upright piano: …1745) of the Saxon organ-builder Ernst Christian Friderici, with both sides sloping upward to the flat top; and the “giraffe-style” design (Giraffenflügel; 1804) of Martin Seuffert of Vienna, with one side straight and one bent, as on a grand piano.

Karlsruhe: …of fine arts, and the Fridericiana (formally named the University of Karlsruhe in 1967), a technical university, which was the first of its kind in Germany (founded 1825). Former teachers at the Fridericiana include Fritz Haber, a Nobel Prize-winning chemist, and Heinrich Hertz, noted for his study of electromagnetic waves.…

Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Friedmann, Russian mathematician and physical scientist. After graduating from the University of St. Petersburg in 1910, Friedmann joined the Pavlovsk Aerological Observatory and, during World War I, did aerological work for the Russian army. After the war he was on the

Saint Fridolin of Säckingen, Irish-born missionary who is said to have established churches among the Franks and Alamanni and who, in modern times, has been revered in southern Germany, Switzerland, and Austria. Accounts of his life (generally unreliable and deriving principally from the

Kathy Bates: …a forlorn Southern housewife in Fried Green Tomatoes (1991), a maid accused of murdering her employer in Dolores Claiborne (1995; adapted from a novel by King), and an outspoken socialite in Titanic (1997). She received critical acclaim and an Oscar nomination for her role as Libby Holden, an idealistic political…

Krupp AG, former German corporation that was one of the world’s principal steelmakers and arms manufacturers until the end of World War II. For the rest of the 20th century it was an important manufacturer of industrial machinery and materials. It became a limited-liability company in 1968 when its

Alfred Hermann Fried, Austrian pacifist and publicist who was a cofounder of the German peace movement and cowinner (with Tobias Asser) of the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1911. In 1891 Fried, in Berlin, founded the pacifist periodical Die Waffen nieder! (“Lay Down Your Arms!”), from 1899 called

Elaine de Kooning, American painter, teacher, and art critic who is perhaps best known for her portraits. A precocious young artist with a competitive streak that found an outlet in sports, she graduated from Erasmus Hall High School in Brooklyn and briefly attended Hunter College. In 1938, an

Michael Fried, American art critic, art historian, literary critic, and poet best known for his theoretical work on minimalist art. Fried was educated at Princeton and Harvard universities and at the University of Oxford. He was mentored by the influential art critic Clement Greenberg, whom he met

William Fox, American motion-picture executive who built a multimillion-dollar empire controlling a large portion of the exhibition, distribution, and production of film facilities during the era of silent film. Fox worked as a newsboy and in the fur and garment industry before investing in a

Krupp AG, former German corporation that was one of the world’s principal steelmakers and arms manufacturers until the end of World War II. For the rest of the 20th century it was an important manufacturer of industrial machinery and materials. It became a limited-liability company in 1968 when its

Krupp AG, former German corporation that was one of the world’s principal steelmakers and arms manufacturers until the end of World War II. For the rest of the 20th century it was an important manufacturer of industrial machinery and materials. It became a limited-liability company in 1968 when its

Frida Kahlo: Marriage to Rivera and travels to the United States: Her painting Frieda and Diego Rivera (1931) shows not only her new attire but also her new interest in Mexican folk art. The subjects are flatter and more abstract than those in her previous work. The towering Rivera stands to the left, holding a palette and brushes,…

Betty Friedan, American feminist best known for her book The Feminine Mystique (1963), which explored the causes of the frustrations of modern women in traditional roles. Bettye Goldstein graduated in 1942 from Smith College with a degree in psychology and, after a year of graduate work at the

Ernst Jünger: …conquest, a change manifested in Der Friede (written 1943, pub. 1948; “The Peace”). Jünger was dismissed from the army in 1944 after he was indirectly implicated with fellow officers who had plotted to kill Hitler. A few months later, his son died in combat in Italy after having been sentenced…

Charles Friedel, French organic chemist and mineralogist who, with the American chemist James Mason Crafts, discovered in 1877 the chemical process known as the Friedel-Crafts reaction. In 1854 Friedel entered C.A. Wurtz’s laboratory and in 1856 was appointed conservator of the mineralogical

Georges Friedel, French crystallographer who formulated basic laws concerning the external morphology and internal structure of crystals. Friedel studied at the École Polytechnique and the Superior National School of Mines, where his father, the chemist Charles Friedel, was curator of the

aluminum: Compounds: …most commonly used catalyst in Friedel-Crafts reactions—i.e., synthetic organic reactions involved in the preparations of a wide variety of compounds, including aromatic ketones and anthroquinone and its derivatives. Hydrated aluminum chloride, commonly known as aluminum chlorohydrate, AlCl3∙H2O, is used as a topical antiperspirant or body deodorant, which acts by constricting…

Olympic Games: Turin, Italy, 2006: …and was passed by Switzerland’s Tanja Frieden. American snowboarder Shaun White, known as the “Flying Tomato” because of his long red hair, entertained onlookers with his back-to-back 1080s (three full turns in the air) on his way to claiming the gold medal in the halfpipe competition.

Artur Friedenreich, Brazilian football (soccer) player who is officially recognized by Fédération Internationale de Football as the all-time leading goal scorer with 1,329 goals. A skillful and imaginative forward, he is hailed as Brazil’s first great footballer. Playing during the amateur era,

Friedrich Hölderlin: …period 1802–06, including “Friedensfeier” (“Celebration of Peace”), “Der Einzige” (“The Only One”), and “Patmos,” products of a mind on the verge of madness, are apocalyptic visions of unique grandeur. He also completed verse translations of Sophocles’ Antigone and Oedipus Tyrannus, published in 1804. In this year a devoted friend,…

Gerhart Hauptmann: Das Friedensfest (1890; “The Peace Festival”) is an analysis of the troubled relations within a neurotic family, while Einsame Menschen (1891; Lonely Lives) describes the tragic end of an unhappy intellectual torn between his wife and a young woman (patterned after the writer Lou Andreas-Salomé)…

World War I: Peace moves, March 1917–September 1918: …offended, proceeded to pass its Friedensresolution, or “peace resolution,” of July 19 by 212 votes. The peace resolution was a string of innocuous phrases expressing Germany’s desire for peace but without a clear renunciation of annexations or indemnities. The Allies took almost no notice of it.

cerebellar ataxia: Causes of cerebellar ataxia: …forms of cerebellar ataxia is Friedich ataxia, which is caused by mutations in a gene known as FXN. Acquired cerebellar ataxia can result from damage to the cerebellum itself or from damage to pathways to and from the cerebellum. Acquired damage typically is caused by stroke, certain diseases, or a…

Heinrich Friedjung, Austrian historian who combined historical studies with a keen interest in pan-Germanic politics. Friedjung studied at Prague, Berlin, and Vienna, attended the Institute of Austrian Historical Research (1871–75), and taught at the Commercial Academy in Vienna (1873–79).

William Friedkin , American film director who was best known for The French Connection (1971) and The Exorcist (1973). While a teenager, Friedkin began working in Chicago television, and he later directed several nationally broadcast documentaries. In 1967 he moved into film directing with the

Judaism: In central Europe: One of Mendelssohn’s disciples, David Friedlaender, offered to convert to Christianity without accepting Christian dogma or Christian rites; he felt that both Judaism and Christianity shared the same religious truth but that there was no relation at all between that truth and Judaism’s ceremonial law. The offer was refused…

Battle of Friedland, (June 14, 1807), victory for Napoleon that compensated for a setback the preceding February at the Battle of Eylau and that forced Russia’s emperor Alexander I to accept French terms at the Treaty of Tilsit, which left Napoleon the undisputed master of western and central

Klebsiella: Klebsiella pneumoniae, also called Friedländer’s bacillus, was first described in 1882 by German microbiologist and pathologist Carl Friedländer. K. pneumoniae is best known as a pathogen of the human respiratory system that causes pneumonia. The disease is usually seen only in patients with underlying medical…

Lee Friedlander, American photographer known for his asymmetrical black-and-white pictures of the American “social landscape”—everyday people, places, and things. Friedlander’s interest in photography struck when he was 14. He studied briefly at the Art Center School in Los Angeles before moving to

Lee Friedlander, American photographer known for his asymmetrical black-and-white pictures of the American “social landscape”—everyday people, places, and things. Friedlander’s interest in photography struck when he was 14. He studied briefly at the Art Center School in Los Angeles before moving to

Ludwig Heinrich Friedländer, German historian noted for his comprehensive survey of Roman social and cultural history. Friedländer studied at the University of Leipzig, where, under the influence of Theodor Mommsen and Jacob Burckhardt, he developed an interest in the history of civilization. After

Benny Friedman, American collegiate and professional gridiron football quarterback who combined passing, kicking, and running skills. Friedman was an outstanding passer in the National Football League (NFL) during an era when few statistics were recorded. As the son of a Jewish immigrant, Friedman

Benny Friedman, American collegiate and professional gridiron football quarterback who combined passing, kicking, and running skills. Friedman was an outstanding passer in the National Football League (NFL) during an era when few statistics were recorded. As the son of a Jewish immigrant, Friedman

Bruce Jay Friedman, American comic author whose dark, mocking humour and social criticism was directed at the concerns and behaviour of American Jews. After graduating from the University of Missouri in 1951 with a B.A. in journalism and serving in the U.S. Air Force for two years, Friedman worked

William F. Friedman and Elizebeth S. Friedman: Elizebeth Smith majored in English at Hillsdale (Michigan) College (B.A., 1915). They met at the Riverbank Laboratories (Geneva, Illinois), where they both eventually became involved in cryptology, working often for the government in decoding diplomatic messages. In 1917–18 William served in the U.S. Army, partly…

William F. Friedman and Elizebeth S. Friedman: Elizebeth Smith majored in English at Hillsdale (Michigan) College (B.A., 1915). They met at the Riverbank Laboratories (Geneva, Illinois), where they both eventually became involved in cryptology, working often for the government in decoding diplomatic messages. In 1917–18 William served in the U.S. Army, partly…

Ignacy Friedman, Polish pianist noted for his performances of the works of Frédéric Chopin. Friedman studied music theory with Hugo Riemann in Leipzig. In Vienna he studied composition with Guido Adler and studied piano with Theodor Leschetizky for four years. After his debut in 1904, he gave more

Jerome Isaac Friedman, American physicist who, together with Richard E. Taylor and Henry W. Kendall, received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1990 for their joint experimental confirmation of the fundamental particles known as quarks. Friedman was educated at the University of Chicago, from which he

Milton Friedman, American economist and educator, one of the leading proponents of monetarism in the second half of the 20th century. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1976. Friedman was one year old when his family moved from Brooklyn, New York, to Rahway, New Jersey, where he grew

Thomas L. Friedman, American journalist, who was best known for his coverage of Middle Eastern affairs and his commentary on globalization. He won several Pulitzer Prizes for his work. A trip to Israel in 1968 to visit his sister, who was studying at Tel Aviv University, first sparked Friedman’s

Thomas L. Friedman, American journalist, who was best known for his coverage of Middle Eastern affairs and his commentary on globalization. He won several Pulitzer Prizes for his work. A trip to Israel in 1968 to visit his sister, who was studying at Tel Aviv University, first sparked Friedman’s

William F. Friedman and Elizebeth S. Friedman: William Friedman was still an infant when his family immigrated to the United States; he studied genetics at Cornell University (B.S., 1914). Elizebeth Smith majored in English at Hillsdale (Michigan) College (B.A., 1915). They met at the Riverbank Laboratories (Geneva, Illinois), where they both eventually…

William F. Friedman and Elizebeth S. Friedman, American cryptologists who helped decipher enemy codes from World War I to World War II. William Friedman was still an infant when his family immigrated to the United States; he studied genetics at Cornell University (B.S., 1914). Elizebeth Smith

William F. Friedman and Elizebeth S. Friedman: William Friedman was still an infant when his family immigrated to the United States; he studied genetics at Cornell University (B.S., 1914). Elizebeth Smith majored in English at Hillsdale (Michigan) College (B.A., 1915). They met at the Riverbank Laboratories (Geneva, Illinois), where they both eventually…

Robert Capa, photographer whose images of war made him one of the greatest photojournalists of the 20th century. In 1931 and 1932 Capa worked for Dephot, a German picture agency, before establishing himself in Paris, where he assumed the name Robert Capa. He first achieved fame as a war

Friedmann universe, model universe developed in 1922 by the Russian meteorologist and mathematician Aleksandr Friedmann (1888–1925). He believed that Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity required a theory of the universe in motion, as opposed to the static universe that scientists until

Friedmann universe, model universe developed in 1922 by the Russian meteorologist and mathematician Aleksandr Friedmann (1888–1925). He believed that Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity required a theory of the universe in motion, as opposed to the static universe that scientists until

Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Friedmann, Russian mathematician and physical scientist. After graduating from the University of St. Petersburg in 1910, Friedmann joined the Pavlovsk Aerological Observatory and, during World War I, did aerological work for the Russian army. After the war he was on the

Imre Friedmann, Hungarian-born American astrobiologist (born Dec. 20, 1921, Budapest, Hung.—died June 11, 2007), discovered the most compelling evidence of past life on Mars. In 2001 Friedmann led a team of scientists who identified strings of crystals found in fragments of a Martian meteorite as

Cornell Capa, (Kornel Friedmann), American photographer (born April 10, 1918, Budapest, Hung.—died May 23, 2008, New York, N.Y.), as a Life magazine photojournalist (1946–67), made issues of social justice and politics the focus of images that provided an appreciation of the beauty of simple,

Bayer AG, German chemical and pharmaceutical company founded in 1863 by Friedrich Bayer (1825–80), who was a chemical salesman, and Johann Friedrich Weskott (1821–76), who owned a dye company. Company headquarters, originally in Barmen (now Wuppertal), have been in Leverkusen, north of Cologne,

ataxia: …most common of these is Friedreich ataxia, named after the German neurologist Nicholaus Friedreich. During the first three to five years of life, only a few physical deformities (e.g., hammertoe) may be present. During adolescence, the gait becomes progressively unsteady—frequently interpreted as clumsiness. The unsteadiness further progresses to a broad-based,…

Frederick IV, elector Palatine of the Rhine, only surviving son of the elector Louis VI. Frederick’s father died in October 1583, when the young elector came under the guardianship of his uncle John Casimir, an ardent Calvinist. In January 1592, on the death of John Casimir, Frederick undertook t

Frederick III, elector Palatine of the Rhine (1559–76) and a leader of the German Protestant princes who worked for a Protestant victory in Germany, France, and the Netherlands. Frederick adopted Lutheranism in 1546 and Calvinism somewhat later. His Calvinism and his opposition to the Habsburg e

Frederick II, king of Prussia (1740–86), a brilliant military campaigner who, in a series of diplomatic stratagems and wars against Austria and other powers, greatly enlarged Prussia’s territories and made Prussia the foremost military power in Europe. An enlightened absolute monarch, he favoured

Frederick II, Saxon elector (1428–64) and eldest son of Frederick the Warlike; he successfully defended his electorship against the Ascanian Saxe-Lauenburg line and instituted regular diets in his territories. Frederick settled his disputes with the Bohemian followers of Jan Hus, church reformer

Frederick (III), German king from 1314 to 1326, also duke of Austria (as Frederick III) from 1308, the second son of the German king Albert I. After his father’s murder (1308) Frederick became the head of the House of Habsburg and duke of Austria but did not succeed him as king, the count of L

Frederick I, elector of Saxony who secured the electorship for the House of Wettin, thus ensuring that dynasty’s future importance in German politics. An implacable enemy of the Bohemian followers of Jan Hus, church reformer and accused heretic, Frederick aided the Holy Roman emperor Sigismund a

Frederick III, elector of Saxony who worked for constitutional reform of the Holy Roman Empire and protected Martin Luther after Luther was placed under the imperial ban in 1521. Succeeding his father, the elector Ernest, in 1486, Frederick allied himself with Berthold, archbishop of Henneberg, to

Frederick Charles, prince of Prussia, Prussian field marshal, victor in the Battle of Königgrätz (Sadowa) on July 3, 1866. The eldest son of Prince Charles of Prussia and nephew of the future German emperor William I, Frederick Charles was educated from childhood for a military career. He became a

Frederick Louis, prince of Wales, eldest son of King George II of Great Britain (reigned 1727–60) and father of King George III (reigned 1760–1820); his bitter quarrel with his father helped bring about the downfall of the King’s prime minister, Sir Robert Walpole, in 1742. After his grandfather

Frederick III, king of Prussia and German emperor for 99 days in 1888, during which time he was a voiceless invalid, dying of throat cancer. Although influenced by liberal, constitutional, and middle-class ideas, he retained a strong sense of the Hohenzollern royal and imperial dignity. The son of

Alexander von Humboldt, German naturalist and explorer who was a major figure in the classical period of physical geography and biogeography—areas of science now included in the earth sciences and ecology. With his book Kosmos he made a valuable contribution to the popularization of science. The

Frederick William I, second Prussian king, who transformed his country from a second-rate power into the efficient and prosperous state that his son and successor, Frederick II the Great, made a major military power on the Continent. The son of the elector Frederick III, later Frederick I, king of

canals and inland waterways: Germany: In Germany the 15-mile Friedrich Wilhelm Summit Canal, completed in 1669, rose from Neuhaus on the Spree for 10 feet in two locks and from west of the summit fell 65 feet to Brieskow on the Oder. An extensive system of waterways in this part of Germany was finally…

Humboldt University of Berlin, coeducational state-supported institution of higher learning in Berlin. The university was founded in 1809–10 by the linguist, philosopher, and educational reformer Wilhelm von Humboldt, then Prussian minister of education. Under Humboldt’s guidance the university,

William II, German emperor (kaiser) and king of Prussia from 1888 to the end of World War I in 1918, known for his frequently militaristic manner as well as for his vacillating policies. William was the eldest child of Crown Prince Frederick (later Emperor Frederick III) and of Victoria, the eldest

institutionalism: Mid-20th-century American institutionalism: Nevertheless, theorists such as Carl J. Friedrich focused on institutions in their cross-national work on constitutionalism. For Friedrich, constitutionalism was characterized by both a concern for individual autonomy and institutional arrangements—divided government and federalism—to prevent the concentration of power, especially in the state. Institutions are the rules of politics…

Caspar David Friedrich, one of the leading figures of the German Romantic movement. His vast, mysterious, atmospheric landscapes and seascapes proclaimed human helplessness against the forces of nature and did much to establish the idea of the Sublime as a central concern of Romanticism. Friedrich

Friedrich von Logau, German epigrammatist noted for his direct unostentatious style. Logau was of noble descent and became an orphan early. He spent his life in service to the petty courts of Brieg and Liegnitz. Logau resented the forced lowliness of his position, and he directed much of his

electromagnetic radiation: X-rays: …this experiment, carried out by Walter Friedrich and Paul Knipping, not only identified X-rays with electromagnetic radiation but also initiated the use of X-rays for studying the detailed atomic structure of crystals. The interference of X-rays diffracted in certain directions from crystals in so-called X-ray diffractometers, in turn, permits the…

Jena: The city’s Friedrich-Schiller University was founded by the elector John Frederick the Magnanimous in 1548 as an academy and was raised to university status in 1577. It flourished under the duke Charles Augustus, patron of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, from 1787 to 1806, when the philosophers Johann…

Humboldt University of Berlin, coeducational state-supported institution of higher learning in Berlin. The university was founded in 1809–10 by the linguist, philosopher, and educational reformer Wilhelm von Humboldt, then Prussian minister of education. Under Humboldt’s guidance the university,

Madang, port on the northeastern coast of the island of New Guinea, Papua New Guinea. It lies along Astrolabe Bay of the Bismarck Sea, near the mouth of the Gogol River. Madang is the centre for a large timber industry based on the Gogol forest, about 25 miles (40 km) inland, and is the

Friedrich von Logau: …polished, appearing in 1654 as Salomons von Golaw Deutscher Sinn-Getichte Drey Tausend, 3 vol. (“Salomon von Golaw’s Three Thousand German Epigrams”; reissued 1872 as Friedrichs von Logau sämmtliche Sinngedichte). Logau’s epigrams were forgotten until a century after his death, when they were published in 1759 by G.E. Lessing and C.W.…

Friedrichshafen, city, Baden-Württemberg Land (state), southwestern Germany. It lies on the north shore of Lake Constance (Bodensee), about 50 miles (80 km) northeast of Zürich, Switzerland. It was formed in 1811 by Frederick I of Württemberg through unification of the former free imperial city

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe: Work after World War I: The Friedrichstrasse Office Building (1919) was one of the first proposals for an all steel-and-glass building and established the Miesian principle of “skin and bones construction.” The “Glass Skyscraper” (1921) applied this idea to a glass skyscraper whose transparent facade reveals the building’s underlying steel structure.…

Brian Friel, playwright who explored social and political life in Ireland and Northern Ireland as he delved into family ties, communication and mythmaking as human needs, and the tangled relationships between narrative, history, and nationality. Friel was educated at St. Patrick’s College, Maynooth

Quaker, member of a Christian group (the Society of Friends, or Friends church) that stresses the guidance of the Holy Spirit, that rejects outward rites and an ordained ministry, and that has a long tradition of actively working for peace and opposing war. George Fox, founder of the society in

Wrigley Field, baseball stadium in Chicago that, since 1916, has been home to the Cubs, the city’s National League (NL) team. Built in 1914, it is one of the oldest and most iconic Major League Baseball parks in the United States. The stadium was designed by brothers Zachary Taylor Davis and

Tonga, country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of some 170 islands divided into three main island groups: Tongatapu in the south, Haʿapai in the centre, and Vavaʿu in the north. Isolated islands include Niuafoʿou, Niuatoputapu, and Tafahi (together known as the Niuatoputapu, or

Jessamyn West: …collected in her first book, The Friendly Persuasion. The book was well received by critics for its warmth, delicate artistry, and beguiling simplicity. Invited to help create a screenplay for a motion picture based on the stories (released in 1956), she subsequently recounted her Hollywood experience in To See the…

Friendly Persuasion, American dramatic film, released in 1956, that depicts how the American Civil War disrupts the lives of a pacifist Quaker family. Jess Birdwell (played by Gary Cooper) and his wife, Eliza (Dorothy McGuire), are content in their lives as Quaker farmers living in southern Indiana

Friendly society, mutual-aid organization formed voluntarily by individuals to protect members against debts incurred through illness, death, or old age. Friendly societies arose in the 17th and 18th centuries and were most numerous in the 19th century. Friendly societies had their origins in the

Fred W. Friendly, U.S. broadcast producer and journalist. He began his career in radio in 1938 and later joined CBS. In the 1950s he collaborated with Edward R. Murrow to produce the radio news series Hear It Now and the television series See It Now. Friendly also produced CBS Reports (1961–71) and

Friends, popular American television sitcom that aired on the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) network from 1994 to 2004. It won six Emmy Awards, including outstanding comedy series, and from its second season until the end of its run maintained a top five or better Nielsen rating, hitting

Society of Friends, Christian group that arose in mid-17th-century England, dedicated to living in accordance with the “Inward Light,” or direct inward apprehension of God, without creeds, clergy, or other ecclesiastical forms. As most powerfully expressed by George Fox (1624–91), Friends felt that