19; Prov. 3 1 :6; cf. Sir. 1 1 : 12). But quite often the
qal form means simply ''to die'' (e.g., Nu. 17:27[12]; Isa. 57: 1 ; Ps. 41:6[5]; 49:11
[10] ; Job 4:7, 1 1 ,20; Eccl. 7 : 1 5 ; Jonah 1 :6,14; cf. the Murabba ·at Letter 45.7
and l lQPsa 22:9). This meaning, however, is also present in many of the pas­
sages mentioned earlier. 17
V. 'abhaddon = The Underworld. With this nuance of 'abhadh we come to
the most important noun from this root, 'abhaddon (with its by-form "abhaddoh).
Very rarely does this word mean ''destruction'' (Job 3 1 : 12; 18 perhaps also in
lQM fragm. 9:3). Much more often in the OT, and particularly in Wisdom Liter­
ature, it means the ''place of destruction," i.e., the Underworld (in three passages
it is parallel with -+ �iicw sht!'ol: Job 26:6; Prov. 1 5 : 1 1 ; 27:20; once with -+ : i:ip
qebher: Ps. 88: 1 2 [ 1 1 ] ; and once with -+ niD milveth: Job28:22). In Job28:22,
•abhaddon speaks as a personification of death (cf. Rev. 9: 1 1). 19 This term also
plays an important role in late Jewish apocalyptic texts (lQH 3: 16,19,32 and the
Aramaic lQGenAp 12: 17). 2o
Otzen
17 See J. L. Palache, Sinai en Paran (1959), 108, and cf. the piel forms in Ps. 9:6(5); 21:11
[10]; Est. 3:9,13; 4:7; 7:4; 8:5; 9:24, and the Aramaic haphel form in Dnl. 2:12,18>24, which
mean simply "to put to death," Jenni, 150f., 155. A similar meaning is found n
i
Aramaic
inscriptions; see KAI, 223 B.7; 225.11; 226.10; cf. Jenni, 151.
18 But see Yellio, 11.
19 Cf. TDNT, I, 4.
20 Cf. P. Wemberg-M�ller, TeKtus, 4 (1964), 153f. On the use of this term in Rabbinic
literature, see Volz, Die Eschatologie der judischen Gemeinde (1934), 328f.; Ginzberg,
Legends of the Jews, I (1909), JO, 15; St.-B., III, 810.
24
�::lK 'abhiih
T
T
Contents; I. 1 . Etymology, Occurrences; 2. Meaning. II. Usages in the OT: 1. General
Observations; 2. With shiima •. III. Specific Theological Considerations: 1. God As Subject;
2. Hardness of Heart; 3. "abhah As an .Attitude Toward God.
I. 1. Etymology, Occurrences. The root 'abhah appears in almost all Semitic
languages-it is missing only in Akkadian, since ostensibly abU/itu, ''desire,'' does
not exist. 1 It is worthy of note that "abhah in different languages has opposite
meanings. The meaning ''to be willing, to appear willing,'' in Hebrew, Egyptian
Aramaic, Jewish Aramaic (the Targums), and Egyptian (Jby), is opposite to
Arab.
Arab.
·aba and Ethiop. "abaya, ''to be unwilling,''
t'by, ''refusal.'' 2
as well as to the anci�nt South
In the OT, the verb appears only in the qal. The texts in which it occurs belong
to the classical language. It is found in the Pentateuch and especially in the
Deuteronomistic history. Isaiah and Ezekiel also contain a number of examples.
In addition, it occurs in Ps. 8 1 : 12 (Eng. v. 1 1}; Job 39:9; Prov. 1 : 10,25,30; 6:35,
and in Chronicles, where the examples are literal repetitions from Samuel-Kings,
lo" "abhah "aram, ''the Syrians were not willing,''
vayyiru "aram, ''So the Syrians feared.'' But the reading
except that 1 Ch. 19:19 has
where 2 S. 10:19 reads
in Chronicles may be earlier. This word occurs also in the Hebrew text of Sir.
6:33. In the Qumran texts, other synonyms appear in. place of "abhah, especially
ratsah {which is also the usual verb for ''to be willing'' in modem Hebrew).
2. Meaning. Honeyman thinks that "abhah and -+ f''::>M "ebhyon come from a
common root which originally meant ''to lack, to be in need''; but Barth and
others argue that these words come from different roots. 3 -+ ;,iat •avah and the
cognate words ya·abh and ta ·abh in Ps. 1 19 also have similar meanings. 4 The
original meaning of
·abhah
which fits best with all OT occurrences is ''to show
intention in a certain direction.'' The primary emphasis here is not on the inten­
tion as a psychological factor in the inner- man (cf
..
avah,
•
usually with
nephesh
as subject!), but on the main behavioral patterns and actions in which the inten­
tion is manifested.
In the OT, 'abhah is almost always used with a negative,; usually lo' ('en occurs
in Ezk. 3:7, and "al in Prov. 1 : 10). T