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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 8PrefaceThis is the eleventh in the series of Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines (LMPG) sponsoredby the National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry (NACB). The field of point of care testing(POCT), diagnostic testing conducted close to the site of patient care, was divided into diseaseand test specific focus areas. Groups of expert physicians, laboratorians and diagnosticmanufacturers in each focus area were assembled to conduct systematic reviews of the scientificliterature and prepare guidelines based on the strength of scientific evidence linking the use ofpoint of care testing to patient outcome. To our knowledge, this is the most comprehensivereview of the point of care literature to date.It is hoped that these guidelines will be useful for those implementing new testing as well asthose reviewing the basis of current practice. These guidelines should help sort fact fromconjecture when applying testing to different patient populations and establish provenapplications from off-label and alternative uses of point of care testing. These guidelines willalso be useful in defining mechanisms for optimizing patient outcome and identify areas lackingin the current literature that are needed for future research.The guidelines were presented in open forum at the AACC Annual Meeting (Los Angeles, CA,U.S.A.) in July 2004. Portions of these guidelines were also presented at several meetingsbetween 2003 - 2005: CLMA Breakout Session (Salt Lake City, UT, U.S.A.) in June 2003, 37thBrazilian Congress of Pathology and Clinical Laboratory Medicine (Rio de Janiero, Brazil) inSeptember 2003, Maine Society for Clinical Laboratory Science Northeast Regional Joint FallConference (Portland, ME, U.S.A.) in October 2003, Association of Clinical Biochemists

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 9(Dublin Ireland) in November 2003, LabMed2003 Alliance of Northeast AACC Local Sections(Providence, RI, U.S.A.) in November 2003, CLMA Breakout Session and ASCP simulcastaudioconference (Atlanta, GA, U.S.A.) in March 2004, the Northern California AmericanAssociation for Clinical Chemistry (AACC) local section (San Jose, CA, U.S.A.) in April 2004,Teleconference Network of Texas (San Antonio, TX, U.S.A.) in May 2004, the BeckmanConference (Boston, MA, U.S.A.) in May 2004, the AACC Critical and Point of Care TestingDivision/IFCC meeting (Wurzburg, Germany) in June 2004, AACC Workshop (Los AngelesCA, U.S.A.) in July 2004, 23rd Annual Southwest Association of Clinical Microbiologists (SanAntonio, TX) in September 2004, Mid-Atlantic Point of Care Coordinators Fall Symposium(Baltimore, MD, U.S.A.) in October 2004, East Coast Central Florida POCT Conference (CocoaBeach, FL, U.S.A.) in October 2004, Northwest Medical Laboratory Symposium (Portland, OR,U.S.A.) in October 2004, Quality 2005 (Antwerp, Belgium) in March 2005, EuroMedLab(Glasgow, Scotland) in May 2005, AACC Upstate New York Local Section Spring Meeting(Rochester, NY, U.S.A.) in May 2005, American Society for Microbiology symposium (Atlanta,GA, U.S.A.) in June 2005, AACC workshop (Orlando, FL, U.S.A.) in July 2005, College ofAmerican Pathologists workshop (Chicago, IL U.S.A.), Dade Microbiology Symposia(Harrisburg, PA) in September 2005, 8th Annual Fall Clinical Pathology Symposium (Louisville,KY, U.S.A.) in November 2005. Participants at each meeting had the ability to discuss the meritsof the guidelines and submit comments to the NACB website for formal response by the NACBduring the open comment period from January 2004 through October 2005. A summary of thesecomments and revisions are presented at the end of each section of the guidelines whenapplicable.

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 13 IntroductionEllis Jacobs, Ph.D, FACB, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, U.S.A.Barbara Goldsmith, Ph.D, FACB, St. Elizabeth’s Medical Center, Boston, MA, U.S.A.Lasse Larrson, M.D., Ph.D., University of Linkoping, Linkoping, Sweden, U.S.A.Harold Richardson, M.D., FCCM, FRCPC, Ontario Medical Association, Ontario, CanadaPatrick St. Louis, Ph.D., Sainte-Justine Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, CanadaIn this Laboratory Practice Medicine Guideline (LMPG), the National Academy of ClinicalBiochemistry (NACB) is examining the application of evidence-based medicine to the form ofdiagnostic testing known as Point of Care Testing (POCT.) For the purpose of this documentPOCT is defined as “clinical laboratory testing conducted close to the site of patient care,typically by clinical personnel whose primary training is not in the clinical laboratory sciences orby patients (self-testing). POCT refers to any testing performed outside of the traditional, core orcentral laboratory." Based on this definition there are many synonyms for this form of testing - • Point of care testing • Ancillary testing • Satellite testing • Bedside testing • Near patient testing • Home testing • Self-management • Patient self-management

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 14 • Remote testing • Physicians Office LaboratoriesEvidence based medicine (EBM) is the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current bestevidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients (1). (Table 1) It is theintegration of best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient values. Best researchevidence is comprised of both clinically relevant research as well as basic science. Additionallyit is patient centered research that evaluates the accuracy and precision of diagnostic tests, thepower of prognostic markers and the efficacy/safety of therapeutic, rehabilitative and preventiveregimens. Clinical expertise encompasses the ability to use clinical skills and past experience toidentify a patient’s unique health state, to make diagnosis, and to evaluate the risks and benefitsof interventions, taking into account the patient’s personal values and expectations. Thepatient’s unique preferences, concerns and expectations need to be integrated into the clinicaldecision process.There is a need for establishing an evidence-based practice for POCT. POCT is an increasinglypopular means of delivering laboratory testing. When used appropriately, POCT can improvepatient outcome by providing a faster result and a shorter timeframe to therapeutic intervention.However, when over-utilized or incorrectly performed, POCT presents a patient risk. POCTmay seem deceptively simple, but the test is not freely interchangeable with traditional core labinstrumentation in all patient care situations. POCT may seem inexpensive, but over-utilizationand inappropriate test utilization leads to significant increases in cost of care. The value ofPOCT really needs to be demonstrated through well-designed randomized control trials.

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 15This LMPG will systematically review the existing scientific evidence relating POCT to patientoutcome, grade the literature, and draft guidelines regarding the optimal utilization of POCTdevices in patient care. The objective of this EBM of the practice of POCT is to systematicallyreview and synthesize the available evidence on the effectiveness of POCT with specific focuson outcomes in the areas of: 1) Patient/Health 2) Operational/ Management 3) Economic benefitIn the planning for this Laboratory Medicine Practice Guideline (LMPG), the practice of POCTwas organized according to disease groups with an introductory section for quality assuranceconcepts that cross all disciplines. Focus groups were formed with clinician, laboratorian andindustry representation. For a specific clinical use, pertinent clinical questions were formulatedand a systematic review of the clinical literature was conducted, in order to develop practiceguidelines. In this document the evidence for the application of POCT in following clinical areaswill be examined: • Bilirubin • Cardiac Markers • Coagulation • Critical Care • Diabetes • Drug Testing • Infectious Disease

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 16 • Occult Blood • Parathyroid Testing • pH • Renal • ReproductionWhen one examines the scientific literature for evidence for the efficacy of POCT it is quicklyascertained that there are few randomized case-controlled studies. The majority of publicationsdescribed method comparisons. POCT is compared to a core laboratory method and it isassumed that the similar results generate similar clinical outcomes. However this is notnecessarily true for all patients and devices. When generalizing the scientific literature variouscharacteristics have to be examined. Does the study population compare to the real world? Isthere a recruitment and randomization bias associated with the sampling methodology? Willthere be compliance issues with the personnel performing POCT, will staff perform POCTcorrectly and with the same emphasis as in the study? What is the true benefit of theconvenience of POCT – is there any harm with delay due to laboratory confirmation? Clinicaland analytical specificity and sensitivity are other factors that need to be evaluated.An evidence-based review of POCT must include an 1) assessment of patient outcome associatedwith obtaining a “quality” test result, 2) an understanding of how the testing system is integratedinto the overall healthcare management, and 3) an understanding of the process or processes thatlead to the desired outcome. The laboratory is quantitative and quality focused and thereforeuniquely positioned to consult on critical pathways of care.S

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 17The basic procedures used by the various workgroups for the systematic review of the POCTliterature are outlined in the following tables. The strength/level of evidence was based on effecton the outcome surrogate and the type of trial/study. Determination of thecohesiveness/consistency of the various studies, i.e., does the body of evidence make sense andthe study conclusions lead to the same result, was one of the factors for the final guidelines givenfor or against POCT in a particular environment. To achieve these objectives, focus groupsdeveloped pertinent clinical questions for how the test was being utilized in various clinicalsettings. It was understood that some settings might raise different questions for the same testwhen compared to other settings, e.g., In-patient vs. emergency room vs. coronary care, etc.Thus, the same POCT may be employed differently in clinical decision-making and patientmanagement in different settings. The format for the questions was: • What is the effect on Outcome when comparing POCT to Core Lab Testing (Identify comparison) for screening patient for Disease X (cite clinical application) in the Emergency Room (list patient population)? • Does POCT for Disease X (clinical application/assay/disease) improve Outcome (list outcome of interest) in Patients (describe population or setting) compared to core lab testing (identify comparison being measured)?The key components of the question are: How - Clinical application (screening, diagnosis, management) What - Comparison being measured (core vs POCT) Where - Patient population or clinical setting (ED, home, clinic) Why - Outcome (clinical, operational, economical)

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 18Once the questions were developed key search terms were ascertained for the literature search.Searches were conducted on Medline or PubMed and were supplemented with the use of theNational Guideline Clearinghouse, the Cochrane Group or EBM reviews. Additionally, authors’personal manuscript collections were utilized. Acceptable citations were limited to peer-reviewed articles with abstracts, those published in English and those involving human subjects.Abstracts identified by the literature searches were reviewed by two individuals to determineinitial eligibility or ineligibility for full text review, utilizing Form 1 (Appendix A) If there wasnot consensus, then a third individual reviewed the abstract(s). In order to be included in the fullsystematic review of the clinical question, manuscripts selected for full text review wereexamined for at least one relevant outcomes measurement. The systematic review consisted ofcreating evidence tables Form 2 (Appendix A) that incorporated the following characteristics: • Study design – Prospective or retrospective, randomized, and controlled, patient inclusion/exclusion criteria, blinding, number of subjects, etc. • Appropriateness of controls • Potential for bias (consecutive or nonconsecutive enrollment) • Depth of method description- full length report or technical brief • Clinical application- screening, diagnosis, management • Specific key outcomes and how they were measured • Conclusions are logically supportedFor the assessment of study quality, the general approach to grading evidence developed by theUS Preventive Services Task Force (2) was applied. (Table 2) Once that was done then an

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 19assessment of study quality was performed looking at the individual and aggregate data at threedifferent levels (Forms 3 & 4); (Appendix A). At the first level the individual study design wasevaluated, as well as internal and external validity. Internal validity is the degree to which thestudy provides valid evidence for the populations and setting in which it was conducted.External validity is the extent to which the evidence is relevant and can be generalized topopulations and conditions of other patient populations and POCT settings.The synthesis of the volume of literature constitutes the second level, Form 5 (Appendix A).Aggregate internal and external validity was evaluated as well as looking at thecoherence/consistency of the body of data. How well does the evidence fit together in anunderstandable model of how POCT leads to improved clinical outcome. Ultimately, the weightof the evidence regarding the linkage of POCT to outcomes is determined by assessing thedegree to which the various bodies of evidence (linkages) “fit” together. To what degree is thetesting in the same population and condition in the various linkages? Is the evidence thatconnects POCT to outcome direct or indirect? Evidence is direct when a single linkage exists,but is indirect when multiple linkages are required to reach the same conclusion.Final guidelines were made based on AHRQ classification (Table 3) (3). The guidelines areevidence based and require scientific evidence that the recipients of POCT experience betterhealth outcomes than those who did not and that the benefits are large enough to outweigh therisks. Consensus documents are not research evidence and represent guidelines for clinicalpractice and inclusion of consensus documents was based on the linkages to outcomes, thereputation of the peer organization, and the consensus process utilized to develop the document.

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 20Health outcomes, e.g., benefit/harm, are the most significant outcomes in weighing the evidenceand drafting guidelines.POCT is an expanding delivery option due to increased pressure for faster results. However,POCT should not be utilized as a core lab replacement in all patient populations withoutconsideration of the test limitations and evaluation of the effect of a faster result on patient care.There is a need for quality POCT outcomes studies to be conducted. Laboratories should requireevidence of outcomes for new tests and question clinical utility of ongoing tests.

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 23 Table 2 Levels of Evidence I Evidence includes consistent results from well-designed, well- conducted studies in representative populations II Evidence is sufficient to determine effects, but the strength of the evidence is limited by the number, quality, or consistency of the individual studies; generalizability to routine practice; or indirect nature of the evidence. III Evidence is insufficient to assess the effects on health outcomes because of limited number or power of studies, important flaws in their design or conduct, gaps in the chain of evidence, or lack of information.

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 24 Table 3 Strength of Recommendations A– The NACB strongly recommend adoption; there is good evidence that it improves important health outcomes and concludes that benefits substantially outweigh harms B– The NACB recommends adoption; there is at least fair evidence that it improves important health outcomes and concludes that benefits outweigh harms. C– The NACB recommends against adoption; there is evidence that it is ineffective or that harms outweigh benefits. I– The NACB concludes that the evidence is insufficient to make recommendations; evidence that it is effective is lacking, of poor quality, or conflicting and the balance of benefits and harms cannot be determined.

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 25 Chapter 1: ManagementEllis Jacobs, Ph.D, FACB, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, U.S.A.Barbara Goldsmith, Ph.D, FACB, St. Elizabeth’s Medical Center, Boston, MA, U.S.A.Lasse Larrson, M.D., Ph.D., University of Linkoping, Linkoping, Sweden, U.S.A.Harold Richardson, M.D., FCCM, FRCPC, Ontario Medical Association, Ontario, CanadaPatrick St. Louis, Ph.D., Sainte-Justine Hospital, Montreal, Quebec, CanadaQuality Assurance and Medical ErrorThis chapter is an evidence-based review and assessment of quality assurance practicesassociated with Point of Care testing. The literature regarding quality assurance (QA) andquality management (QM) of POCT is by and large not evidence based (1–6). This is due, inlarge part, to the difficulty of assessing the causal impact of POCT on medical errors. Even inthe traditional clinical laboratory setting, the scientific basis of QA and QM is the last area tohave the concepts of evidence based medicine (EBM) applied. Does the application of Quality Assurance to Point of Care Testing reduce medical errors? (Literature Search 1) Guideline 1. We recommend that a formal process of quality assurance of POCT be developed in support of risk management and a reduction in medical errors. Strength/consensus of recommendation: B Level of evidence: III (Expert opinion)

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 26Quality control (QC) and quality assurance are integral components forming the basis of thequality management hierarchy of the clinical laboratory (7). Since the performance goals ofPOCT are no different to those of the traditional clinical laboratory namely to: • provide accurate and timely analyses • provide reports that are useful to the clinician managing the patient • make epidemiological information available to public health authorities • make the best possible use of people, equipment and reagents in the interests of efficiency • manage utilisationThe justification and benefits of QA when applied to POCT would seem to be self-evident.QA goes beyond QC and focuses on the impact of laboratory testing on patient care. A QAprogram for laboratory services should establish: • performance expectations that cover pre-analytical, analytical and post-analytical components of the service; • performance expectations following consultation with user-physicians and other health care workers; • periodic audit to determine that the service is meeting its established performance expectations; • a program of performance comparisons to that of the central or core laboratory; • periodic review of the service patterns of practice against established, validated, external benchmarks; • review of the QA program findings by a management team.

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 27Although much has been written in recent years regarding the use of POCT, including the healthcost benefits, there remains a paucity of evidence on which to base conclusions or makerecommendations. Existing documents (1-7) appear to be consensus statements by expert groupsbased on collective insight and experience but with no clear indication of the underlyingevidence although likely that it falls mainly into category III (as defined in the introduction).The recent evolution of POCT has focused on small user-friendly devices with limited but robustanalytical capabilities. Users tend to identify with a particular device for a particular purposeand, thus, see that device in isolation. In reality, each device is serving a function thattraditionally belonged in the central or core laboratory with its established quality managementprocesses and procedures supported by technical and professional expertise. Frequently personswho lack the training and insight in laboratory-based testing carry out POCT in a clinical setting.Since POCT results are treated comparable to testing main laboratory for patient care, it followsthat the quality requirements are the same regardless of the testing site, process, or procedure. Atthe same time the unique characteristics (location, operators, distribution, etc.) add specialrequirements to QA/QM. As most instruments themselves are robust in their analyticalperformance the QA program should specifically address pre- and post-analytical concerns.Requirements for QA, internal QC and external quality assessment (EQA) of POCT have beenstated in many publications (3 – 7). The recommendations are consensus-based and include: • Quality assurance is an essential component of POCT and includes all the measures taken to ensure that investigations are reliable:

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 28 o Correct identification of the patient o Appropriate test selection o Obtaining a satisfactory specimen o Analysing it and recording the results promptly and correctly o Interpreting the result accurately o Taking appropriate action o Documenting all procedures for reference • IQC requirements: o Procedure established for IQC at appropriate frequency o QC material procurement o Correction of non-conformities • Users of POCT have a duty to participate in an EQA scheme and perform adequately as part of clinical governance. Questions to consider are: o what is the role of the central laboratory in providing or recommending EQA schemes for POCT o who is responsible for co-ordination of EQA within POCT; are necessary procedures in place o who will review performance o is support available for inadequate performance o can the central laboratory assist by providing parallel testing.The draft international standard, ISO/DIS 22870 Point-of-Care (POCT) — Requirements forquality and competence (8), has been distributed for review and comment. This document was

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 29prepared by Working Group #1 of ISO Technical Committee TC212. The Introduction states riskto the patient and to the facility can be managed by a well-designed, fully implemented, qualitymanagement system that provides for: • Evaluation of new or alternative POCT instruments and systems • Evaluation and approval of end-user proposals and protocols • Purchase and installation of equipment • Maintenance of consumable supplies and reagents • Training, certification and re-certification of POCT system operators, and • Quality control and quality assuranceThe technical requirements part of the draft international standard details those relating topersonnel, accommodation and environmental conditions, equipment, pre-examinationprocedures, examination procedures, assuring the quality of the examination procedures, post-examination procedures, and the reporting of results.Does Management Improve the Quality of POCT?The term management as used here identifies two major parts. The first encompasses personnelresponsible for oversight of the institutional POCT program. Personnel can variously be anindividual (director, co-ordinator) or a team (interdisciplinary committee, managementcommittee). The second deals with the activities related to the regulation of all the processesneeded to generate reliable POC test results. Processes should be defined to cover all aspects ofthe POCT project. Falling partly within this second section and partly as an independent adjunctto POCT processes, there is the field of Data Management. Here, data from the testing process,

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 30including QC and patient results, as well as related information such as error types andfrequencies and operator certification and competency, are collected and manipulated to provideinformation useful in monitoring and improving the total process. Guideline 2: We strongly recommend the use of an interdisciplinary committee to manage POCT (Literature Search 2) Strength/Consensus of recommendation: A Level of evidence: II and III (Time controlled studies, descriptive studies and expert opinion – consensus documents)In smaller sites an individual coordinator or director may be responsible for POCT but acommittee structure is preferable especially for larger sites or institutions. The managementstructure must have official standing with the explicit support of the institutional Administration.Committees should be interdisciplinary in composition since this ensures input from stakeholdersleading to a broader perspective on the POCT project and enhancing chances of success.Published studies have described improvements in many aspects of the POCT programsfollowing the implementation of a management committee (3,9,10). Generally, there was nopre-existing structure. In addition, and lending weight to our recommendations, documentspublished by various accreditation and regulatory agencies propose, with varying degrees ofinsistence, that a management (interdisciplinary) committee be operational at any site performingPOC testing (11-13). These documents take various forms including Guidelines, PositionStatements, and Consensus Statements.

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 31The interdisciplinary team structure, by providing a forum for discussion of different ideas andapproaches, permits more universally acceptable solutions to project activities. There is noconsensus as to the actual composition of the committee and indications are that this may vary ona project-by-project basis. As well, the frequency with which meetings are held should beflexible enough to minimise impact on time demands of committee members while maintainingmaximum benefit. Thus, the Committee approach should provide adequate oversight withsufficient flexibility.With respect to its mandate, the Committee is responsible for the development, implementationand monitoring of processes and related protocols that shall cover all aspects of the institutionsPOCT program. Note that this may include testing performed away from the principal site butwhich fall under the institutional jurisdiction. The UK MDA (12) states that Clinical Governanceis the responsibility of the Institution and this responsibility also devolves onto the POCTcommittee. Clinical governance is defined as a framework through which organisations areaccountable for continually improving the quality of their services and safeguarding highstandards of care by creating in environment in which excellence in clinical care will flourish.Processes should be defined to cover all aspects of the POCT project. This includesconsideration of requests for POCT (needs evaluation), evaluation and selection of a device ortest appropriate for the identified use, and all aspects of the testing process. This latter willinclude all phases of the analytical process (pre-analytical, analytical and post-analytical) as wellas quality assurance (QA) aspects of the project including ongoing quality management (QM)and quality improvement (QI) initiatives. With respect to needs evaluation, the literature

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 32suggests that while identifying a clinical need before proceeding with a POCT project isdesirable, events sometimes overtake process (14). Regardless, post-facto monitoring of cost-effectiveness is important and can redress this problem. Guideline 3: We strongly recommend training programs to improve the quality of POCT. Strength/consensus of recommendation: A Level of evidence: II (Cohort/case controlled study and time controlled study)Studies have shown directly (7,15) and indirectly (2) that training and ongoing certification ofoperators should be one of the major priorities for effective POCT. As well, organisations suchas the ISO (8) and the UK MDA (12) recognise and stress the importance of training foreffective POCT. This relates to the fact that POCT usually involves many tests and devices aswell as multiple operators, most of whom are not laboratory-trained personnel. This implies alack of understanding of the principles of laboratory assays and good laboratory practices forensuring the reliability of test results. As well there will be a lack of knowledge of the particulartest method or system.Training needs to cover all phases of the testing process including appropriate responses tounusual test results. Important pre-analytical steps include proper identification of the patientand sample acquisition while post-analytical issues include charting of results, verification ofunanticipated results and notification of responsible persons. In this context, it is interesting thatdata from studies on laboratory-related errors indicate that the majority of incidents relate to thepre-analytical phase (16,17). There is reason to believe that similar issues exist with POCT(10,18). Finally, training, including the description of analytical procedural steps as well as

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 33proper material handling, is best addressed by clearly written testing protocols that followmanufacturers instructions. Guideline 4: We recommend Data Management as a mechanism to improve the quality of POCT. Strength/consensus of recommendation: B Level of evidence: II and III (Time controlled study and expert opinion)In any enterprise, data management is fundamental to quality and performance improvement anddocumentation of quality relies on data (2). Depending on the questions asked, analysing datacan show quality trends thereby permitting decisions on actions to remedy or to improve thequality of the process (19). POCT, whether manual or instrumented, generates significantamounts of data. This includes identifiers associated with the patient testing process, results ofall quality control and patient tests, as well as other data including reagent and material handlinginformation such as lot numbers and expiry dates, unusual test results and specific responses toresults. There is, for example, a wealth of evidence, particularly Class III, showing thatevaluating POCT QC data permits responses for improvement in test quality. This may be byidentifying inappropriately performing lots of reagents, by identifying trends resulting fromimproper material storage and handling, or by identifying operators who are employing impropertesting technique. Thus overall data management can monitor compliance with the requirementsfor quality in POCT. Dyer (19), for example, showed that compliance problems with datingreagents, uncapped bottles and operational errors in POCT could be followed by nursing unit andcorrective action taken. It is clear that data management, per se, does not improve the POCT

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 34process. It is the monitoring of the data for events and trends, along with the existence andimplementation of response protocols, which ensures success (15).Manual POCT has the significant disadvantage that all information, including test results,material handling data and result reporting and comments have to be also manually entered intothe database. This is not only time consuming but also prone to errors of omission andcommission and so extra care must be taken in verifying the entry of these data. InstrumentedPOCT devices have a variable amount of data storage and transfer capability. This certainlyimproves the situation. However the lack of uniformity among these devices has led to thedescription of a Connectivity Standard for POCT devices (20). It is anticipated that this standardwill eventually be adopted across the IVD industry. Guideline 5: We strongly recommend the use of Continuous Quality Improvement with Quality Indicator. Strength/consensus of recommendation: A Level of evidence: II (Time controlled studies)The POCT Management Committee is empowered to put QA programs in place and isresponsible for monitoring and follow-up. Two traditional components of quality assurance,internal quality control and external quality assessment, monitor primarily the analytical process.However, as implied in the sections above, problems at any phase of the total process caninfluence the reliability of the test result. Thus the identification of specific, measurableindicators related to the quality of a POCT project or test permits monitoring and evaluation ofthe data. In turn this allows for the implementation of corrective measures or of measures to

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 39 Chapter 2: Transcutaneous Bilirubin TestingSteven Kazmierczak, Ph.D., FACB, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, U.S.A.Vinod Bhutani, M.D., Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, U.S.A.Glenn Gourley, M.D., Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, U.S.A.Scott Kerr, Respironics, Murrysville, PA, U.S.A.Stanley Lo, Ph.D., FACB, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, U.S.A.Alex Robertson, M.D., Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, U.S.A.Sal Sena, Ph.D., FACB, Danbury Hospital, Danbury, CT, U.S.A.The management of jaundice in neonates continues to be a challenging clinical problem. Morerecently, it has taken on increased importance due to factors such as early hospital discharge,increased prevalence of breastfeeding, and lack of adherence to prompt post-discharge follow-uptesting of newborns (1,2). Jaundice in near-term and term newborns is clinically evident in over60% of newborns during the first week after birth; it is usually benign but may lead tokernicterus if unmonitored or untreated (3). Because of the limitations on visual assessment ofjaundice, especially in infants of darker skin color, clinicians have been advised to confirmsuspected hyperbilirubinemia. Neonatal hyperbilirubinemia, defined as serum bilirubinconcentrations >221 μmol/L (>12.9 mg/dL, conversion from mg/dL x 17.1 = μmol/L), has beenestimated to occur in up to 10% of newborns (3,4,5,6). A number of proposals have been madethat would reduce the risk of kernicterus amongst these infants, including screening of newbornsby measurement of total serum bilirubin, transcutaneous bilirubin concentrations (3,7,8), end-

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 40expiratory carbon monoxide, or a combination of both (9). This guideline will focus on the use oftranscutaneous bilirubin measurements for the evaluation of hyperbilirubinemia in healthy, terminfants.The ability to measure bilirubin simply, rapidly, and accurately, and in a variety of differentsettings is important for assessing hyperbilirubinemia and evaluating the risk of kernicterus.Laboratory-based measurement of bilirubin in serum or plasma using diazo-based chemicalmethods is the technique most often used to determine the concentration of bilirubin innewborns. However, bilirubin measured with chemical-based methods is often inaccurate due tointerference from hemoglobin as a result of hemolysis. Visual inspection of the skin, sclera, andmucous membranes is a rapid and inexpensive technique for estimating bilirubin concentrations.In addition, documentation of the cephalo-caudal progression of jaundice can provide anindication of the increase in hyperbilirubinemia. Unfortunately, these methods are frequentlyinaccurate, especially when applied to newborns of mixed ethnicity or of diverse racialbackgrounds (7). Another rapid noninvasive technique to assess bilirubin concentration is bytranscutaneous spectrophotometric measurement. Transcutaneous bilirubin concentrations havebeen found to correlate extremely well with laboratory-based measurements. The purpose of thisguideline is to evaluate the available literature and identify those studies that clearly demonstratethe utility of transcutaneous point-of-care bilirubin testing when compared to traditional clinicallaboratory based measurement.Does transcutaneous bilirubin measurement improve clinical outcome, shorten length of stay, ordecrease readmission rate for newborns with hyperbilirubinemia, compared with measurement of

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 41bilirubin in serum? (Literature Search 3)Guideline 6: Assessment of hyperbilirubinemia with use of transcutaneous bilirubinmeasurements may have utility in decreasing readmission rate of newborns withhyperbilirubinemia and monitoring bilirubin concentrations in newborns. To date, only onestudy has been published that addresses this issue. Further evidence is needed to evaluatewhether transcutaneous bilirubin measurements improve clinical outcome, shorten length ofstay, or decrease the readmission rate for newborns with hyperbilirubinemia.Strength/consensus of recommendation: ILevel of evidence: III (clinical experience, descriptive studies and opinion)Literature Search 3 summarizes the results of our literature search of Medline OVID for peer-reviewed manuscripts that address the effect of transcutaneous bilirubin measurements onclinical outcome, length of stay, or readmission rates for newborns that have been previouslydischarged. The literature addressing transcutaneous bilirubin testing and these concerns islimited. The majority of studies that have been published compare transcutaneous bilirubinmeasurements with chemical measurements performed in the clinical laboratory. Generally, goodagreement has been reported between transcutaneous bilirubin measurements and measurementsperformed using blood. This finding has led many investigators to speculate that transcutaneousbilirubin measurements will influence length of stay, clinical outcome, and readmission rates(10). Unfortunately, well designed prospective studies that address these issues are lacking. Onestudy found the mean time savings associated with performing a transcutaneous bilirubinmeasurement compared with measurement of serum bilirubin in a central laboratory was two

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 42hours and twenty-two minutes (11). It is not clear whether this time savings had any impact onlength of stay or clinical outcome.A recently published study by Petersen et al. (12) compared readmission rates forhyperbilirubinemia, length of stay, days of treatment with phototherapy, and the number ofbilirubin measurements performed within the clinical laboratory prior to and following theimplementation of transcutaneous bilirubin measurements. They retrospectively studied 6603newborns for eight months prior to implementation of transcutaneous bilirubin measurementsand for eight months following transcutaneous bilirubin measurements. Implementation oftranscutaneous bilirubin measurements was not associated with any change in the mean length ofstay for normal newborns, newborns with hyperbilirubinemia requiring phototherapy prior todischarge, or the number of days of treatment with phototherapy. However, these investigatorsdid find a significant reduction in the number of hospital readmissions per 1000 newborns forclinically significant hyperbilirubinemia; from a mean (SD) of 4.5 (2.4) to 1.8 (1.7), and astatistically significant increase in the monthly incidence of phototherapy treatment prior todischarge from 5.9% (1.3) to 7.7% (1.3), following implementation of transcutaneous bilirubinmeasurements. They speculate that the convenience and rapid turnaround time of transcutaneousbilirubin testing may have encouraged more effective screening and identification of newbornswith clinically significant hyperbilirubinemia.Is there an optimum frequency, timing or site of transcutaneous bilirubin measurements thatresult in best agreement with bilirubin measurements performed using serum? (Literature Search4)

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 43Guideline 7: Transcutaneous bilirubin measurements performed on the forehead or sternum arepreferable to other sites, and provide similar correlation with bilirubin measurements performedin serum when infants have not been exposed to sunlight or phototherapy. Bilirubinconcentrations should be assessed by measurement of total bilirubin in serum and/ortranscutaneous bilirubin measurements within the first 24 hours after birth in all infants who arejaundiced. The need for and timing of repeat transcutaneous or serum bilirubin measurementsshould be assessed with the use of nomograms based upon the postnatal age and bilirubinconcentration.Strength/consensus of recommendation: BLevel of evidence: II and III (well designed correlation trials, clinical experience, andconsensus opinion)The forehead and sternum have been the sites most frequently used for transcutaneous bilirubinmeasurements, and have been shown to correlate reasonably well with bilirubin measured inserum (10,13,14,15,16). The vast majority of studies that compared sites of transcutaneousbilirubin measurements have been performed with the Air-Shields meter, with fewer reportsinvolving the BiliChek meter. Five studies with the Air-Shields meter found the sternum toprovide the best agreement with serum bilirubin (17,18,19,20,21), six studies found no differencebetween readings taken from the forehead or sternum (13,22,23,24,25,26), and two studiesreported that forehead readings became less reliable in infants greater than three days of age(27,28). The decrease in correlation between forehead readings and bilirubin measured in serumwas presumably due to exposure of the head to sunlight. Two studies performed with theBiliChek meter found the forehead to be the preferred site for transcutaneous measurements

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 44(29,30). Two studies found that transcutaneous bilirubin measurements taken at the forehead arelower in newborns who are crying, especially at higher concentrations of serum bilirubin (22,31).One study of 336 Japanese newborns, not receiving phototherapy, evaluated eight different siteswhere transcutaneous measurements were made and compared these with serum bilirubinconcentrations (13). Readings taken from the forehead, chest and sternum provided the bestagreement (r = 0.910 – 0.922) with serum bilirubin measurements. Measurements taken from theabdomen and upper and lower back showed less agreement (r = 0.89 – 0.888), and measurementstaken from the sole and heel demonstrated the poorest agreement with serum bilirubin (r = 0.763– 0.771). A more recent study by Randeberg et al. (32) found that transcutaneous readings takenfrom the forehead correlated best with bilirubin measured in serum when compared totranscutaneous measurements taken from the heel, back or thigh. Other studies have found thatthe mean of individual readings taken from the forehead, chest and sternum correlated best withserum bilirubin concentrations (24,33). Maisels et al. (34) found better correlation betweentranscutaneous measurements and serum bilirubin concentrations when transcutaneousmeasurements were performed on the sternum (r = 0.953) as compared to the forehead (r =0.914). They suggest that measurements from the sternum are less likely to be influenced by theeffects of ambient light, particularly sunlight, and may be more desirable when measurementsare taken after infants have been discharged.The suggestion that capillary blood bilirubin concentrations are less than bilirubin found inarterial blood due to penetration of light through the vascular bed of infantile skin (35) has ledsome to speculate that the agreement between transcutaneous bilirubin concentrations and serum

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 45bilirubin concentrations may be affected by the site of blood collection. Amato et al. (36)compared transcutaneous bilirubin measurements with serum bilirubin concentrations measuredin capillary blood and arterial blood. They found that the site where the blood sample wascollected did not influence the agreement between transcutaneous bilirubin values and serumbilirubin concentrations.Recommendations have been made by the American Academy of Pediatrics Clinical PracticeGuidelines for the frequency of performing serum or transcutaneous bilirubin measurements (7).These recommendations suggest that transcutaneous bilirubin and/or total serum bilirubinmeasurements be performed on every infant who is jaundiced within the first 24 hours after birth.Furthermore, the need for and timing of repeat transcutaneous or serum bilirubin measurementsis dependent upon the postnatal age and bilirubin concentration. An hour-specific nomogram hasbeen developed for determining the need for repeat measurements (3,4). However, it has beennoted that an age-specific nomogram for newborns that addresses clinical risk factors forhyperbilirubinemia still needs to be developed (7). Guidelines have also been establishedrecommending that, prior to discharge, all newborns be assessed for the risk of developing severehyperbilirubinemia. Predischarge assessment should be performed by measurement of bilirubinconcentrations using total serum bilirubin or transcutaneous bilirubin, and/or assessment ofclinical risk factors.Is the measurement of bilirubin by use of a transcutaneous method contraindicated for use innewborns that are undergoing phototherapy, premature infants, or newborns that are ill?(Literature Search 5)

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 46Guideline 8: Transcutaneous bilirubin measurements should not be performed on infantsundergoing phototherapy. We also note that light exposure of infants who are discharged mayalso adversely impact the utility of transcutaneous measurements. The effect of gestational ageon transcutaneous bilirubin measurements is less clear. Some reports suggest limiting the use oftranscutaneous bilirubin measurements to newborns less than 30, 32 or 34 weeks gestation,while others suggest no effect of gestational age. There are too few studies available that addressthe effect of underlying illness in newborns and its effect on use of transcutaneous bilirubinmeasurements.Strength/consensus of phototherapy Recommendation: CLevel of evidence: II and III (well designed clinical trials, descriptive studies, and consensusopinion)Strength/consensus of premature/gestational age recommendation: CLevel of evidence: II (well designed clinical trials, descriptive studies)Strength/consensus of underlying illness recommendation: ILiterature Search 5 summarizes the results of our literature search of Medline OVID for peer-reviewed manuscripts that address the use of transcutaneous bilirubin measurements in newbornsthat are undergoing phototherapy, premature infants, or newborns that are ill. Althoughtranscutaneous bilirubin measurements have been show to correlate well with bilirubinconcentrations measured in serum, there have been reports suggesting that transcutaneousmeasurements can be affected by a variety of factors including use of phototherapy, birth weight,gestational age, and postnatal age (17,22,27,37,38,39,40,41).

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 47Phototherapy has been reported by numerous investigators to adversely effect the correlationbetween transcutaneous bilirubin measurements and bilirubin measured in serum, and nonerecommend use of transcutaneous bilirubinometry in infants undergoing phototherapy(17,21,30,38,40,42,43,44,45). Phototherapy results in a blanching of the skin. Values obtainedwith transcutaneous bilirubin measurements have been shown to decrease rapidly following theimplementation of phototherapy. The average decrease in transcutaneous bilirubin measurementsobserved in one study of nine neonates was approximately 30% following 150 minutes ofphototherapy, with much smaller decreases of approximately 4% seen in the subsequent 150minutes (46). Another study reported a decrease in transcutaneous bilirubin measurements of25% following two hours of phototherapy, and a 50% decrease after 12 hours. The decrease intranscutaneous bilirubin measurements is much greater than that seen in serum bilirubinconcentrations (43). Exposure of infants to sunlight also has been found to adversely impact thecorrelation between transcutaneous and serum bilirubin measurements (22,27). This finding maylimit the utility of transcutaneous bilirubin measurements on infants who are discharged andexposed to sunlight.There is a lack of agreement on the effect of gestational age on the correlation betweentranscutaneous bilirubin measurements and bilirubin measured in serum. Two studies performedwith the BiliChek meter suggested that this device only be used for infants greater than 30 weeks(38) or 32 weeks (30) gestational age. However, another study which compared the BiliChekmeter versus serum bilirubin measured using HPLC found that gestational age did not affect thecorrelation between these two methods (29). One study, performed with the Air-Shields meter,

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 48found that infants less than 34 weeks gestational age had poorer agreement betweentranscutaneous bilirubin measurements and bilirubin measured in serum (47).One study used the BiliChek to evaluate the effect of newborn illness on transcutaneousmeasurements (30). These authors found that the presence of hypoxia, hypoglycemia, infection,respiratory distress syndrome, or severity of illness did not adversely impact transcutaneousbilirubin measurements. Another study, also performed using the BiliChek meter, found thatinfants with bleeding or abdominal problems had similar agreement between transcutaneousbilirubin and serum bilirubin measurements when compared with healthy newborns (38).Are transcutaneous bilirubin measurements associated with decreased blood sampling comparedto serum bilirubin measurements? Do transcutaneous bilirubin measurements decrease theincidence of complications associated with blood collection such as infection or osteomyelitis?(Literature Search 6)Guideline 9: There is insufficient evidence available to judge the impact of transcutaneousbilirubin measurements on number of blood samples collected from newborns. Whether there isany effect on complications of blood collection such as infection or osteomyelitis has not beenadequately studied.Strength/consensus of recommendation: IMeasurement of serum bilirubin concentrations is one of the most frequent causes for collectionof blood from newborn infants (48). Blood sampling involves pain for newborn infants, andinfant stress may have long-term adverse consequences (49,50). In addition, there are other

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 49potential complications associated with blood collection from neonates including the risk ofinfection and osteomyelitis (51).One aspect of transcutaneous bilirubin measurements that has been reported which shouldtheoretically help improve clinical outcomes, is the reduction in neonatal blood loss due todecreased blood sampling (10,14,23,30,52,53). These studies suggest that a 20 percent to 34percent reduction in samples collected for bilirubin analysis could be achieved followingimplementation of transcutaneous bilirubin measurements. However not all investigators reportany decrease in serum bilirubin measurements following the implementation of transcutaneousmeasurements. Bourchier et al. (18) found no difference in the number of serum bilirubinmeasurements performed following the introduction of transcutaneous bilirubin meter, and onestudy actually found an increase in the total number of bilirubin tests performed. Petersen et al.(12) found the mean number of laboratory measurements of serum bilirubin did not changefollowing the introduction of transcutaneous bilirubin testing. However, the total number ofbilirubin measurements (serum bilirubin plus transcutaneous bilirubin) increased from a mean(SD) per newborn of 0.37 (0.08) to 0.61 (0.13).The implementation of transcutaneous bilirubin measurements and its impact on lessening therisk of infection or osteomyelitis has not been addressed. However, one would not expect anydecrease in these complications if the implementation of transcutaneous bilirubin determinationsdoes not decrease the number of samples collected for biochemical analyses.How does the accuracy of transcutaneous bilirubin measurements compare with total bilirubin

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 50measured in serum? (Literature Search 7)Guideline 10: We cannot recommend use of the ColorMate III bilirubinometer due to the verylimited number of published articles describing the performance of this instrument. Evaluation ofjaundice with the Air-Shields or BiliChek seems to provide similar accuracy when comparedwith serum bilirubin measurements. The BiliChek and Air-Shield have the advantage, comparedwith the ColorMate III, of not requiring a baseline measurement. Finally, we do not recommendassessment of bilirubin with use of the Ingram icterometer because of its reliance on observervisualization of depth of yellow color of the skin.Strength/consensus of recommendation: BLevel of evidence: II (well designed correlation trials, clinical experience, descriptive studiesand opinion)Literature Search 7 summarizes the results of our literature search of Medline OVID for peer-reviewed manuscripts that address the accuracy of transcutaneous bilirubin measurements whencompared to bilirubin measured in serum. The literature addressing transcutaneous bilirubintesting and how it compares with serum bilirubin measurements is complicated by the fact thatthere are different instruments available for measuring transcutaneous bilirubin. Anotherimportant factor, often overlooked, is that the majority of studies that evaluate transcutaneousbilirubin measurements compare these measurements with bilirubin measured in serum bylaboratory instruments that utilize diazo-based chemical methods. There is a recognized need toimprove the precision and accuracy of bilirubin measurements performed in the clinicallaboratory, especially in samples collected from neonates (54,55). Collection of blood fromnewborns is often hemolyzed and in vitro hemolysis is recognized as a source of error in

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 51bilirubin measurements due to release of hemoglobin and other intracellular compounds that caninterfere with chemical-based measurement of bilirubin. In vitro hemolysis also represents themost common cause for rejection of specimens within the clinical laboratory (56,57). There areseveral studies that have evaluated the accuracy and precision of transcutaneous bilirubinmeasurements compared to bilirubin measurements performed by HPLC (3,29,58). These studiessuggest that transcutaneous bilirubin measurements may be used not only as a screening device,but also as a reliable substitute for standard serum bilirubin measurements. Evaluations of theaccuracy of transcutaneous bilirubin measurements should be conducted utilizing the mostaccurate methods available for determination of serum bilirubin.A factor needing to be considered when comparing transcutaneous bilirubin measurements andbilirubin measured in serum is that bilirubin measured by a transcutaneous method and bilirubinmeasured in serum may represent different physiological parameters. Rubatelli et al. (29)suggested that bilirubin measured in serum and transcutaneous bilirubin measurements do notmeasure the same parameter because laboratory-based methods measure bilirubin that iscirculating in the blood, while transcutaneous methods measure the amount of bilirubin that hasmoved from the serum into the tissues. Whether or not transcutaneous bilirubin methods offeradditional information not provided by serum bilirubin measurements remains to be determined(59).The ColorMate III (Chromatics Color Sciences International Inc., New York, NY)transcutaneous bilirubinometer utilizes a Xenon flash tube and light sensors to measurewavelengths from 400 to 700 nm with filters to assess the reflectance of light at specific

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 52wavelengths. One drawback to use of this device is that a baseline reading, obtained shortly afterbirth, is required for infants. One article described the use of this device on 2441 infants (10).Transcutaneous bilirubin results showed good correlation with bilirubin measured in serum (r =0.956) and accuracy was not affected by race or weight. Repeated measurements of the sameindividual over a 30 minute time interval showed a coefficient of variation of 3.1% at a bilirubinconcentration of 144 μmol/L (8.4 mg/dL).The Minolta/Air-Shields Jaundice Meter (Air-Shields, Hatboro, PA) uses two wavelengths (460nm and 550 nm) and a dual optical path system to measure bilirubin transcutaneously. Theoriginal Jaundice Meter and the JM-102 model generated readings as a unitless numerical indexthat had to be correlated to the total serum bilirubin measured in each population subset, sincerace and gestational age significantly altered the results. Several studies reported betteragreement between bilirubin measured with the Air-Shields transcutaneous bilirubin meter andserum bilirubin concentrations when baseline readings were performed (37,47,60,61). There is alack of agreement concerning the correlation between transcutaneous bilirubin measurementsand total bilirubin concentrations measured in serum. Some studies have reported that agreementbetween transcutaneous bilirubin measurements and bilirubin measured in serum are worsewhen serum bilirubin concentrations were greater than 205 μmol/L (12 mg/dL) (11,62), whileothers report poorer agreement when serum bilirubin concentrations were less than 205 μmol/L(12 mg/dL) (25). Finally, others suggest that agreement between transcutaneous and serumbilirubin are independent of bilirubin concentrations (24).

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 53A number of studies have been performed comparing transcutaneous bilirubin measurements bythe Air-Shields meter to serum bilirubin measured in the clinical laboratory. Correlationcoefficients range from r = 0.52 to 0.96, with vast majority of studies reporting correlationcoefficients between r = 0.70 and 0.80 (1,13,16,18,33,34,42,60,63,64,65,66). Differences instudy design, the particular model of Air-Shields meter that was used, study population tested,site where transcutaneous measurements were performed and method used to measure serumbilirubin concentrations probably account for the variability in the reported results. Studiesperformed with the most recent version of the Air-Shields meter, JM-103, show much bettercorrelation with serum bilirubin when compared with the earlier JM-101 and JM-102 models(34). Many studies report that the Air-Shields meter performs better in infants with lighter skincompared with darker skinned newborns (37,15,60,47,62,67), although one study reported skincolor to have no effect (23). A single study reported that the correlation between transcutaneousbilirubin measured with the Air-Shields device and serum bilirubin concentrations wereadversely affected by the presence of hemolytic disease (68).A recent transcutaneous meter that has been developed, BiliCheck (Respironics Inc.,Murrysville, PA), utilizes reflectance data obtained from multiple wavelength readings from 400nm to 760 nm. The use of multiple wavelength readings enable the instrument to correct fordifferences in skin pigmentation thereby eliminating the need for performing a baseline reading.When evaluated against measurement of serum bilirubin using HPLC as a reference method, theBiliChek device has been shown to be more accurate as compared to bilirubin measured usinglaboratory-based diazo techniques (3,29). Two studies performed a direct comparison betweenthe BiliCheck and Air-Shields meters. One study of 64 newborns found no difference in

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 54accuracy between the BiliChek and Air-Shields meters (69). The 95th percentile confidenceinterval for both meters was +/- 65 μmol/L (3.8 mg/dL) compared with bilirubin measured inserum. Another study of 101 infants found the 95th percentile confidence interval of the Air-Shields meter to be +/- 68 μmol/L (4.0 mg/dL) versus +/- 34 μmol/L (2.0 mg/dL) for theBiliChek when compared with bilirubin measured in serum (70). Two studies found that,although the BiliChek meter showed good correlation with serum bilirubin measurements, themeter underestimated serum bilirubin concentrations by approximately 34 μmol/L (2.0 mg/dL),with the effect being more prevalent at increased concentrations of bilirubin (1,71).In addition to assessment of bilirubin with use of transcutaneous meters, the Ingram Icterometer(Thomas A. Ingram and Co., Birmingham, England; distributed in the United States by CascadeHealth Care Products, Salem, OR) is also considered by some to be a type of transcutaneousbilirubin monitor. The Ingram icterometer consists of transparent Plexiglas® (AltuglasInternational, Philadelphia, PA) containing stripes of differing yellow hue. The accuracy of thissemiquantitative method depends on the ability of the user to visualize the degree of yellow colorof the skin. A limited number of published articles describe the use of the icterometer.Comparison of bilirubin estimated with the icterometer with bilirubin concentrations measured inserum show correlation coefficients ranging from r = 0.63 to greater than r = 0.90 (16,72,73,74).Is measurement of bilirubin with a transcutaneous device more cost effective when compared tobilirubin measurements performed in the clinical laboratory? (Literature Search 8)Guideline 11: There is insufficient evidence to evaluate the cost effectiveness of transcutaneousbilirubin measurements.

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 55Strength/consensus of recommendation: ILevel of Evidence: III (descriptive studies, opinion)Literature Search 8 summarizes the results of our literature search of Medline OVID for peer-reviewed manuscripts that address the cost effectiveness of transcutaneous bilirubinmeasurements. No studies have been performed to evaluate the actual costs associated withimplementation of transcutaneous bilirubin measurements. Some studies suggest that theincreased cost of transcutaneous bilirubin measurements is offset by a decrease in the need forserum bilirubin measurements (5,11,38). Petersen et al. (12) attempted to evaluate the costsassociated with transcutaneous bilirubin measurements by estimating the impact oftranscutaneous bilirubin measurements on hospital charges. They found that there weredecreased charges as a result of fewer readmissions of newborns due to hyperbilirubinemia.However, the decrease in readmissions were offset by increased charges associated withtranscutaneous bilirubin measurements, and an increased number of newborns treated withphototherapy prior to discharge following the introduction of transcutaneous measurements. Thenet result was a small but statistically insignificant increase in charges following the introductionof transcutaneous bilirubin measurements. Since these authors report charges associated withimplementation of transcutaneous bilirubin measurements, it is still not clear what theimplementation of transcutaneous measurements does to actual costs.We note that measurement of total bilirubin in serum remains the standard of care for theassessment of newborn jaundice. Replacement of serum bilirubin measurements by atranscutaneous method will require substantial investigation to understand its limitations and

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NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines: Evidence Based Practice for POCT 56benefits. Clinical Practice Guidelines recently published by the American Academy ofPediatrics recommend that transcutaneous bilirubin measurement and/or a total serum bilirubinmeasurement be performed on every infant who is jaundiced, with repeat measurementsperformed based upon the degree of the initial hyperbilirubinemia, the age of the infant, and theevolution of the hyperbilirubinemia (7).