Analysis Pages

Historical Context in The Odyssey

The Odyssey is set in ancient Greece. Many of the locations mentioned are real, physical places, and the events of the story are shaped by the gender dynamics, social customs, and religious beliefs of this era.

Historical Context Examples in The Odyssey:

This sheds light on some of the complex gender dynamics at work in this poem. While this is a male-dominated society, and women are considered property in many ways, their emotional lives are still as rich and varied as they would be now, and though women have no real political clout, they nevertheless wield some level of power over their husbands.

In this case, both the people of Ithaca, whom Odysseus rules, and the servants of the house, whom he owns. In ancient Greece, most servants were slaves and indentured workers "won" (or captured) in war. Some of these slaves might also have been given as gifts, from one man of position to another, as a token of his esteem. Upon Odysseus's death, these slaves wouldn't have been set free but would've passed down to the heir, Telemachus.

In ancient Greek tradition, women were subservient to men and were relegated to the roles of mother and wife. Though female gods like Athena were powerful in their own right, the Greek pantheon was dominated primarily by males, just like Greek literature. Speech or writing were part of the male domain, but there were still a few female poets in ancient Greece, of which Sappho is probably the most famous.

Unlike modern-day poetry, Homer's works serve a dual function as an epic poem and an historical account, with many people and events in The Odyssey (particularly where it pertains to the Trojan War) being, by some measure, factual. As a bard, Homer wouldn't have created this history, but he would have embellished its emotional and psychological content, which is what Penelope responds to here.

This refers to the region of Greece from Laconia in the south to Elis in the north that had the most concentrated development and most powerful Greek city-states, including the kingdoms of Agamemnon, Menelaus, Nestor, and several other of the most important Greek kings and war heroes. Odysseus, though not a king, would be well-known among them and listed in this category of great men.

In ancient Greek tradition, heroes were burned on a funeral pyre built of wood, then the ashes were lain in the ground and covered with a mound of dirt. Often in war men will not have this luxury, and when men are lost at sea, their bodies can't be glorified this way. Telemachus wishes there had been a body because that would've made him the rightful heir to Odysseus' home and solved all of his problems with the suitors.

That is, Helen of Troy. Originally hailing from the city-state of Argos, Helen later married King Menelaus, Agamemnon's brother, and was seduced by Paris, the prince of Troy, who took her away from Menelaus in an act sparking the Trojan War. Famed for her beauty, Helen's was "the face that launched a thousand ships."

A city on the Southern coast of Italy that was well-known for its copper mines. In ancient Greece, long-distance trading was conducted primarily by ships, with traders like the Taphians and the more famous Phoenicians dominating most trade routes. Copper would've been a major commodity at the time this poem was written and was used in everything from armor to coinage to buildings.

In ancient Greece, even servants were divided into social classes, with "upper" servants working in the dining hall and the house proper and "lower" servants working in the fields or the stables. The upper servants weren't treated better in any way, and all servants were likely to be slaves or indentured servants working off a debt.

Sinead, Owl Eyes Contributor

"he was vexed that a stranger should be kept waiting for admittance..."See in text(Book I)

Ancient Greeks had a strong sense of etiquette and decorum. Their word for this was xenia, which dictates that hosts follow very formal procedures in the care of their guests. Any breach of xenia would've constituted an unforgivable breach of their moral code and would've reflected poorly upon Telemachus (and, by extension, Odysseus). In this tradition, any question the guest had would've been asked only after their other needs (for food and drink, etc.) had been met.

In ancient times, Greeks routinely mixed wine with water in order to dilute it and make it last longer. This practice was especially common among the nobles, who signified the status of their guests by how much or how little water was mixed into their wine. Basically: the stronger the wine, the greater their social status, suggesting that these guests, who have a great deal of water in their wine, are, in the end, not very important.

It often happened that the gods would disguise themselves as mortals when they wanted to interact with people on Earth. Here Athena chooses to be chief of the Taphians, a group of well-known traders and pirates, because she knows that Telemachus is familiar enough with the Taphians to respect Mentes and to believe that he has, indeed, heard of or met Odysseus in his travels.

Odysseus' home and final destination in his journey, Ithaca is a small island west of the Peloponnese. Of the seven main Ionian islands, it's the second-smallest, with a population around 3,000. In The Odyssey, Ithaca's exact population is unclear, but would've likely been in the hundreds, with a large number of able-bodied men living at Odysseus's home as guests while they attempt to woo his wife.

Greek city-states. At the time, "Greece" wasn't yet a country and was, instead, a group of warring city-states all vying for dominance of the Peloponnesus. These city-states, Sparta and Pylos, lie east of Ithaca, Odysseus' island home on the Ionian sea, and therefore lie closer to Troy and the route on which Odysseus travels in his return home. It would've been difficult for news of Odysseus to travel much farther than Sparta.

A race of giants said to have been born with one eye in the center of their foreheads. Homer never explicitly states that the Cyclopes have one eye, but his contemporary Hesiod does, and modern interpretations of the text have used Hesiod's description, citing a lack of physical details in Homer's account. Odysseus will recount the tale of this blinding later in the poem.

Though not a Titan, Phorcys is said to have descended from Gaia and Pontus, a pre-Olympian sea god. Phorcys rules over the hidden waters of the deep and sired a number of monstrous children, including Echidna (the half-woman, half-snake) and all three Gorgons, including the infamous Medusa, who could turn men to stone by making eye contact.

A Titan, Atlas sided against Zeus in the war against the Olympians. For his part in this unsuccessful coup, Zeus decided that Atlas wouldn't be imprisoned with the other Titans in Tartarus, but would, instead, be condemned to forever hold the heavenly spheres on his back, thus preventing the earth from meeting the heavens and returning to its original state.

A Titan, Cronus descended from Gaia, a personification of the earth, and Uranus (also known as "Father Sky"). He would later become leader of the Titans when he overthrew his father, only to himself be overthrown by Zeus and imprisoned in Tartarus (a dark abyss) with the other Titans. Athena alludes to this in order to emphasize Zeus' power and lineage. In that sense, it's an attempt to stroke his ego before she asks him a favor.

Daughter of Zeus, goddess of wisdom, Athena is said to have been born when Zeus, complaining of a migraine, asked one of the gods to split his head open. Athena, fully-grown, and dressed all in armor, emerged from his forehead and immediately became Zeus' favorite. Her fondness for Odysseus stems from his own wisdom and cleverness, for which he was well-renowned.

Messenger of the Greek gods, Hermes is Odysseus' great-grandfather and will often help Odysseus by informing him of all the dangers that lie ahead. Homer portrays him as a guide or a bringer of good luck in The Iliad, where he sides with the Greeks against the Trojans and helps them to win the war.

In Greek mythology and literature, there exists a tension between a man's "fate" and the unpredictable will of the gods. It often happens that men are ruined by the gods for no reason, and this results in feelings of resentment and distrust. A man might say that the gods caused his troubles instead of taking responsibility for his own actions because it was well-known that the gods were capricious.

Son of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, Orestes wasn't home in Mycenae when Agamemnon was killed, returning only seven years later to avenge this death by killing both Aegisthus and his own mother Clytemnestra. In The Odyssey, he's used as an example for Odysseus' son, Telemachus, whose own mother is beset by suitors in Odysseus' absence.

King of Mycenae, son of Atreus, killed by Aegisthus upon his return from the ten-year Trojan War. His story parallels Odysseus' in that they're both returning from the war as heroes to find that their house is in shambles. The difference is: Agamemnon's wife cheats on him and plots against him while Odysseus' wife, Penelope, remains faithful.

Born of a rivalry between his father and the house of Atreus, Aegisthus grew up to kill Atreus so his father could reclaim the throne. Later, Agamemnon, Atreus's son, took the throne back, only to leave to fight in the Trojan War. While he was gone, Aegisthus had a torrid affair with Agamemnon's wife, Clytemnestra, and the two murdered him upon his return.

Notice that the other gods are actively cutting Poseidon out of the loop on this. In Greek mythology, this kind of behavior was common on Mount Olympus and led to much inner turmoil, including an attempt by Hera to overthrow Zeus and take the throne for herself. Zeus punished Poseidon for his role in this attempted overthrow by forcing him to build a great wall around the city of Troy.

King of the Greek gods, Zeus rules from Mount Olympus and was known for his trademark thunderbolts and his affinity for women. Zeus was the son of Titans Cronus and Rhea and husband of Hera, with whom he gave birth to many gods, including Ares, the god of war. He sired more than 100 children in his time.

In ancient Greece, a public sacrifice of 100 oxen made to please the gods. The Greek gods were notoriously capricious and could only be appeased by means of incredible sacrifice, usually involving slaughter or wine. Since then, the word "hecatomb" has come to mean a great loss of life, particularly for a cause.

In ancient times, the known world was small, encompassing primarily Europe and the Mediterranean. Scientists also believed that the world was flat, which meant that it had an "end" or edge that ships were rumored to fall over once in awhile. In reality, Ethiopia is only about 2,300 miles from Greece.

Technically a nymph, Calypso is said to be the daughter of Atlas, the Titan who was condemned to carry the heavenly spheres on his shoulders for eternity. In The Odyssey, Calypso uses her voice to enchant Odysseus, trapping him on the island of Ogygia. Other accounts of the same story suggest that Calypso bore Odysseus a son or two.

In The Iliad, Odysseus was credited with the idea that ultimately led to the downfall of Troy: the Trojan Horse. Inside the horse were highly trained soldiers who would bust free and sack the city after the Trojans brought the Horse in, thinking it was a gift. This earned Odysseus a reputation as a strategic thinker and made him one of the heroes of the Trojan War.

After defeating Troy, Odysseus and his men were detained by various gods or nymphs. In addition to being punished for eating Apollo's cattle, they spent a year with Circe, a powerful nymph who turned several of Odysseus's men into pigs, and then spent seven years with Calypso, who enchanted them with her singing.

In ancient Greek mythology, Apollo was sometimes associated with the sun god Helios and was said to have ridden in a golden horse-drawn chariot, the chariot of the sun. Every day, he drove the sun chariot across the sky, at night traveling through Oceanus to reach the chariot's original position in the morning.

Homer repeats the opening line of The Iliad, which in the original Greek reads, "Sing to me, O Muse." Poets in ancient Greece often performed or "sang" their poems for an audience and frequently called upon the Muses for inspiration. Here, Homer uses a poetic apostrophe to address Calliope, the Muse of epic poetry. There were nine Muses in all.

The Greeks (and Trojans) engaged in a form of biological and chemical warfare using poisoned arrows and spears. The arrow used by Paris to kill Achilles was, most likely, poisoned. The Greeks also developed a form of napalm, based on naphtha, which was called "Greek fire" and was used to set enemy ships ablaze.

A "watch" in this context means a time period in which someone stands watch or acts as a lookout in case of danger. On the Aegean and Mediterranean sea, danger would've been either an enemy ship, an oncoming storm, or, in certain stories, a fantastical sea monster, often beset upon the sailors by Poseidon. To the ancient Greeks, the open seas were notoriously treacherous, something to be both feared and respected.

Also known as Furies, the Erinyes are a group of vulture-like women who would appear any time they were called upon to punish the mortals who'd committed crimes against their families, especially matricide. Once the Erinyes were called upon, they would torment their victim, a process that could take hours or years. This often sparked an escalating cycle of revenge which inevitably ended in tragedy.

Here Homer refers to famous women of the past, including Mycene (namesake of the city Mycenae), Alcmena (mother of Heracles), and Tyro, one of the many consorts of Poseidon. Notice that, with the exception of Alcmena, a mortal, the women listed here are either nymphs or royalty, and that this is the level of social status required for a woman in ancient Greece to be great. Suggesting that Penelope is better than these women is hyperbolic, but telling: any powerful woman, they suggest, is to be feared.

In ancient Greece, if a widowed woman didn't remarry, the custom was that she return to her family home. In this case, doing so would require Telemachus to pay back Penelope's dowry in livestock and find some way to save their estate without going bankrupt. As a suitor, it's not Antinous' place to demand anything but an answer, but because there is a power vacuum, he feels he has the right to do so.

Ilium, another name for Troy, gave The Iliad its name and was well-known for its twelve immortal horses, the Hippoi Troiades, owned by one of the kings of Troy. Homer was likely also alluding to the Trojan Horse, the famed downfall of the city and brain-child of Odysseus, an important figure in the Trojan War.

In ancient Greece, as in most of history, physical attractiveness was prized and was typically considered a sign of one's goodness, godliness, and actual worth. "Kallos," the Greek word for beauty, has a more abrasive, powerful connotation, carrying with it the license to be cruel, vain, and powerful, and to be admired for it. Kallos is a counterpoint to "kleos," or glory, to which men aspire.

Sinead, Owl Eyes Contributor

"As the sail bellied out with the wind, the ship flew through the deep blue water, and the foam hissed against her bows as she sped onward. Then they made all fast throughout the ship, filled the mixing bowls to the brim, and made drink offerings to the immortal gods that are from everlasting, but more particularly to the grey-eyed daughter of Zeus...."See in text(Book II)

This paragraph, full of sailing jargon, provides Homer with an opportunity to create verisimilitude (a literary term meaning realism or reality). His audience, regardless of what part of Greece they come from, would've been familiar with these nautical terms, which are: hawsers (ropes), cross plank, and forestays (a piece of rigging that prevents the mast from falling).

A Titaness, daughter of Uranus and ex-wife of Zeus, Themis is a personification of abstract concepts like justice, order, manners, and traditions. In ancient Greek society, customs and folkways like xenia fell directly under the purview of Themis, who presided in spirit over meetings of government and matters of judicial order. Telemachus calls on her to remind the suitors of their inappropriate behavior, to no avail.

This sacrifice is one of the most detailed in all of Greek literature. Eurydice’s reaction may seem to be morbid behavior, but the sacrifice of an animal was considered to be an honor as much for the animal as it was for the people performing it. The Greeks took these ceremonies very seriously, only using animals that had never been used for work and were in perfect health.

Although they weren’t always practiced, temperance and moderation were valued in Greek society.

Yasmeen, Owl Eyes Staff

"forbid that you should leave my house to go on board of a ship..."See in text(Book III)

In Greek culture, the concept of xenia, hospitality, is so important that it requires that a host give up his own comfort to provide hospitality to his guests, so Nestor is making sure that Telemachus and Mentor understand that he cannot let them simply go back to their ship when they are his guests—he has everything they need for comfort.

In Greek and, later, Roman mythology, Hades is the abode of the dead who have led either good or bad lives, and is not comparable to Hell in the Judeo-Christian tradition as simply a place of punishment for earthly sins.

Aegisthus was the lover of Clytemnestra, Agamemnon's queen, with whom she had an affair while Agamemnon was fighting the Trojan War. Clytemnestra never forgave Agamemnon for sacrificing their daughter Iphigenia to ensure fair winds for the Greeks on their way to Troy, and she asked her lover, Aegisthus, to kill Agamemnon when he finally returned from the war. Orestes, Agamemnon and Clytemnestra's son, killed Aegisthus to avenge his father's death. This is the second time this episode has been told to Telemachus, most likely to give him a model for action.

Euboea is on the far eastern side of mainland Greece almost directly across the Aegean Sea from Chiros. Nestor's detailed description provides the only information about how some Greeks sailed from Troy, which is in Asia Minor, back to Greece, part of Europe. Except under unusual circumstances, Greeks sailed from island to island rather than over the open sea.

One of the most important goals of a Greek leader is to gain kleos, that is, fame, and a necessary component of fame is to speak well, so it is very important that Telemachus speak appropriately and well in front of Nestor and his family, especially because Odysseus was known as one of the most powerful speakers among Greek kings. Telemachus must speak well in part because he is trying to establish his relationship with Odysseus.

Telemachus is the last in his line, the only son of Odysseus and heir to his kingdom. If Odysseus doesn't come back, and Telemachus fails to produce a male heir before he dies, then the estate will be broken up regardless of whether or not the suitors manage to take it.

Elis, a region in Southern Greece, was bordered on the north by Achaea, on the east by Arcadia, on the south by Messenia, and on the west by the Ionian Sea. To cross over to Elis, the mainland, from Ithaca, the sea, would've required a ship and a few days' journey.

Rhadamanthus, son of Zeus and Europa, brother of Minos, the first king of Crete, who ordered that every nine years seven boys and seven girls be sent to the Minotaur in the labyrinth. Rhadamanthus led a just life and upon his death became a judge of the dead and the ruler of the Elysian plains.

The ancient Greeks, drawing on Aristotle's philosophies about human behavior, believed in hamartia, or a fatal flaw of personality that affected many heroes. One of the most common flaws was hubris, that is, pride or boasting.

The food of the gods, distinct from the nectar, or drink, of the gods. In ancient Greek mythology, ambrosia was said to confer longevity and, in some cases, immortality on whomsoever ate it, which led to it being eaten by mortals only on very rare occasions. Idothea is again going above and beyond to help Menelaus.

Halosydne, an epithet of Amphitrite, the goddess of the sea and wife of Poseidon. The Greek word halosydne literally means sea-fed, so it's a very appropriate adjective for describing the seals described here as "chickens," or animals bred to feed gods and humans.

Menelaus attempts to explain away this act of treachery as the gods' will, but Helen's measured and deliberate actions in this scene seem to suggest that she's trying to lead the Trojans to their hiding place. An alternate reading would be that she's trying to draw the Greeks out to ambush the Trojans, but this seems unlikely.

In Euripides' tragedy The Trojan Women, Hecuba, the Queen of Troy, and her attendant maidens famously mourn the deaths of the fallen Trojans. "Lamentation" in ancient Greece was a ritualized process involving shaved heads and funeral garb and would've lasted for an extended period of time.

Notice that Pisistratus uses the word "placed" in this line. It emphasized not only his social position, as someone whose father is missing, but his physical presence on the estate, which is required of him to have any real say in how the house is governed. Greek life was grounded in lands and estates, and the management of these would've consumed Odysseus's daily life, in lieu of war.

Artemis, daughter of Zeus and Leto, goddess of the hunt, animals, childbirth, and virginity. Artemis was typically depicted with a bow and arrow and was widely revered as one of the most beautiful and powerful goddesses in the pantheon.

In ancient Greece, as in many cultures, the traditions of mourning required that the Greeks perform their grief in a number of highly ritualized ways, including the observation of burial rites, periods of mourning, and the wailing Menelaus refers to here, which saw men and women alike crying melodramatically in public. Menelaus tired of this mourning, which is to say, he tires of the performance.

A yoke, or type of harness, was used to attach horses to chariots, which were then pulled in tandem by teams typically consisting of two, four, or eight horses. Given the singularity of the word yoke, we can assume that Telemachus and Pisistratus are riding on a single chariot led by two or four horses.

In ancient Greece, the appearance of men who appear to be gods or the sons of gods would've been both an event of great importance and a cause of considerable trepidation, as the Greek gods were notoriously selfish and often brought disaster to houses they visited. Eteoneus should know better than to hesitate around them, and Menelaus is wise in treating them kindly.

Lacedaemon, a city in Laconia, the principal region of the city-state Sparta. In Greek mythology, Lacedaemon also referred to the king of Laconia, son of Zeus and Taygete, one of the seven daughters of the Titan Atlas, collectively known as the Pleiades. It's said that Lacadaemon renamed the city after his wife, Sparta, who also happened to be his niece.

Pherae, a town in Thessaly, a kingdom on the mainland to the northeast of Ithaca. Athena has conjured this image of Iphthime to encourage Penelope and give her the strength to stop crying and take action against the suitors.

Using only grain for a sacrifice was unusual, but this sacrifice alone would've been acceptable to Athena, especially because it's coming from a distressed mother. A sacrifice offered by a man would be expected to consist of animals, not just grain.

Neleus, Nestor's father, founded the city of Pylos, Telemachus' first stop on his search. The suitors, being covetous of Odysseus' lands, and wanting Telemachus out of the way, would've wanted to keep tabs on him at all times, but evidently failed to ascertain his true destination in this case.

That is, the discus, a very effective throwing weapon commonly used in Greek warfare. Discus throwing was also a major event in the ancient pentathlon, which consisted of a foot race, a javelin throw, discus throw, long jump, and wrestling.

Stephen Holliday

"I had rather that it should be a piece of plate..."See in text(Book IV)

Telemachus intends to honor and display any gift given to him, so it would be better for it to be an inanimate object. This give-giving component of xenia was so important that it stopped Diomedes, a Greek, and Glaucus, a Trojan, from killing each other in the Trojan War. When they met each other in battle, they discovered that their ancestors had exchanged gifts once at a meeting and immediately stopped fighting, exchanged armor, and promised not to fight each other.

Greeks would've recognized this description of a temperate climate, typical of locations on the Mediterranean Sea. Traditionally, the west wind was considered wholesome and good, while the east wind was considered unhealthy and a sign of trouble.

Malea is the southeast peninsula of Laconia (also, Sparta), Menelaus' kingdom, so it would have pained Menelaus to know that part of his territory caused so much trouble for his brother. The geography here is troubling because Malea is farther west (and therefore farther from Troy) than Argos. Agamemnon would've had to sail well beyond Argos to reach Malea.

Stephen Holliday

"only two of the chief men among the Achaeans perished..."See in text(Book IV)

Proteus refers to Agamemnon, Menelaus' brother, who was killed by his wife and her lover, and the Ajax the Lesser, leader of the Locrians during the Trojan War, not to be confused with Ajax the Greater, a mighty warrior who killed himself during the Trojan War.

That is, Agamemnon and the Lesser Ajax (Ajax the Greater killed himself during the Trojan War)

Pharos, the site of the famous lighthouse built by Ptolomy II, the Pharos of Alexandria (one of the Seven Wonders of the World) is not quite a mile from the mainland of Egypt, so Menelaus' description of it as being a full day's ride from the mainland is inaccurate. Menelaus is clearly playing up the distance for dramatic effect.

Menelaus refers to Proteus, "the old man of the sea," who served as Poseidon's "herdsman," tending his flocks (sea creatures). In order to compel Proteus to foretell one's future, a person had to grab him, the problem with that being that Proteus could assume any number of shapes and therefore break free of all but the strongest holds.

Philomeleides was a king on the island of Lesbos who required all visitors to engage in a wrestling contest with him. In Greek culture, wrestling was a staple form of exercise and sport and, later, became one of the main events in the games at Olympus.

In the following story, Menelaus accuses Helen of trying to betray the Greeks inside the horse, but mitigates the blame for this by saying that a god influenced her actions. At that point in the war Helen wouldn't have known whether she'd be welcomed home by the Greeks, it's possible that she did indeed intend to betray them to the Trojans.

In other versions of Helen's seduction, the ancient Greek writers Herodotus and Euripides claim Helen was transported to Egypt at the time of her abduction, with her "spirit" going to Troy with Paris. When Menelaus returned from Troy, it's believed that he found the actual Helen in Egypt, and when he did so, the "spirit" Helen disappeared.

Antilochus, Nestor's oldest son, was killed by Memnon, an Ethiopian and son of Eos, the goddess of the dawn. There are varying accounts of who killed Antilochus, including the possibility that Hector killed him, but the consensus is that the Ethiopian Memnon is the killer. Antilochus was considered one of the Greek army's most promising warriors, and Nestor was very proud of him.

Stephen Holliday

"when you have done supper I shall ask who you are..."See in text(Book IV)

According to the ancient Greek custom of xenia, hosts must offer their guests food and drink regardless of their social status. In practice, that often meant seeing to their needs before asking their names or where they came from (a neat way of avoiding feeling put upon by guests of lower social station).

The Styx is one of five rivers in Hades that was used to ferry souls to the underworld. Calypso swears honesty to Odysseus upon the river Styx because it is known to be the most serious symbol a god can swear upon.

Athena again demonstrates great humility in this instance. Although she creates the dangerous obstacles for Odysseus during his voyage home, she also consistently aids him with his journey. This relationship alludes to the historical treatment of Greek parents to their children. Sometimes parents would make growing up difficult, so that their children would grow to be strong when they were older.

Cadmus is the son of Phoenix, the King of Phoenicia, and brother of Europa. Europa was abducted by Zeus, and Cadmus was sent on a quest to find her. When he was unsuccessful, he consulted an oracle which advised him to give up his quest, follow a cow until she lay down, and where she lay down he was to build a city, which came to be known as Thebes.

Evan, Owl Eyes Staff

"for the clothes Calypso had given him weighed him down..."See in text(Book V)

Notice how even after Odysseus leaves Calypso’s island, she hinders his progress towards home. Homer uses this metaphor to show how the power of the gods can reach anyone regardless of whether or not the god is physically present. Considering the time this was written, we can surmise this to be a reflection of the cultural values of respecting the unseen gods.

Iasion was a Cretan youth who fell in love with the goddess of the harvest, Demeter. When they lie together in a field, Zeus becomes jealous of a mortal’s relationship with a god and strikes Iasion with a single lightning bolt and kills him. This sets the example that mortals should never go against the wishes of immortals.

Tithonus is the son of Laomedon, King of Troy, who falls in love with Eos. They have children, and Eos asks Zeus to grant Tithonus eternal life. Although Zeus grants her wish, because she forgets to ask Zeus to grant Tithonus eternal youth, Tithonus grows very old and withers in his immortality.

Ino, now Leucothea ("White Goddess"), was married to Athamas, and Hera, in a fit of jealousy, drove them both mad. After Athamas murdered their oldest child, Ino jumped into the sea with their second child, and both were turned into marine gods. Because Leucothea died by drowning, she is especially sympathetic to Odysseus.

Poseidon, even though generally supportive of the Greeks, seems to hold a grudge against Odysseus even before the episode in which Odysseus blinds the Cyclops Polyphemus. This hostility towards Odysseus may be displaced anger at his brother Zeus, who put Poseidon in his place (as the weaker younger brother) in the Iliad when Poseidon and Zeus disagreed over how much help Poseidon could give to the Greeks.

Stephen Holliday

"Pleiads, on late-setting Bootes, and on the Bear..."See in text(Book V)

The Pleiades, or the Seven Sisters, is a star-cluster near the constellation Orion. Bootes, meaning herdsman, is a constellation with one of the brightest stars in the sky, Arcturus. Ursa Major, the Great Bear, watches over Orion, the hunter. In this context, we see that Odysseus is adhering to the suggestion of Calypso and navigating the sea by following the stars.

Virility is one of the prized Greek virtues, and this powerful simile expresses the raw masculinity that Odysseus represents in the eyes of Nausicaa. Since we know that Nausicaa is looking for an appropriate suitor, this would be a very attractive quality in a mate.

Long-distance seafaring was notoriously dangerous in ancient Greece, with many ships being lost to the seas and the fickle will of the gods. To make a long voyage in a single day was virtually impossible and should signal the extreme skill and speed of Alcinous' ships and sailors.

Sinead, Owl Eyes Contributor

"yellow-haired Rhadamanthus to see Tityus the son of Gaia..."See in text(Book VII)

When Rhadamanthus died, he went to Elysium, the area of Hades closest to what we think of as paradise, and there judged sinners and placed them in their proper place in Hades. Having raped Leto, Tityus, the son of Gaia, the earth mother, was punished in Hades by having vultures constantly tearing out his liver.

These high was walls, topped by palisades, are defensive structures, and may be a sign that the Phaeaicians fear something from outside the city walls. We'll come to understand the root and significance of this soon.

In Phaeacia, the concept of xenia, or hospitality, doesn't seem to apply, at least not among the general populace. In Greek and other Mediterranean cultures at this time, xenia is a common thread that binds these cultures together.

In ancient Greece, physical deformities and birth defects were thought to be a result of the sins and character flaws of a child's parents. For Hephaestus to be thus deformed would mean that his parents had committed some terrible acts that blemished him forever.

Philoctetes, the son of King Poeas of Meliboea, and a great archer in his own right. According to legend, he was stranded on the island of Lemnos by the Greeks after a wound on his foot began to fester and smell. The Greeks later came back in search of his weapons, which had once belonged to Hercules, and rescued Philoctetes.

In ancient Greece, a man's masculinity was measured by his feats of strength and courage either in battle or during a pentathlon such as this. Odysseus, a man primarily known for his cunning, happens to be a man of great strength, as well, but can't be guaranteed to win any contest like this.

There were two distinctive classes in Phaeacia: the members of the lower class, who were forced to find their own provisions, which they had to cook for themselves and eat in the yards and outer limits, and the upper class, who ate in the gazeboes or tents located in the inner court and had their meals prepared for them.

Purple was the color of royalty in ancient Greece, and only kings or members of the ruling class were allowed it. For Odysseus to have a purple mantle (or cloak) would clearly signal his status to Alcinous. This might be a mistake on Homer's part, because he has thus far tried to keep Odysseus' identity secret.

There is no record in either the Iliad or elsewhere in the Odyssey of any kind of quarrel between Odysseus and Achilles. Some scholars have argued that this reference indicates an earlier version of the Iliad in which such an episode occurs. Based on scholarship so far, this issue is not resolvable.

The deep color of the wine indicated that this is the unadulterated wine he received from Maron at Ismarus. The strong wine will help to get Polyphemus drunk more quickly than wine mixed with water, which is the norm.

This may refer to the first generation of cyclopes who were titans and thus superior to the gods. Polyphemus belongs to a second generation of cyclopes who were less powerful than the first generation, yet were still feared for their great size.

According to Greek tradition, the souls in Hades were only the “shades” of their former physical selves, as their bodies had been either buried or burned. They craved their own physical substance, so the taste of blood would be tantalizing.

The spirits of the dead in Hades are generally unhappy, not at rest, and are not particularly helpful to visitors, especially those who are still alive unless. However, they become more helpful if, as Odysseus is told to do, a visitor offers gifts to insure their cooperation. Spirits in the underworld who lead "happy" eternal lives spend their time in Elysium (or the Elysian Fields), not in the general area known as Hades.

This wine is mentioned in the Iliad when it is used as medicine, but there is no known location for Pramnos from which it presumably originates. In the Iliad, it was either mixed with an onion or given with an onion, a scary combination.

In the Bronze Age, sailors navigated mostly by land and rarely ventured out of sight of it, sailing from island to island by reference to their knowledge of the surrounding area. Although they could and did navigate by stars when they had to, such navigation was not possible much of the time because of clouds and other weather conditions.

This is the same fountain mentioned in the adventures of Jason and the Argonauts, which is located near the south coast of the Propontis. Odysseus and his ships have been blown completely down the Adriatic Sea, across the Aegean Sea, and now they are actually farther east from the point where they left Troy. In other words, they are about as far from Ithaca as they can be and still be part of the known world.

In Greek culture, the west wind is typically depicted as helpful while the east wind is usually believed to be dangerous. Since Aeolus only allowed the west wind to blow as it chose, this was considered to be a good thing for the ship.

A reference to Eurystheus, king of the Tyrins. After being driven mad by Hera, Hercules consulted the Oracle of Delphi, who advised him to serve Eurystheus for twelve years in exchange for immortality. His Twelve Labours were assigned to him in this time and included slaying the Nemean Lion, killing the Hydra, and stealing the Mares of Diomedes.

A common punishment in ancient Greece, the most common recipient of which was Prometheus, a Titan, said to have created mankind. Prometheus stole fire from Mount Olympus to give to the humans, which resulted in this punishment. Remember that Prometheus is an immortal and thus regenerates his liver every time it's eaten, thus prolonging his punishment for all eternity.

Thetis, wife of Peleus and mother to Achilles. Thetis was a Nereid, or daughter of the ancient sea god Nereus, and according to some scholars was one of the first deities worshipped in ancient Greece. As mother, she would've retained rights over all of Achilles' possessions after he was killed.

In The Iliad, there were two characters with the name Eurypylus: one who fought with the Achaeans on the side of the Greeks and one who fought with the Trojans for King Priam. It's unclear whether the two ever met in battle.

Memnon, an Ethiopian king, son of Tithonus, who was cursed to live forever and continue to age. Memnon came to the aid of the Trojans during the war and led his men in battle until he was killed by Achilles, who was avenging the death of his great friend, Patroclus.

Antilochus, the son of Nestor, and another friend of Achilles to be cut down during the Trojan War. Antilochus was one of the many suitors of Helen before she married Menelaus, necessitating that he fight in the Trojan war, where he sacrificed himself to save his father.

Patroclus, son of Menoetius, and best friend to Achilles. In The Iliad, he convinced Achilles to let him lead the Myrmidons in battle, driving the Trojans away from the Greek ships and killing the Trojan warrior Sarpedon before being killed by Hector, a Trojan prince.

In ancient Greece, it was tradition to close the lips and eyes of the dead and to place a coin over them to pay Charon, the ferryman on the River Styx, who conveyed them from the land of the living to the land of the dead. Without this payment, Charon might be less inclined to perform this service, and the spirits of the dead would remain waiting forever.

In order to fund his return journey home, Agamemnon would've necessarily had to steal some cattle and sheep in order to feed his men. He would've sometimes justified this by sacking the cities from which he stole, thus making the cattle the spoils of war instead of the product of thievery, which was not well looked upon in Greek society.

Alcinous here refers to Odysseus' facility with speech, for which he was well-renowned in both The Iliad and The Odyssey. In ancient Greece, the ability to speak with such style was considered a quality of the upper class, and thus Alcinous is also making a comment about Odysseus' social status.

Dionysus, the god of wine, madness, fertility, and ecstasy. His lavish and extravagant parties gave rise to the term Dionysian, a concept of irrationality and chaos that stands in contrast to the Apollonian, a philosophical concept derived from Apollo, the god of rationality and reason. Thus it's possible that what Dionysus said about Procris wasn't true, because he may just have been trying to create chaos.

Procris, the daughter of Erechtheus, the king of Athens. Procris suspects that her husband Cephalus has been having an affair, and when a servant tells her that Cephalus has called on Nephele (a cloud nymph), Procris follows them into a thicket, where Cephalus kills her with an arrow, thinking that she's a wild animal.

Sons of Iphimedia, wife of Aloeus, from whom they draw their name, the Aloadae. In one story, they managed to trap Ares in a bronze jar for thirteen months (a lunar year). Had their stepmother not told Hermes of this the god of war might never have been freed.

Orion, a giant hunter immortalized in the constellation Orion. In some stories, Orion threatened to kill all the beasts of the earth while on a hunting trip with Artemis, the goddess of the hunt, but Gaia objected and sent a scorpion to kill him. Zeus then honored Orion by placing him in the stars.

Leda, queen of Sparta, mother of both Helen of Troy and Clytemnestra. According to legend, Zeus fell into Leda's arms in the guise of a swan to escape the talons of an eagle, and Zeus later forced himself on her, resulting in either the births of Castor, Pollux, Helen, or Clytemnestra (textual accounts differ).

Homer never directly names this seer, but he's commonly believed to be Melampous, a famed soothsayer and healer from Pylos who was held captive for a year in the house of Phylakos. When his prison collapsed, he was asked to cure Phylakos' wife Iphiklos of infertility, upon which he was given the cattle he tried to steal and allowed to take Pero to wed his brother.

Castor and Pollux, son of Leda, queen of Sparta, who was raped by Zeus after he took the form of a swan. In many pieces of literature, they're known as the Dioskuri, and are often listed as brothers of both Helen, wife of Menelaus, and Clytemnestra, wife of Agamemnon.

Epicaste, unbeknownst to her, married her son Oedipus and made him king of Thebes. Oedipus had been abandoned after birth and wasn't raised by Epicaste, who had no way of recognizing her son when he was grown. This story is recounted more fully in Sophocles' iconic play, Oedipus Rex.

Megara, wife of Heracles, mother of his sons, whom he slaughtered in a fit of madness induced by Hera. After his madness was cured, he fled to the Oracle of Delphi, leaving Megara behind as he attempted to repent for the murder of his children.

Thebes, one of the most important of the Greek city-states, was known both for its seven gates, which made the city near impenetrable, and for its propensity to cause trouble, including the war known as the Seven Against Thebes, which was immortalized in the play of the same name by Aeschylus.

Antiope, the daughter of the river god Asopus, in later sources thought to be the mother of the nocturnal king Nycteus of Thebes. In her youth she was said to be very beautiful, and Zeus, seeing this, transformed himself into a satyr (a man with horse-like features) and forced himself on Antiope.

Twins Pelias and Neleus were abandoned on a mountain by Tyro, who was upset with Poseidon for disguising himself as Enipeus. The twins were raised by a stranger but later returned to kill Tyro's stepmother. Pelias, the more power-hungry of the two, banished his brother and Tyro's other children and made himself king of Thessaly.

In the afterlife, ancient Greeks were said to walk between the realms, moving between life and death in supernatural ways that defied the laws of physics. Thus Elpenor was able to make a long journey in a matter of hours or days.

Erebus, a region of the underworld, the first stop for the dead before they move on to Hades. The word "erebus" literally means darkness, and the place Erebus has been depicted as a shadowy realm, a sort of in-between place where the light of day and the darkness of death merge.

Also known as the world-ocean, Oceanus was a giant river said to encircle the entire world. This river was personified by a deity of the same name, Oceanus, often depicted as a man with a great beard and the lower body of a serpent.

Nowhere else in Homeric literature is a soul in Hades described as being split between a "phantom" (presumably, a spirit) and a living being. Hercules, because he was a demigod (son of Zeus) and lived a brave life, was rewarded after death by eternal life with the gods on Olympus. The Greeks' conception of death doesn't generally allow for this, but appears to have made an exception for Hercules.

Sisyphus, king of Corinth, led a life of greed and cruelty. In one story, Hades was sent to chain Sisyphus up, but was himself chained by the king, making it impossible for anyone to die while Hades was thus restrained. As a punishment for his many sins, Sisyphus was doomed to forever push a rock up a hill and let it roll back down again.

Tantalus, a son of Zeus, divulged the secrets Zeus disclosed to him to mankind, thus resulting in the punishment of unquenchable thirst and constant torment. Our modern word tantalize, which means to tempt someone with an unobtainable goal, derives from the Tantalus myth.

A reference to Ajax the Telemonian (or, the Greater), second only to Achilles as a Greek warrior. There are two Ajaxes in The Iliad: Ajax the Greater, mentioned here, and Ajax the Lesser, also known as the Locrian Ajax. The two were not related.

King Priam of Troy's daughter, captured by Agamemnon during the fall of Troy. Cassandra was supposed to be very beautiful and was pursued by the god Apollo, who, after she rejected his advances, punished her by giving her the gift of prophecy but condemning her to never be believed.

Aegisthus and Clytemnestra commit several cardinal Greek sins in this episode: they kill their lawful king, they destroy a marriage, and they kill a guest while they are hosting the victims, thereby violating the principles of xenia (hospitality). It would be difficult to violate so many strong beliefs in one episode.

This refers to the Greek's belief that the dead in Hades are drawn to the blood of the living, their only connection with their former lives. Once they drink the blood, they're restored in some part to their former selves, with the ability to access their memories of and speak with the living.

Artemis killed Maera, one of here servants, for her lack of chastity. Clymene is Iphiclus' mother and queen of Phylace. Eriphyle, wife of Amphiarus, was bribed by Polyneices, son of Oedipus, to convince Amphiarus to join the Seven Against Thebes. Amphiarus died trying to escape after the battle.

Ariadne helped Theseus escape from the Labyrinth, thereby betraying her father, King Minos of Crete. Theseus then abandoned her on the island of Dia as punishment. It is unclear, however, what Dionysus might have said against her in this passage.

Phaedra, the wife of Theseus, commits suicide from shame because she loves her stepson, Hippolytus (or, more likely, to revenge herself on him for rejecting her advances by falsely charging that Hippolytus raped her). Theseus then prays to Poseidon for vengeance against his son, and Poseidon sends a sea monster who scares the horses pulling Hippolytus' chariot, throwing him out and killing him.

In ancient Greece, maids or young women who had been jilted by their lovers often escaped this disgrace by committing suicide. Since this was considered an unnatural act, their spirits were uneasy in the afterlife and were sent to Erebus rather than the Elysian fields.

As we see throughout the Iliad and Odyssey, an oath, once given, cannot be violated--in a culture in which reputation is everything, one's word is one's bond. The Fates and the gods invariably punish oath-breakers.

Stephen Holliday

"while they screamed and stretched out their hands to me..."See in text(Book XII)

It is unclear, except as a result of astonishment and fear, why Odysseus did not take Circe's advice at this point and call out to Crataiis, Scylla's mother, for help. In both the Iliad and Odyssey, there are many instances in which Odysseus' bravery and quick-thinking save him and others. As he does in other parts of both poems, Homer may have used this episode to show that Odysseus has mortal failings.

"goddess dispersed the mist and the land appeared..."See in text(Book XIII)

The mist symbolizes the difficulties the gods give Odysseus during his voyage home. By dispersing the mist and showing Odysseus that he is in his home country, Athena shows readers how the gods help mortals. This dichotomy is a recurring theme in the story that can be read as a cultural reflection of the time The Odyssey was written: Although people believed the gods oftentimes helped people, they also believed gods caused them great harm.

Evan, Owl Eyes Staff

"Thus did the chiefs and rulers of the Phaeacians pray to king Poseidon..."See in text(Book XIII)

Homer never discloses the fate of the Phaeacians' city. We can presume, however, that because Homer does not describe its destruction, Poseidon decides to spare the city.

Stephen Holliday

"I sent him that he might be well spoken of for having gone..."See in text(Book XIII)

Athena reiterates the reason for sending Telemachus on his own voyage. In a culture in which one's reputation is everything, it is important for Telemachus to earn his own kind of fame other than just being the son of Odysseus.

Stephen Holliday

"We will recoup ourselves by the levy of a general rate..."See in text(Book XIII)

Alcinous tells his subjects that their gifts of a tripod and cauldron will be "tax deductible" because the gift is on behalf of the people. This represents the importance of gift giving in Greek culture.

In ancient times, seafaring was particularly risky because boats were not able to withstand foul weather and were often the method of transport for many airborne and infectious disease, including especially those transmitted by water and mosquitoes. Any journey by sea would've lost some men and ships to sickness regardless of the skill of the crew.

Travelers in ancient Greece were known to take advantage of the tradition of xenia to secure lodgings and meals while on the road. It would've been very easy for men who'd heard of Odysseus' absence to make up stories about him in exchange for dinner. Some appear to have claimed he was alive, while others told Penelope he was dead.

The ancient Greeks believed that ethics were genetically transmitted and that people would inherit the traits of their ancestors. Thus, the "race" of Helen would be one of unfaithful women, characterized, as Helen is, by their weakness and their immorality.

Xenia was not only heeded by the nobility but by all social classes in ancient Greece. Eumaeus, though a swineherd, would be obliged to share his meager possessions with Odysseus, even if this was a burden on him. Luckily, Eumaeus doesn't seem to have many visitors, so this doesn't become a problem.

In ancient Greece, the gods were always given the first portion of a meal. This both showed respect for the gods, as providers of good fortune, and demonstrated a person's goodness and piety. Note that the suitors don't often make this sacrifice when they eat, which negatively impacts their fate later in the poem.

What follows is a long digression and lie about the beggar that has been criticized by many scholars as basically wasted space. Although it is an inventive story, it does very little to further the narrative and disrupts the narrative momentum that's been building in the last few books of the poem.

Eumaeus, by giving up something precious for Odysseus to use, follows the requirement of xenia, even though what he has to offer isn't of particular value to anyone but him. Thus we see that the principles of xenia don't require one to give wealth, but to provide thoughtfully for one's guests.

Sidon, an ancient city in Phoenicia, now a major city in modern-day Lebanon. Homer was known to praise the skill of the Sidonian craftsmen, including especially their glass, purple dyes, and women's embroidery. Sidon was frequently the victim of conquering warlords and saw many different rulers in its time.

In ancient Greece, the most honorable way to die was in battle, while the worst way was often to grow old and miserable and die of some terrible disease. For these people to be spared old age by Apollo and Artemis would mean a great deal to them and should indicate that they're of a particularly well-respected class.

This story will seem familiar to readers: it's been mentioned before by Odysseus in the story he told Alcinous and his men. Here, we see a somewhat more elaborated version, which may suggest that the exact details of the story were so well-known in Greece that Homer needn't relate the whole thing to his audience.

Xenia has two sides: it demands that hosts lavish their guests with food and wine, according to their means, and offer them gifts and assistance where appropriate; but it also demands that hosts follow the same rules and show their hosts the same deference shown to them.

There's no island named Syra, but there is a Syros, which is west of Delos, an island that also went by the name Ortygia. Keep in mind as you read that Homer wasn't a geographer and that there are many places in ancient Greece that have no real location but were invented for the purpose of a story.

Megapenthes, Menelaus' son by a slave woman. Though his role in The Odyssey is small, some post-Homeric traditions see Megapanthes expel Helen from Mycenae after Menelaus' death, thus forcing her to flee to the island of Rhodes, where it's said she was killed by the queen's handmaidens while she was bathing.

For the Bronze Age Greeks, killing a noble is not just murder, but it is also a crime against the gods because, presumably, the gods have placed the noble in his position. In addition, such a murder throws the natural order off balance and invites retribution from relatives or followers.

Although this is technically correct, Odysseus has a younger sister, Ctimene. However, Telemachus's statements reflects a cultural standpoint at the time that counted sons as heirs and not daughters. Instead, daughters were often married to other households to establish alliances between families.

Stephen Holliday

"and men dragging the women servants about the house in an unseemly way..."See in text(Book XVI)

As many commentators have noted, this is not something mentioned anywhere, and it may be an instance of Homer including a detail that seems possible, given the behavior of the suitors, but is not consistent with facts Odysseus could know. As a piece of oral literature (originally), the Odyssey is subject to many such inconsistencies, similar to those in the Iliad.

Typically, a woman whose husband was absent wouldn't receive guests after sundown for fear of an assault or a perception of impropriety. Odysseus here assumes a privilege that beggars weren't allowed, but which Eumaeus grants him because he's been injured and earned the respect of the house.

There are no other accounts of these characters in Greek literature, suggesting that Homer made them up entirely, as Odysseus has, or that they were of such insignificance that they were not documented in their time.

Sneezing while someone else is talking was a well-known Greek omen. It's possible that Telemachus's sneeze is a warning to his father to get out of the house before he's sought out by Eumaeus for this visit to Penelope. It's also possible that he's doing just as Penelope says: confirming that the suitors will indeed meet their fate at the hands of Odysseus.

In ancient Greek culture, bards (poets) and minstrels were thought to be inspired by the Graces and the Muses and were honored for their talents. Comparing Odysseus to a bard elevates him to this status and gives backhanded praise to Homer for being able to write a story about people who tell such good stories.

Antinous is the son of Eupeithes. Before Odysseus left for the Trojan War, Eupeithes, one of Ithaca's leading citizens, attacked a ship belonging to allies of Ithaca, the Thesprotians, and incurred the anger of the Ithacan people. Odysseus protected Eupeithes, thus making Antinous' behavior toward the family of his father's protector especially dishonorable.

Though slavery was the cultural norm in ancient Greece and not often criticized as a practice, it nevertheless cause some emotional and psychological problems for slaves, who lose half of their goodness (or sense of self-worth) and become less disciplined when their masters are gone.

Homer may not be keeping track of dog years here. For Odysseus to have bred Argos as a pup, he would have to be at least twenty years old, which is a remarkable feat for any breed of dog. By using the name Argos, Homer may be attempting to link Odysseus loosely with Jason and the Argonauts.

Ithacus appears to have been the founding father of Ithaca, the oldest of the three brothers mentioned here. Neritus, a brother of Ithacus, gave his name to Mount Neriton, the tallest mountain on Ithaca. Polyctor, the third brother, was said to have created the Polyctorium on Ithaca.

We can infer from this description that weapons were normally kept outside of the home. With that in mind, the fact that the suitors carry their weapons in the courtyard of Odysseus' home becomes yet another example of their bad behavior.

Notice how Athena performed similar enhancements on Odysseus’s body. This reflects what types of bodies Homer considers heroic. Odysseus is visually a classical hero, and Penelope’s unwavering devotion to her husband is now reflected in her looks. Homer links one’s strength of character with their outward appearance.

It may be that Odysseus learned his craftiness and cunning from his maternal grandfather, Autolycus. Autolycus was a well-known thief in Greek mythology and even received the favor of Hermes, known for his patronage of thieves.

Wesley, Owl Eyes Editor

"but he that is righteous and deals righteously..."See in text(Book XIX)

Penelope's speech indicates that despite being self-absorbed in grief, she is not only able to understand the beggar's sorrows, but she is also able to reach out to him in kindness. Fair dealing with others is another virtue that was prized in Greek society.

Wesley, Owl Eyes Editor

"As the dun nightingale, daughter of Pandareus, sings in the early spring..."See in text(Book XIX)

Penelope uses a simile to compare her sadness to that of Aedon, daughter of Pandareus and mother of one child, Itylus. Aedon envied her sister-in-law Niobe who had many children. Aedon tried to kill Niobe's eldest son but instead accidentally killed her own son, Itylus. She was inconsolable afterward, and Zeus relieved her grief by changing her into a nightingale, whose sad calls Homer characterizes as Aedon's weeping for her dead child.

Stephen Holliday

"Dodona that he might learn Zeus' mind from the high oak tree..."See in text(Book XIX)

An oracle of Zeus was at Dodona. The origin of Dodona is questionable because the oracle may have gotten its name from a son of Zeus and Europa or the name may have derived from a nymph named Dodona.

Stephen Holliday

"detested city whose very name I cannot bring myself even to mention..."See in text(Book XIX)

Penelope echoes a common hatred of Troy. Many Greeks who participated in the Trojan War did not do so out of conviction that it was a good war but merely out of duty. Fighting for so long in order to return a woman to her rightful husband did not appeal to many.

Odysseus' story here is slightly humorous. Odysseus and Idomeneus, a warrior-king from Crete, fought together throughout the Trojan War. Odysseus would have known Idomeneus like a brother, so it is natural for him to use Idomeneus as his "brother" in this tale.

Stephen Holliday

"you cannot be the son of an oak or of a rock..."See in text(Book XIX)

Penelope means that the stranger must have had human parents. Since some myths in Greek culture involve humans coming from rocks or trees, she might be making this comment to try and lighten the conversation.

A reference to the island of Sardinia, near to Italy, located in the Mediterranean Sea. Sardinia was originally settled by the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians prior to the sixth century B.C. The Romans conquered the island in 238 B.C. This reference to Sardinia is one of the factors that dates the Odyssey later than 1200 B.C.

Pandareus, a resident of Miletus and son of a nymph, was urged by his friend Tantalus to steal a bronze dog from the temple of Zeus on Crete. As punishment, Zeus either turned Pandareus and his wife to stone or killed them, leaving their daughters orphans.

In ancient Greece, an act of revenge such as Odysseus plans often sparked an endless cycle of revenge, spurred on by the vengeful Furies. Odysseus fears that when he kills the sons of all the noblemen in Ithaca, he will himself become a target, regardless of the justness of his actions.

That is, the Sicilians, the implication being that the Sicilians are slave traders and that Telemachus might be able to make some money off of his guests (though, according to the suitors, he wouldn't be able to fetch a high price for either Odysseus or Theoclymenus).

Saluting with one's right hand, especially in a warrior culture, is a sign of friendship: one's right hand would normally be used to carry a weapon, but if one instead uses it to shake, then they can't inflict any damage or mean any harm. That's why we traditionally shake hands with our right hand.

"but we are afraid lest some of the baser sort..."See in text(Book XXI)

Note that even in this non-warrior group, they are worried about their reputations. In this warrior culture, where warriors earn their reputation on the battlefield, those who don't fight must gain and maintain their reputations however they can. The stringing of the bow has become a test of their manhood and of their position in this society, and they cannot afford to lose their reputations by being bested by someone who is from a lower class.

As many commentators have noted, Homer's inclusion of Heracles (Hercules) in this episode, essentially as a contemporary of Odysseus, is odd. Heracles is usually considered to pre-date the Trojan War by many years, so he would not be alive at the same time as Odysseus.

In the outer court, the floor wouldn't necessarily have been stone or marble, and large portions of Odysseus' outer court was simply made of packed earth, which explains the ever-present "dust" on the floor, which the suitors "bit" when they fell face-first into it as they died.

Sulphur, in the form of brimstone, is used to symbolically cleanse any place that has been the scene of bloodshed. The ritual of cleansing also carries over to individuals: there are many scenes in The Iliad in which warriors who've just come from battle cleanse themselves before they enter a sacred space or make any offerings to the gods.

To our modern sensibilities, this cold-blooded killing seems barbaric and perhaps even unworthy of a man like Odysseus, but we need to remember that, in warrior societies, loyalty was valued highly, and disloyalty was most often a death sentence. Odysseus must restore his household by setting an example, and, unfortunately, these women have provided it.

In The Iliad, it was common for a warrior to taunt another warrior in a battle or even after a killing. Taunting, which is essentially bragging, is an important part of Bronze Age warfare and reveals much about the characters involved in this fight, who draw their strength from their association with Odysseus.

Greeks at this time used two types of shield: a full-body shield, which may be the one Odysseus has just hung around his shoulders, and a smaller round shield, which could be maneuvered easily during close combat. These shields would've been made out of either metal or wood and wouldn't have protected against multiple attackers at once.

Horse-hair plumes were a prominent feature on Greek helmets, but weren't merely decorative embellishments. They were designed to ward off blows to the head and protect the wearer's skill. Traditionally, the plumes went from front to back, but some went from side to side.

From a cultural standpoint, Odysseus's cleansing of the home must be complete before he can hand the house back to Penelope. The house is now as it was when Odysseus left—free of infestation and his and Penelope's home.

Recall that Agamemnon's brother, Menelaus, asked almost the same question of Telemachus when they spoke in an earlier book. This repetition emphasizes their familial bond and further suggests that this kind of death (occurring during the process of stealing) was in fact very common in ancient Greece.

The right hand or right-hand side is always considered a sign of good fortune; the left, always dangerous (the Latin for left is sinister, which, in English, means full of evil intent). This is why when we see a bird omen, the bird is always flying on the right hand side for Telemachus and Odysseus and on the left for the suitors.

In Greek, apheidas signifies generosity, the hallmark of xenia. By saying that he's the son of Apheidas, Odysseus may be cleverly complimenting Laertes, who was once king himself. He may also be giving Laertes clues to his identity and testing whether or not Laertes can decipher them.

To put this in perspective, in today's dollars, a single talent of gold is worth approximately $1.25 million. Seven talents, therefore, would be $8.75 million, and would easily make Odysseus the richest man on Ithaca. This number is meant to impress Laertes and give him hope that his son is still alive.

This is the traditional dress of an agricultural worker in Greece, who couldn't maintain fine clothes in the field. Aside from giving us a clear picture of everyday life on a farm, it also evokes sympathy for Laertes, who's been described throughout The Odyssey as being old and feeble.

It's important for Achilles to know that his fame, that all-important attribute of a Bronze Age warrior, is at the forefront of the minds of the living. In this warrior culture, fame is everything, and Achilles was one of the most famed men of the Trojan War, with skills that went near unmatched on the battlefield.