Conservation of the Callitrichidae

W. R. Kingston
Centro Nacional de Primatas, Belém, Brazil

There is world-wide concern over the imminent threat of extermination of many
forest dwelling primates posed by the apparently unstoppable felling of
tropical rain forests. Among such primates are the Callitrichidae and
Callimiconidae families, which include the squirrel sized marmosets and
tamarins. The five genera, fifteen or so full species and forty-five
subspecies recognized by Hershkovitz (1977) in his recent monograph are
confined to South and Central America and include some of the most highly
endangered primates. Although very similar in size and form, they are
remarkable for the very wide variations in coat color and adornments, such as
ear tufts and moustaches, between obviously very closely related subspecies.
They are true simian primates but unique in that they have claws rather than
nails on the digits. They normally give birth to dizygotic twins which are
known to share placental circulation without problems of freemartinism and
frequently give birth to two such litters annually. Their normal social
organization is a monogamous pair living in family groups with young of various
ages, which are peculiar in that only the alpha female breeds although other
post-pubertal individuals are often present. It is obvious that they are of
great interest to a number of different scientific disciplines.

In addition to their general interest they have been found to be of great value
in biomedical research. Although relatively few species have

been available for this purpose, they have played a large part in the
production, of a vaccine for viral hepatitis, in the study of viral
oncogenesis, immunological diseases such as asthma, and currently, colonic
cancer. Although as yet little used, their twin births with shared placental
circulation must surely be of great interest to immunologists and students of
drug induced teratogenesis. An additional advantage is their small size with
concomitant ease of handling and housing plus the relatively small amounts of
test material required on a drug/body weight basis as compared with other
primates. The relatively short lifespan deduced from captive records and the
known relationship of life span to body size in mammals, make these true
primates appropriate for the study of age related disease in man with a
reasonable time scale such that the experimental animal will not outlive the
working life of the researcher. They will accept a wide range of foodstuffs
including many items of normal human diets, making them very suitable animals
for diet related research. With proper precautions, young can be taken from
the parents within a few hours of birth, examined, weighed and returned without
risk of subsequent rejection; in fact they can be hand reared from birth with
little difficulty. Add to this the ease with which a number of species can be
bred under controlled conditions and it can be seen that they are an extremely
valuable research animal.

It is obvious from the above that the loss of any species of the families in
question would be, from many points of view, highly undesirable over and above
the general conservation ethic. Without a doubt the most satisfactory way of
trying to prevent this is the creation of secure permanent reserves of adequate
size in the natural habitat of each species. In spite of much publicity and
dedicated effort, I am afraid that it is true that no such reserve yet exists
and, given the political and human pressures foreseeable in the countries to
which these animals are endemic, is ever really likely to exist. Failing this,
the alternative is captive breeding and the creation of self-propagating
colonies which will at least preserve the genome and, if really secure reserves
become a reality, provide stock for release in them.

Although this idea is widely accepted, albeit with reservations about the
viability of captive bred animals under natural conditions, the sheer size of
most primates makes the cost of maintaining sufficient numbers to ensure
adequate genetic diversity almost prohibitive, a position aggravated by the low
productive rate of most species. Largely as a result of biomedical research
demands, methods have been developed to breed several species of marmosets and
tamarins quite successfully at relatively low costs. Several species have been
bred to four or five generations without the need to introduce wild caught
animals. Personal experience in both Peru and Brazil has demonstrated that
these costs can be still further substantially reduced if breeding is done in
the countries of origin where building, labor, and food costs are all
considerably less than those prevailing in more highly developed countries,
where costs are still further increased by the need for artificial heating, at
least in the winters of temperate zones. The Brazilian National Primate Centre
is currently breeding Callithrix humeralifer, C. argentata, C.jacchus, C. j. penicillata and Saguinusmidas niger quite
successfully (Kingston & Muniz, 1983), with total food costs of less than
$3 U. S. per animal/month and labor costs about one-fifth of those of Europe
and the U. S. A. Second generation Callithrix humeralifer are thriving
and similar C. argentata are expected shortly.

Is there not then a case for the setting up of an internationally supported
breeding facility, located in South America, to breed all species required both
for conservation and scientific interests? The size of the colony of each
species, subject to a viable minimum, could be adjusted to the number required.
Funding is, of course, the major problem but I would suggest that capital costs
should be met by donation from all interested parties, and running costs, dare
I say it, by a charge for each animal supplied to research institutions based
on the actual costs of production assessed by independent accountants. If this
plan could be implemented, combined with an absolute ban on the export of any
wild-caught animals by international agreement, it would at least ensure that
biomedical research needs for these animals could be met with infinitely
superior control-bred stock, at the same time keeping the drain on wild
populations to an absolute minimum and maintaining a viable nucleus of even the
most highly endangered species.

There would remain the necessity of maintaining a number of separate small
colonies of each species both to ensure genetic diversity and to cover for the
risk of decimation of the principal colony by disease. This would, of course,
represent additional costs. I have always felt that insufficient attention has
been paid to the public exhibition value of these animals as a source of funds
for their maintenance. The potential of this is perhaps greater in the more
developed countries of Europe, the U. S. A., Japan, and South Africa than in
the countries of origin but even there, if the exhibit is situated close to
large centers of population the potential still exists. What I have in mind is
something on the lines of the following:

There should be an exhibit of reasonably tame specimens of each species housed
in visually attractive cages permitting a clear opportunity for viewing and
photography by the public. Full descriptive labelling and perhaps literature
couched in non-technical language should be provided, in which full use is made
of the publicity value of extreme rarity, the maternal and paternal care of the
offspring which is a feature of these animals, and the sentimental appeal of
the minute "babies". Besides the general exhibit, there would be either a
functional breeding unit or, if conditions permit (suitable climate and
terrain), a free-ranging reserve, provisioned if necessary. With proper
planning, viewing of these could be permitted, with guides for which an extra
charge could be made. Properly situated and designed, I would be surprised if
this did not generate an income sufficient for the maintenance of the whole
colony. With cooperation between these units each could display a wide range
of species to interest the public but be responsible for the larger scale
production of a limited number, care being taken that each unit had at least
one easy species (e.g., one of the Callithrix) and one of the more
difficult Saguinus species. Equally, care should be taken that the more
spectacular species, such as Leontopithecus, Saguinus imperator, S. bicolor,
S. oedipus should be evenly distributed, but in return each unit should
house a less "showy" species such as S. midas niger, S. fuscicollis
fuscicollis or S. bicor martinisi. I fully appreciate the magnitude
of the organization of all this, but given the will I think it is possible.
The excellent work of Dr. Devra Kleiman et al. with Leontopithecus
rosalia has demonstrated very well what can be done in this way. I
certainly feel that the public would respond more generously to appeals for
conservation funds if they were given the opportunity to see what they were
being asked to support, and, if a little restrained advertising was allowed,
sponsorship by industry would probably be forthcoming.

With regard to the obviously more desirable creation of permanent reserves in
the country of origin, it has always seemed to me that there is a lack of
realism about these very worthy plans. At the Front Royal meeting in 1975 on
the conservation of the Callitrichidae, there were long discussions about the
size of the reserves required to maintain a viable population of several
species. In all seriousness, areas were marked on maps of remote areas of
Amazonian jungle in the localities in which these species are found. In hard
practical terms surely these are nothing more than wishful thinking. While
they remain remote no doubt the species is safe, but it only needs a road to be
driven through the area or gold or oil suspected and such plans become
worthless. Even for the decreed reserves, the funds are totally inadequate for
effective policing or demarcation on the ground. No doubt, given the will,
increased funds could be found but politicians, however dictatorial, ultimately
depend on public support and, given the fmancial position of most developing
countries, the survival of some obscure monkey of interest mainly to foreigners
is likely to be considered of very low priority. Even the international
prestige gained by loudly acclaimed protection of native fauna has a very low
appeal to the general public understandably clamoring for an improvement in
their own lot.

No, in my opinion the only way that secure reserves can be established is for
them to offer a demonstrable material advantage to the people of the country in
which they are created. The only practical way for this to occur is for them
to produce an income either by being a tourist attraction and/or by producing
something which can be profitably sold, preferably for badly needed foreign
currency. Reserves should be situated near enough to large centers of
population, even if this means translocating some species, to make them
accessible to both national and foreign visitors who should be permitted to
visit at least parts of the reserves. They should be large enough to permit
the much publicized controlled harvesting of species which have some value
beyond the conservation ethics be it biomedical research or frankly commercial.
Then there is some hope that the funds generated by both entrance fees and the
sale of the controlled harvests will both fund proper maintenance of the
reserves and justify them to the general public of the country concerned.

I am fully aware that these suggestions will arouse considerable hostility from
the conservation lobbies both international and national, particularly in
countries which have passed completely inflexible export bans. I can fully
appreciate their concern that the "pure" conservation ideals should be tainted
with any suggestion of commercialism. However, I would ask them to be
realistic. It must be obvious that, while specific appeals may well produce
substantial donations for the initial costs of reserves and conservation
oriented breeding facilities, these, if they are to be of lasting value,
require continuously increasing funds for their maintenance. If breeding is
successful, stocks increase and need more housing, food, and people to look
after them. Reserves, whether purchased outright, leased, or decreed, require
continuous management as well as effective policing, Vehicles and other
required equipment need maintenance and replacement when worn out. Where is
this money to come from? The continuous creation of new reserves is a very
satisfying achievement, but unless these can be successfully maintained the
value of them is relatively transitory and the money would be better spent in
making the existing ones more effective and permanent. The fauna of a country
is a natural resource which with proper management is renewable indefinitely.
If a legitimate demand exists for an element of it and this can be supplied
without endangering the survival of the species concerned, the only objection
that I can see is that it may involve the death of the aniinal concerned.
Whether this situation is any worse than the almost universally accepted
production and slaughter of equally sentient animals for human consumption is a
matter of opinion.

Repetitious Melody

Jo FritzPrimate Foundation of Arizona

A chapter of a monkey owner's organization used to send us approximately
$250.00 each year. I say "used to" because in their last newsletter the
Foundation's name was not included in their list of donor recipients. I know
why, but the reasoning behind it is extremely contradictory. They do not
approve of us sending youngsters to New York for 9 to 12 months of hepatitis
vaccine testing, because we desperately need the funding assistance it brings,
therefore... they will not give us any monetary assistance. Years ago,
it was exactly that same sort of reasoning which forced us to search for more
stable means of support.

Fifteen years ago, we approached the large, well-known humane organizations and
told them what we wanted to do and that while we could initially support it
ourselves, if we were successful, we would eventually need monetary assistance.
Without exception, they told us what marvelous people we were and how the
project was desperately needed. Five years later, we had exhausted our savings
and saleable possessions. The number of chimpanzees in the colony meant
full-time care was mandatory--we had to quit our income producing jobs. We
went back to the same organizations. Again--without exception-they said,
"Maybe we can give you a small one-time donation, but that's it. We see no
future for you to become a self-supporting organization and we cannot be
obligated for continual support." Yet--that was exactly what was
needed--life-time support for an animal that lives 50 years! We took their
one-time donation. It bought time while we frantically searched for other
means of financial assistance.

We were told to stop breeding--separate the males and females. We couldn't do
that! Most of our animals didn't know they were chimpanzees when they arrived.
Some didn't know how to climb and were terrified of other chimpanzees. We
devoted all of our knowledge and time to reeducating them to the life that had
been lost when they were brought into captivity. Surely, our own joy was a
small thing compared to what the chimpanzee felt as she cradles her own
baby--most particularly when we remembered what she had been and what had
happened to her before coming here.

Curiously, the same people that told us to stop breeding, continued to refer
calls to us and begged us to take "just one more--she (or he) will have to be
killed if you don't." Or, "The animal has had a terrible life. It deserves to
be with ita own kind and to f'inish out its life as normally as possible." A
"normal" life for a chimpanzee means living in a group of both males and
females and breeding or not as the mood strikes. Well--we took the "one more,"
we taught it to be a chimpanzee, and we begged for support. It wasn't (and
still isn't) there.

Oh, yes, people sent $2.00 and $3.00 and we gratefully accepted it (and still
do)--but not enough people. Most facilities f'igure the minimum cost of
maintaining a chimp at $10.00 per DAY. We have approximately 50 chimpanzees in
the colony--thus our costs should be $500.00 per day, or $182,500.00
per year. However, our total cost (including administration) is
less than one-half of this or approximately $85,000.00 per year. Medical
personnel donate their skills. 75% of our food is donated, and Paul and I work
15 to 16 hours a day. However, we must purchase medication, laboratory tests,
25% of the food, gas, electricity, straw bedding, etc., etc., etc. Forget the
thought of improving anything, it's all we can do to just keep ourselves baling
wired together Only 3,200 members at $25.00 per year would keep us at our
present level of support, but we can't find them in a country of millions. It
would make a lot more sense if instead of condemning and subtracting even more
money, assistance were increased by helping us to solicit new members and more
funding.

Eventually, I will put all of this to music, so I can dance to it while I'm
saying it over and over and over again. Meanwhile, I am going to continue to
praise the members who do understand, who do continue to help support the
animals and who do send us membership renewals. I will also praise and
support, New York University, LEMSIP, because they understand our concerns for
our animals and the whole captive chimpanzee population. They do everything
possible to meet our demands for our animals and from them we receive much of
our needed support. Because of them and a few very faithful members we are
still here.

Because we are still here, we were able to assist Marine World/Africa U. S. A.
in handrearing techniques for two babies and were able to convince them to
leave another infant with its mother rather than hand-raising it. At least
that infant has a running chance at a normal life. We were able to advise
Primarily Primates in Texas on the handling and needs of a young chimpanzee
that had been reared by humans and then all of a sudden caged next to adults.
We were able to convince them that it still needed the security of humans as it
made its transition and that most of all it desperately needed a young
chimpanzee companion. We have presented papers on improved captive management
at scientific conferences and we have referred pet owners and trainers to
veterinarians with expertise in chimpanzee medical care. We have provided
learning experiences for students, and we have worked hard in helping to
develop a National Chimpanzee Plan. Because we are still here our Fellowship
program is still viable. That means there will be more educators and
behaviorists trained in better understanding and improved management of the
captive chimpanzee. We have worked with them all--for the chimpanzee.

I could list many more achievements, including the assistance to human-health
related research, but the point is that we are still here, we are not going to
"fold our tent and quietly slip away" just because a few find fault. We are
available day and night and the telephone rings 24 hours a day to prove it!
More importantly, our chimpanzees are alive, healthy, and happy! Our commitment
to them and every other chimpanzee, both captive and wild, has never and will
never change! Thankfully, most of our donors and supporters exhibit
intelligence and good sense along with their kindness and concern. To each of
them--we express our deepest gratitude and heartfelt thanks.

Epilogue

I want to acknowledge that I do most wholeheartedly agree that everyone has a
right to their own opinion and certainly the right to choose that which is
deserving of their support. I do not expect everyone to agree with me or to
lend me support in everything I do. I do expect a dedication from myself that
is only allowed to temporarily wobble when knees are weak with fatigue and I
have the right to expect an equal amount of dedication from those who would
take issue. My dedication also includes both the right and the obligation to
defend my point of view, but it does not include the right to attack those
whose dedication is in a different direction or whose viewpoint differs from
mine. (Mud-slinging belongs in the mud wrestling pit where muscles and illegal
holds are used instead of brains and good sense!)

One man said it just for me, with all of the right words:

"If I tried to read, much less answer, all the criticisms made of me and all of
the attacks leveled against me, this office would have to be closed for all
other business. I do the best I know how, the very best I can. I mean to keep
on doing this, down to the very end. If the end brings me out all wrong, then
ten angels swearing I had been right would make no difference. If the end
brings me out all right, then what is said against me now will not amount to
anything." (Abraham Lincoln)

This note originally appeared in "Chimp Chatter,' (1984, 9[3-41, the newsletter
of the Foundation, a non-profit organization devoted to the preservation,
propagation, and study of the chimpanzee.

--------------------

* * *

The Longevity of a Colony of Captive Nocturnal Prosimians (Perodicticus
potto).

U. M. Cowgill, S. J. States and K. J. StatesThe Dow Chemical Company and the University of Pittsburgh

As fewer and fewer primates become available for export from their native
countries to other countries for research, and as more primates join the
endangered species list, information on longevity in captivity becomes more
important.

On December 20, 1959, three pairs of fully mature Perodicticus potto
ibeanus Thomas, 1910 arrived at Yale University. In January of 1964, two
of these pairs of P. potto came to reside with one of us (Cowgill). In
May of 1981, the lone surviving male joined the States family, with whom he
remained for the rest of his life. The living conditions and food supply have
been described elsewhere (Cowgill, 1964, 1969, 1974; Martin, Rivers, &
Cowgill, 1976), and it is important to note that both the living conditions and
food supply have been essentially the same smce 1964.

The purpose of this paper is to record the length of life span exhibited by
four P. potto and to examine their longevity compared to other
terrestrial mammals.

Observations

The average life span of P. potto under natural conditions is unknown.
There is even scant information on their longevity in captivity. Jones (1962)
noted the life span of two animals, P. potto potto, 6 years and 4 months
and P. potto ibeanus, 8 years and 1 1 months. Napier & Napier
(1967) record the latter as the longevity record in captivity. Crandall (1964)
kept a pair of P. potto alive at the New York Zoological Park for over
eight years, while Jarvis & Morris (1960) note the survival of one captive
P. potto for nine years. Charles-Dominique (1977) reports a female
P. potto edwardsi who, at the time of this writing, was at least nine
years old. Cowgill & Zeman (1980) reported two animals that had survived
captivity for 11 years, 4 months and 19 years, 0.7 months, respectively. The
latter was a female, who on arrival in 1959 was at least primiparous.
According to Charles-Dominique (1977), sexual maturity is attained in P.
potto at 18 months. This would suggest that this female was at least 20
years, 6.7 months at her death. Urs Rahm, Director of the Basel Natural History
Museum, had one female P. potto collected from the Ivory Coast who lived
22 years (Personal Communication, Marvin Jones). Table 1 shows the life span
of four P. potto that arrived as fully mature individuals in the United
States in late December, 1959. It is believed that the last male, who probably
was 26 years, 0.9 months at his death, survived captivity longer than any other
known member of his species. He died sometime in the early morning before 7:00
a.m., apparently of cardiac arrest. His appetite had been good up to the time
of his death and he showed no sign of illness.

Table 2 shows the weights and lengths of the four P. potto on their
arrival in the United States and again at their respective deaths. The
differences between the two sets of measurements probably reflect human error,
since they were carried out by two different groups of people, rather than
reflecting any real growth in the animals.

It is of interest to compare Iongevity in relation to size to discover how
P. potto fits in with other terrestrial mammals. There is a general
trend of increasing longevity with increasing size among the terrestrial
mammals. Hutchinson (1978) has compared data of longevity with length for the
Chiroptera (bats), Carnivora, Rodentia and Insectivora. When such groups are
compared, bats appear to have a longevity ten-fold greater than insectivores
and rodents of comparable size. This observation may possibly be explained by
the fact that many members of the order Chiroptera undergo seasonal
hibernation, and in addition, appear to be able to regulate their body
temperature through greater thermal ranges than most mammals (Lyman, 1970). A
least squares (Napierian log system) calculation was made employing the
Hutchinson (1978) data. The regression equations are given below:

(1) ÿ (years) = 0.7878 + 0.4078 x length (cms)

Chiroptera, Carnivora, Rodentia, Insectivora

r = 0.602, p < 0.001 n = 72

(2) ÿ = -0.3365 + 0.6577 x length

excluding Chiroptera

r = 0.658, p < 0.001 n = 67

Substituting the length of the four pottos at death m equation (1) provides a
mean longevity of 8.9 years with a range of 8.7 to 9.2 years. Utilizing
equation (2) in the same fashion, provides a mean longevity of 6.9 years with a
range of 6.6 to 7.2 years. The members of the order Chiroptera that were
examined here (Hutchinson, 1978) exhibited a mean longevity of 20.6 years with
a mean size of 9.5 cm. Substituting in equation (2) provides a calculated
longevity of 3.2 years.

In the case of both the potto and some bats, the equations underestimate the
observed longevity of both species. It may be suggested that the lack of
conformity between estimated longevity in relation to actual size in the case
of bats listed by Hutchinson (1978), is probably due to the fact that they
hibernate about half of their lives. Hibernation may extend the life of the
individual in the sense that this phenomenon results in the avoidance of the
hazards of living, and concurrently, preserves the integrity of the
individual's physiology. As for potto longevity, good medical care contributes
to a longer life. The oldest female and male had their lives extended by
medical intervention by roughly five years. In the case of the female, by
successful surgical removal of a tumor (Cowgill & Zeman, 1980); and in the
case of the male, the setting of a broken leg. In both of these instances, had
they occurred ferally, death would have resulted.

Longevity is not only dependent upon size, but upon temperature as well
(Hutchinson, 1978). This Perodicticus colony has been maintained at an
ambient temperature of 21.l deg. C +/- 0.5 deg. C and a relative humidity of
less than 50% (Cowgill, 1969). Charles-Dominique (1977) reports environmental
temperatures in the Ogoué-Ivindo region of West Africa (Gabon), an area
where P. potto has been, studied, to vary from a maximum of 30 deg. C
in March and April to a minimum of 22 deg. C in July. At no point in his study
was the relative humidity less than 50%. Presumably, the controlled, lower
than normal environmental temperature contributed to the longevity of three of
four P. potto discussed in this paper, since lower temperature
encourages lower metabolic rate, and thus, may be instrumental in extending
life.

Concluding Remarks

It is tempting to speculate that longevity may be increased by maintaining
animals in a lower ambient temperature than normal. In addition, a varied diet
of natural food that provides balanced nutrition is of great importance.
Adequate space and an emotionally quiet atmosphere not only improves the
quality of life, but may assist in its extension. These observations are of
special importance to Zoos that are faced with the responsibilty of protecting
endangered species.

Two Perodicticus potto herein described survived 19 years, 0.7 months
and 24 years, 6.9. months of captivity and were probably at least 20 years, 6.7
months and 26 years, 0.9 months at the time of their deaths. On the basis of
the present paper, it may be concluded that the life span of P. potto is
at least 25 years.

The authors are grateful for the assistance provided by the many veterinarians
who helped maintain the health of the Perodicticus colony and to the
many people who helped us care for the animals.

--------------------

* * *

Predoctoral Fellowship To Study Chimpanzee Behavior

The Primate Foundation of Arizona, in association with Arizona State
University, has available predoctoral fellowships for the study of chimpanzee
behavior. Two annual fellowships are offered for 12 months; award amount is
$9,000.00. Deadlines for application submittal are: September 30 for a 12 month
period beginning January 1 and April 30 for a 12 month period beginning August
1.

The Foundation's general aim with the awarding of this Fellowship is to
encourage all forms of scientific inquiry into the behavior of captive
chimpanzees (Pantroglodytes). The Fellowship is meant for the
training and support of predoctoral students working in disciplines relevant to
the aims and policies of the Foundation. The Foundation is primarily
interested in studies of the reproductive and mothering behaviors of captive
born chimpanzees and studies germane to the Foundation's long term goals of
improving the quality of life and reproductive potential for all captive
chimpanzees.

There are presently a total of 50 chimpanzees in the colony: 30 females and 20
males; ranging in ages from 1 month to 26 years. For the main part, this
number will remain stable, however some animals are temporarily cycled in and
out of the colony. Infants remain with their mothers for periods up to 18
months, then enter the nursery group. Contact: Jo Fritz, Administrative
Director, Primate Foundation of Arizona, PO Box 86, Tempe, AZ 85281.

* * *

Note on the Behavior of the "Difficult" Neo-Tropical Primate Genera in
Captivity

W. R. KingstonCentro Nacional de Primatas, Belém, Brazil

There exists in the literature of Primatology, many references to the poor
survival under captive conditions of Alouatta (howlers), Chiropotes
(bearded sakis), and Pithecia (sakis). However, recent reports of
successful maintenance and breeding of several species in a number of modern
zoological gardens and parks indicates that this problem can be overcome with
enlightened management in such institutions. The conditions under which
primates are maintained in research facilities are inevitably less
naturalistic; diets tend to be less varied and, generally speaking, there is
less scope for individual and specialized attention to the less obvious but
possibly important needs of particular species.

We have recently received a number of Alouatta and Chiropotes
rescued from the flooding for the hydroelectric project at Tucurui in the
state of Pará, Brazil and, at least to this writer, their behavior has
been surprising. Our first experience with Alouatta was the arrival of
a very young A. belzebul some four years ago. She was reared without
difficulty and has developed into one of the most lively and active monkeys I
have ever known. In the past few months, we have received some 50 A.belzebul and a small number of A. seniculus from Tucurui and the
first thing that strikes one is the extreme calmness of these animals. Within
a few days of capture, adult males weighing 7 kg housed in relatively small
all-wire cages in the quarantine room will accept food from your hand. A human
passing within a foot of their cages elicit none of the alarm which is a
distressing feature of, for example, Cebus apelia in precisely similar
situations. Some 15 young animals ranging from some very recently born orphans
to young adolescents will take a milk diet from a syringe with no difficulty
whatsoever, and their playful behavior is a joy to see. Randomly selected
breeding groups of a male and four or five females have settled into their 4 x
4 x 3 m pens in a very satisfactory manner, spend hours contentedly grooming,
and treat us to the most astonishing vocal choruses at any time of the day when
thunder or rain is imminent. The volume of noise produced by only four animals
is incredible and causes the 40 m brick- and concrete-built breeding room to
literally vibrate. A tape recording of their "song" played at minimum volume
is so loud as to be uncomfortable to listen to. On a diet of bananas, papaya,
carrots, and an ample supply of assorted tree foliage, together with boiled
whole grain rice moistened with reconstituted whole milk, they appear to be
thriving and very few animals have been lost.

We currently have 14 Chiropotes satanus spp. including two very young
individuals. The adults of both sexes, several of which females are
undoubtedly parous and the males patently sexually mature, are much lighter and
more slender than photographs and descriptions of this species which I have
seen. They are clearly brown and not blackish in color. The adults are
certainly rather nervous, but have fed without difficulty and settled down into
two breeding groups. None have been lost or presented any health problems
whatsoever to date. The two young are ridiculously tame and are waiting at the
cage door every morning to be picked up and fed from a syringe. Another
incidental observation is that although the unique and apparently threateningly
massive dentition of the genus would suggest that handling them would be a
somewhat hazardous affair, in actual fact they make little attempt to bite and
once again, as compared with Cebus apella, are easy in this respect. We
have not had Pithecia here so far, but two examples of P.
monachus, received as adolescents in the primate center in Iquitos, Peru,
certainly did not display the lethargy and lack of interest in their
surroundings attributed to this species in some of the literature. Like the
young Alouatta mentioned above, they grew into very healthy lively
animals and like her, one of their great pleasures was to sit on my head and
groom my all too sparse grey hair!

Finally, I must point out that the Alouatta and Chiropotes
mentioned above have only been in the Center a few months, having been
rescued from tree tops as the water levels rose on the closing of the Tucurui
dam in October, 1983. It remains to be seen whether they continue to thrive
under our conditions and successfully breed, which is the primary objective.
Should this be achieved, it would again demonstrate that, given the will, not
only the relatively easy Callitrichidae, Saimiri and Cebus can be
bred for research or conservation but most other species and, if done in the
countries of origin, at relatively low cost.

This conference, sponsored by the Zoological Society of San Diego and the
Morris Animal Foundation, will be held in San Diego, June 24-28, 1985. The
conference is intended to be a week-long international discourse among field,
zoo and laboratory personnel, and is designed to seek ways to conserve
vanishing primates better than m the past and to provide direction for future
management. Topic areas include: Overall situation (Primates in natural
habitats, Abundance; Management; Long-range conservation). Zoos and
governmental facilities (Breeding successes and failures; Primate traffic;
Genetic considerations for taxonomy and breeding). Strategies for endangered
species (Researchable problems; Steps for reintroduction; Monetary resources;
Whose responsibility?).

AFIP Comparative Pathology Course

The 12th annual continuing education course on "Comparative Pathology" will be
presented April 22-24, 1985 at the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology,
Washington, DC. This course is specially designed to bring attention to
disease processes in animals for which similar entities occur in man.
Differences and similarities of pathologic lesions as well as the biologic
behavior of specific entities will be compared in animals and man.

Application forms to attend the course may be obtained by contacting the
Director, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, (AFIP-EDE), Washington, DC
20306. Completed application forms should be returned by April 8, 1985.
Nonfederal civilians and foreign nationals are required to submit a $75.00 fee,
payable to the Treasurer of the United States.

Military and federal service employees in the medical, veterinary and other
medical fields are requested to consult respective agency regulations for
appropriate application procedures. Civilian physicians, veterinarians and
allied scientists are invited to apply. All applications will be considered on
a space available basis.

In September of last year, fake bombs were left near the homes of Charles
Cornelius, Director of the California Regional Primate Research Center at
Davis, and Andrew Hendrickx, the Associate Director. The two shoe-box-size
mock bombs were found outside the homes in the morning and police bomb squads
were called. Upon arrival the bomb squads found notes on the outside of the
boxes saying "This is not a bomb, but time is running out." Inside of each box
was a ticking alarm clock and a copy of Australian philosopher Peter Singer's
book, AnimalLiberation.

A spokesman for the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) said: "There never was any
intent to harm, or threaten harm, to any individuals. We believe we made that
clear when we identified the packages [left at Cornelius' and Hendrickx's
homes] as safe by [printing] disclaimers such as, "'This is not a bomb."

"There never has been, nor will there ever be, any intent or attempt by the ALF
to harm anyone. We do not, however, consider attacks on property to be
violence.

'We believe the overreaction by the research community is an example of its
paranoia. They know the great injustice they are committing inside research
laboratories to both humans and non-human animals.

"They know this research is a fraud, that it is designed not to find cures for
human ailments, but to earn a living and gain recognition for themselves. In
the process they are maiming and murdering innocent animals by the millions and
preventing legitimate research from finding any meaningful cures for
humankind.'

The spokesman also said that the ASF "doesn't have any problems with
'legitimate' research efforts," but believes that "the cures the world is
waiting for should not, and will not, come from the use of innocent animals.

"This was an innocent act by us to inform the research community. The
overreaction by the researchers was their mistake. Any danger perceived was
imagined."

The Center at Davis has been a target of animal rights groups. Last April a
33-hour march and vigil was staged at the Center. The ALF has been active in
its efforts to halt the use of laboratory animals, most recently liberating 23
laboratory rats from Sacramento State University. The ALF has invaded other
research facilities, including the University of Pennsylvania (two times),
Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, the Johns Hopkins University, Howard University,
and the US Naval Medical Center in Bethesda (two times). [Based on a note in
the NSMR Bulletin, September, 1984.]

* * *

Annual CALAS Convention Announced

The annual convention of the Canadian Association for Laboratory Animal Science
will be held in Toronto, Canada, June 24-26, 1985. For information contact:
CALAS/ACTAL Convention 1985, University of Toronto, DLAS Room 1236, Medical
Sciences Building, I Taddle Creek Rd., Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S lA8.

* * *

Fyssen Foundation 1985-1986 Fellowships and 1985 International Prize

Fellowships

The Fyssen Foundation's general aim is "to encourage all forms of scientific
enquiry into cognitive mechanisms, including thought and reasoning, underlying
animal and human behavior, into their biological and cultural bases, and into
their phylogenetic and ontogenetic development". For this purpose, the
Foundation will award a certain number of Fellowships. These fellowships are
meant for the training and support of research scientists working in
disciplines relevant to the aims of the Foundation such as ethology,
paleontology, archaeology,

anthropology, psychology, logic, and the neurosciences. The Foundation wishes
to support, more particularly, research in such fields as: Ethology and
Psychology: Nature and development of the cognitive processes in man and
animals. Neurobiology: Neurobiological bases of cognitive processes and
of their embryonic and postnatal development, as well as the elementary
mechanisms they involve. Anthropology-Ethnology: Study of
cognitive foundations: a) of the representations of the natural and cultural
development, b) of the technical systems developed in the various form of
social organization. Human Paleontology: Origin and evolution of the
human brain and human artifacts.

Fellowships will be given to French scientists wishing to work abroad and to
foreign scientists wishing to work in French laboratories. Study grants will
normally be granted for one year but may be extended up to three.

Applications should be established according to a form to be obtained from the
Foundation which will include: the curriculum vitae; the list of publications
of the applicant; the names of two senior scientists whom the applicant has
asked to send testimonials to the Secretariat of the Foundation by the date
indicated below; the letter of acceptance of the inviting laboratory.

The completed files should be sent in 15 copies to the Secretariat of the
Foundation, 195, rue de Rivoli, 75001 Paris, France. Deadline for receipt of
applications by the Foundation: April 1, 1985.

1985 International Prize

A substantial International Scientific Prize shall be given for a major
contribution to the progress of knowledge in the fields of research supported
by the Foundation such as ethology, paleontology, archaeology, anthropology,
psychology, logic, and the neurosciences. It was awarded in 1980 to Professor
Andre Leroi-Gourhan, in 1981 to Professor William H. Thorpe, in 1982 to
Professor Vernon B. Mountcastle, in 1983 to Professor Harold C. Conklin, and in
1984 to Professor Roger W. Brown. Disciplines considered for the 1985 prize:
Cognitive psychology and Epistemology. The nominations should include a
curriculum vitae of the nominee; a list of his publications; a summary (four
pages maximum) of the research work upon which the nomination is based.
Nominations for the 1985 prize of the Fyssen Foundation should be sent in 15
copies to the Secretariat of the Foundation, 195, rue de Rivoli, 75001, Paris,
France. Deadline for receipt of nominations: September 1, 1985.

* * *

News Briefs

Massa Dies

Massa, the world's oldest gorilla at 54 years of age, died December 30 at the
Philadelphia Zoo where he had lived since 1935. The cause of death was
disposed as a stroke. A postmortem examination revealed that Massa had
recently had two heart attacks. Massa had been raised by West Africans and
brought to the United States in 1930, firstas a house pet.

Health Research Act Vetoed

President Reagan late last year vetoed the Health Research Extension Act of
1984 that had been passed in the closing hours of the 98th Congress. This Act
would have extended current authorities of the National Institutes of Health
(NIH) and added several new requirements for NIH including provisions
concerning laboratory animals. New requirements for NIH concerning laboratory
animals were to be: to undertake an 18-month study on the use of animals and
alternative methods during the last five years; to design a research plan for
the development of alternative methods; to establish compulsory guidelines for
animal care; and to require all research facilities supported by NIH funds to
have institutional animal care committees. The bill included a provision to
make the Laboratory for Experimental Medicine and Surgery in Primates of New
York University one of the Regional Primate Research Centers. The reasons for
the veto had to do with various other provisions of the bill that the President
deemed would be too costly.

President Reagan stated publicly that his veto was based on his belief that the
legislation was costly and represented unwarranted government intrusion.
However, it is well-known that NIH strongly resisted many of the bill's
provisions, particularly the establishment of the two new institutes (on
arthritis and nursing), and the bill's attempt to formalize NIH's prevention
activities. It is believed that NIH opposition played a major part in the
President's decision.

* * *

Primate Pathology Workshop Announced

The 1985 Primate Pathology Workshop will be held at the Sheraton Centre,
Toronto, Ontario, Canada on Sunday, March 10, 1985, the day before the meeting
of the International Academy of Pathology, which is scheduled for March 11-15,
also at the Sheraton Centre.

Please review your files for interesting cases to be discussed with colleagues
at the workshop, and send the history and 75 microslides for each case by,
January 31 to George Migaki, DVM, Registry of Comparative Pathology, Armed
Forces Institute of Pathology, Washington, DC 20306 (202-576-2452). A set of
case histories and microslides will be sent prior to the workshop to each
registrant. The registration fee of $10.00 (check or money order payable to
UAREP) should be sent to Dr. Migaki.

* * *

American Society of Primatologists Annual Meeting Announced

The seventh meeting of the American Society of Primatologists will be held in
Niagara Falls, New York, June 1-4, 1985. The deadline for submission of
abstracts is March 1, 1985. For registration forms and other information about
the meeting write to the Chair of the Local Arrangements Committee: Dr. Chris
R. Duggleby, American Society of Primatologists, Department of Anthropology,
State University of New York at Buffalo, Baffalo, NY 14261.

The Barbary Macaque: A Case Study in Conservation. John E. Fa (Ed.).
New York: Plenum, 1984. 369 pp. [Price: $49.50] . . .
Based on papers presented at the International Conference of the Barbary
Macaque, June 16-20, 1982, in Gibraltar. The survival of the Barbary
macaque--a species that has figured largely in the history of Mediterranean
civilizations--is now in jeopardy. This volume is intended as a presentation of
all known data on the current position of the Barbary macaque in the wild and
in captive and seminatural envirorunents, written in the hope that conservation
measures will be undertaken to alleviate the precarious status of the species.
. . .
Contents: GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 1. The Barbary Macaque, by J. E. Fa. PART I;
THE BARBARY MACAQUE IN THE WILD. 2. The demise of Barbary macaque habitat--past
and present forest cover of the Maghreb, by J. V. Thirgood. 3. A brief
historical account of the recent decline in geographic distribution of the
Barbary macaque in North Africa, by D. M. Taub. 4. The distribution and current
status of the Barbary macaque in North Africa, by J. E. Fa, D. M. Taub, N.
Menard, & P. J. Stewart. 5. Demography of the Barbary macaque at Ain Kahla
in the Moroccan Moyen Atlas, by J. M. Deag. 6. The feeding ecology of the
Barbary macaque and Cedar Forest conservation in the Moroccan Moyen Atlas, by
G. R. Drucker. 7. Aspects of the ecology and conservation of the Barbary
macaque in the Fir Forest habitat of the Moroccan Rif Mountains, by P. T.
Mehhuan. . . .
PART II. THE BARBARY MACAQUE IN CAPTIVE AND SEMI-NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS. 8. The sense and direction of captive breeding programmes--The position of the Barbary
macaque, by M. F. Stevenson. 9. A comparison of proximity behavior in 2 groups
of Barbary macaques--Implications for the management of the species in
captivity, by S. G. Hornshaw. 10. Breeding Barbary macaques in outdoor open
enclosures, by G. de Turckheim & E. Merz. 11. Structure and dynamics of
the Barbary macaque population in Gibraltar, by J. E. Fa. 12. The genetic
ixnplications of effective population size for the Barbary macaque in
Gibraltar, by F. D. Burton & L. A. Sawchuk. . . .
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. 13. Conclusions and recommendations, by J. E.
Fa. Appendix I: Definition of age-sex classes for the Barbary macaque.
Appendix II: Diet of the Barbary macaque in the wild. Appendix III. Variant
spelling of place names mentioned in the test.

A Complete Guide to Monkeys, Apes and Other Primates. Michael
Kavanaugh. New York: Viking Press, 1984. 224 pp. [Price: $19.95] . . .
An illustrated guide to the living primates of the world, intended for the
general reader as well as the specialist. The guide describes the animals'
physical characteristics, ecology, and behavior, based on field and laboratory
data. There are distribution maps and color photographs illustrating every
genus.

One Medicine: A Tribute to Kurt Benirschke. Oliver A. Ryder & Mary
L. Byrd (Eds.). Berlin: Springer-Veriag, 1984. 373 pp. [Price: $36.50] . . .
A Festschrift for Kurt Benirschke with contributions from his students and
colleagues. Of the 29 articles, those that are of special interest to primate
researchers are: Primate breeding in zoos: A 10 year summary, by D. G.
Lindburg, J. M. Berkson, & L. K. Nightenhelser; The effects of prenatal
diethylstilbestrol exposure on the genital tracts of fetuses and neonates
(Cebus apella, Macaca mulatta, and Homo sapiens), by L. D.
Johnson; Yersiniosis: A review and report of an epizootic in nonhuman primates,
by H. M. McClure & F. A. King. There is also a bibliography of the
scientific papers of Dr. Benirschke.

Clinical Laboratory Animal Medicine: An Introduction. Donald D. Holmes.
Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1984. Softcover. 138 pp. [Price:
$9.95] . . .
The book is not intended to be an in depth presentation of clinical medicine of
laboratory animals for the specialist in this area, but, rather, as an
introduction for those planning to pursue further training in laboratory
medicine, as a text for veterinary medical students, and as a practical guide
to veterinarians in private practice. There is a chapter dealing with nonhuman
primates.

Catalogue of Primates in the British Museum (Natural History) and Elsewhere
in the British Isles. Part 3, Family Cercopithecidae Subfamily Colobinae.
P. H. Napier. London: British Museum (National History), 1984. Approx. 160
pp. (Price: 35 pounds sterling] . . .
This, volume deals with the leaf-eating Old World monkeys (subfamily Colobinae)
and includes a summary of their taxonomy and morphology; an account of the
origins of the Cercopithecoidea by Peter Andrews; a complete list of the BM(NH)
collections, both living and fossil, and important specimens in other museums;
a list of field measurements of adult specimens in the collections, and an
extensive bibliography of the group. Each genus has information on morphology,
range, ecology, social behavior and reproduction, and keys for the recognition
of species and subspecies, together with their principal synonyms and type
localities. Full data are given for individual specimens. This work is the
first species by species account of the Colobinae and as such it will be of
interest to zoologists, anthropologists, ecologists, primate palaeontologists,
etc.

Primate Behaviour and Social Ecology. Hilary 0. Box. New York: Methuen,
1984. 283 pp. [Hardback price: $22.95]. . . .
This textbook concentrates on aspects of behavioral diversity within and
between species of primates and how these may be related to their natural life
styles. The central theme of the book concerns behavioral responses to changes
withm social and physical environments and examples are selected from captive,
wild, experimental and naturalistic studies. Topics include those of birth,
infanticide, the formation of social units, intertroop movement, "intelligence"
and learning.

Directories and Supplements

Handbook: Animal Models of Human Disease (thirteenth fascicle). C. C.
Capen, D. B. Hackel, T. C. Jones, & G. Migaki (Board of Editors).
Washington,, DC: Registry of Comparative Pathology, Armed Forces Institute of
Pathology, 1984. . . .
Twenty new studies from The American Journal of Pathology and the
Comparitive Pathology Bulletin with a cumulative index, supplementing
the fascicles published from 1972-1983. Four of the new studies deal with
monkeys, as does 1 of the 3 supplemental updates. The 13th Fascicle can be
purchased in a 3-ring vinyl binder large enough to hold 3 Fascicles for $10 per
copy or unbound for $6. A Special Library Edition of the first7
Fascicles may be purchased in a binder for $30. Individual unbound Fascicles
1-12 are available at $5 each. All prices include postage. Orders must be
prepaid, with a check or money order made payable to UAREP and sent to Registry
of Comparative Pathology, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Washington, DC
20306.

Educational Opportunities in Comparative Pathology: United States and
Foreign Countries--1984. (1984) Washington, DC: Registry of Comparative
Pathology, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. . . .
The revised directory includes 82 programs m the United States and 18 in
foreign countries. There is no charge for the directory. Contact the Registry
of Comparative Pathology, at the address given above.

Diarrhea in nonhuman primates: A survey of primate colonies for incidence rates
and clinical opinion. Hird, D. W., Anderson, J. H., & Bielitzki, J. T.
(Dept. of Epidemiology and Preventive Med., Sch. Vet. Med., Univ. Calif.,
Davis, CA 95616) Laboratory Animal Science, 1984, 34, 465-470. . . .
Veterinary clinicians associated with 18 colonies of nonhuman primates were
surveyed for their experience with diarrhea disease in colony animals for
calendar year 1981. The 1981 diarrhea incidence rate, diarrhea-specific
mortality rate and diarrhea case fatality rate for 13,385 monkeys were 10.6%,
1.2% and 11.1%, respectively. It was not possible to incriminate age or type
of housing as risk factors for diarrhea, but some species seemed at greater
risk than others. Erythrocebus patas monkeys had relatively high
diarrhea incidence rates (18.8%) and the highest case fatality rate (48.4%) of
all species surveyed. Squirrel monkeys- (Saimirisciureus) and
baboons (Papio sp.) had low diarrhea incidence rates (2.1% and 3.2%,
respectively). This opinion survey indicated a lack of uniformity among
primate clinicians with respect to approaches to diagnosis and therapy of
monkey diarrhea. The survey also suggested that many of the agents associated
were perceived differently among primate clinicians, and that the roles of some
agents are still poorly understood.

A pathological study in cynomolgus monkeys infected with Edeson filaria
malayensis. Nonoyama, T., Sugitani, T., Orita, S., & Miyajima, H.
(Central Res. Div., Takeda Chemical Ind., Ltd. 6-10-1 Himurocho, Takatsuki,
Osaka 569, Japan) Laboratory Animal Science, 1984, 34, 604-609. . . .
The host response to natural infection with Edeson f'ilaria malayensis
in 6 female adult cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) imported from
Indonesia was examined retrospectively by histopathology and clinical
investigations. Reduced values of hemoglobin and hematocrit, an increased
number of eosinophils, an elevated level of total protein and a decrease in A/G
ratio were noted in hematological and blood chemical examinations of the
infected animals. The filarial worms inhabited subserosal connective tissues
of the abdominal and the thoracic cavities but not the lumina of the body
cavities. There was thickening of the connective tissues, hemorrhage and
adhesion of the serosa in the site occupied by the worms and the cysts.
Histopathologically, proliferation of the connective tissues and/or granulation
tissues, infiltration of eosinophils, lymphocytes and other cells associated
with inflammation and hemorrhage were observed. The worms occasionally caused
mechanical damage in nearby tissues such as the pancreas and the iliopsoas
muscle. In addition, splenic nodules were found in 5 of the 6 infected monkeys
as a secondary lesion specifically related to the infection with E.
malayensis.

Camne tooth root infection as a cause of facial abscess in the common marmoset
(Callithrix jacchus). Baskerville, M. (Chemical Defence Establishment,
Porton Down, Salisbury, Wilts, SP4 OJG, England) Laboratory Animal,
1984, 18[2], 115-118. (German summary) . . .
Facial abscesses in a colony of common marmosets were found to be caused by
abscessation of an upper canine tooth root. Trauma to the upper canine,
resulting in exposure of the pulp cavity, was thought to be the mode of
infection. Radiography was the most useful diagnostic aid in establishing the
nature and extent of the lesion. Antibiotic therapy alone was inadequate, and
provision of drainage by extracting the tooth, in conjunction with antibiotics,
proved the most effective treatment.

The influence of physical and chemical restraint on the physiology of the
chacma baboon (Papio ursinus). Goosen, D. J., Davies, J. 14., Maree,
M., & Dormehl, I. C. (Inter Laboratories (Pty) Ltd., PO Box 13873,
Sinoville 0129, South Africa) Journal of Medical Primatology, 1984,
13, 339-351. . . .
The chacma baboon is extensively used in South Africa for biomedical research.
Being a large primate, it is always necessary to apply some measure of chemical
or physical restraint. The physiological effects of placing an animal in a
restraint chair are compared with the effects of various chemical agents, such
as ketamine, halothane, and ketamine/xylazine combination over 90 min. It was
found that ketamine and thiopentone infusion were a satisfactory chemical
restraint agent that gave a stable physiological state over 90 min.

Cementum annulus counts provide a means for age determination in Macaca
mulatta (Primates. Anthropoidea). Kay, R. F., Rasmussen, D. T., & Beard
K. C. (Dept. of Anatomy, Box 3011, Duke Univ. Med. Ctr., Durham, NC 27710)
Folia Primatologica, 1984, 42, 85-95. . . .
14 teeth of 8 rhesus rnacaques of known age were analyzed. to assess the
usefulness of cementum annuli counts as a means of estimating chronological
age. Methods used were histological examination of stained thin sections by
light microscopy, and examination of polished and etched epoxy-embedded
sections by scanning electron microscopy. In 11 of 14 cases, the known
chronological ages of the individuals fell within the predicted age ranges
based on cementum annuli counts; in 2 other cases, it fell within half a year
of the ranges. Cementum annulus counts can provide valuable information about
the age of primates living in semitropical environments. This is the most
accurate method for aging skeletally adult primates that has yet been tested on
animals of known age.

Pharmacology and Anesthesia

The relief of pain in laboratory animals. Flecknell, P. A. (Div. of Comp.
Med., Clinical Res. Ctr., Watford Rd., Harrow, Middx HAl 3UJ, England)
Laboratory Animals, 1984, 18[2], 147-160. (German summary) . . .
The data concerning the types of analgesic drugs available and the experimental
evidence for their efficacy in laboratory species are reviewed. The
information is then extrapolated to the clinical situation to provide guidance
as to methods of achieving effective analgesia in experimental animals. The
most generally useful agent at present seems to be buprenorphine which can be
used to provide effective, long lasting analgesia in a wide range of species.

Limitations of the nonhuman pregnancy kit for pregnancy diagnosis in baboons.
Bambra, C. S., Eley, R. M., & Wall, H. (Institute of Primate Research,
National Museums of Kenya, PO Box 34505, Nairobi, Kenya. Journal of Medical
Primatology, 1984, 13, 219-227. . . .
The Nonhuman Primate Pregnancy Test (NHPPT) kit was evaluated for diagnosis of
pregnancy in baboons. Unreadable controls rendered 33% of all tests
inconclusive. Refrigeration and dilution did little to improve the number of
inconclusive tests. Positive- and false-negative results from readable tests
on days 20 to 27 of confirmed pregnancy were 75% and 25%, respectively. The
NHPPT did not always provide an accurate diagnosis of pregnancy and often
proved unreadable.

Effects of sibling-rearing experience on future reproductive success in 2
species of callitrichidae. Tardif, S. D., Richter, C. B., & Carson, R. L.
(Marmoset Res. Ctr., Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge, TN 37830)
American Joumal of Primatology, 1984, 6, 377-380. . . .
The survival rate for offspring of mothers who either had or did not have
previous experience rearing younger siblings was compared in 2 callitrichid
species, Callithrix jacchus and Saguinus oedipus. Offspring of
mothers with sibling-rearing experience had a higher survival percentage than
offspring of inexperienced mothers in both species. While 50-60% of offspring
of inexperienced C. jacchus mothers survived, no offspring of
inexperienced S. oedipus mothers survived. The results suggest that
sibhng-rearing experience is necessary for adequate matemal behavior in S.
oedipus, but not necessary to the development of maternal behavior in C.
jacchus. Effects of previous sibling-rearing experience of S. oedipus
fathers on offspring survival were also examined. Whether the father had
rearing experience was not related to the survival of their offspring.

Parturition in wild gorillas: Behaviour of mothers, neonates, and others.
Stewart, K. J. (Sub-Dept. of Animal Behaviour, Univ. Cambridge, High St.,
Madingley, Cambridge CB3 8AA, England) Folia Primatologica, 1984,
42, 62-69. . . .
2 gorilla births observed in the wild are described. The data presented are
similar in many respects to those from a previous gorilla birth observed m the
wild, and are related to the captive management of gorillas in zoos. Stressed
in particular is the importance of housing females and their neonates with
conspecifics.

Comments on reproductive senescence female Japanese macaques. Gouzoules, H.,
Fedigan, L., Gouzoules, S., & Fedigan, L. (Rockefeller Univ., Field Res.
Ctr., Tyrrel Rd., Millbrook, NY 12545) Journal ofMammalogy,
1984, 65,341-342. . . .
A calculation error in a previously published article by other researchers is
reported here, which suggests that, contrary to the prior conclusion, there was
no difference in reproductive rate of young female Japanese macaques (6-17
years) and old ones (18 years and older) of the Arashiyama West group during
1976-1979. A correction in statements about the size of the group is also
made.

Sexual behavior of group-housed stumptail macaques (Macaca arctoides):
Temporal, demographic and sociosexual relationships. Estep, D. Q., Bruce, K. E.
M., Johnston, M. E., & Gordon, T. P. (Dept. of Psychol., Univ. of Georgia,
Athens, GA 30602) Folia Primatologica, 1984, 42, 115-126. . . .
A detailed quantitative analysis of behavior in a social group of captive
stumptail macaques was conducted. The distribution of copulations both over
days and among animals, and the relationships between copulation and various
sociosexual patterns were investigated. Copulations occurred erratically over
days and were preferentially directed to a small minority of females. Most
patterns of sociosexual behavior were at their highest rates during actual
copulatory episodes, others occurred independently of ejaculation. It is
suggested that the relationships between variables such as social rank, age,
and parity and sociosexual patterns are qtute flexible and probably vary with
the species, testing conditions and demographic makeup of the group.

Taxonomy of squirrel monkeys genus Saimiri (Cebidae, Platyrrhini): A
preliminary report with description of a hitherto unnamed form. Hershkovitz, P.
(Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL 60605) American Journal of
Primatology, 1984, 7, 155-210. . . .
2 groups of squirrel monkeys, genus Saimiri, are distinguished by
external characters. The first, or Roman type, contains Saimiri boliviensis
of upper Amazonia south of the Rio Marañón-Amazonas, with 2
subspecies of which S. boliviensis peruviensis is described as new. The
second group, or Gothic type, contains 3 species: Samiri sciureus with 4
subspecies distributed over much of tropical South America, Saimiri ustus
of Brazil between the south bank Amazonian Rios Purús and Xingu, and
S. oerstedi isolated on a Pacific coastal area straddling Costa Rica and
Panama. The geographic range of S. sciureus overlaps parts of those of
S. ustus and S.boliviensis. Incomplete karyotypic data
indicate that the diploid number of chromosomes for the genus is 44. Geographic
variation is characterized by reduction from 7 to 6 or 5 paired acrocentric
autosomes through pericentric inversion with reciprocal increase in number of
paired submetacentric or subtelocentric autosomes. Geographic distribution,
behavior, sexual dimorphism including dichromatism, and hybridization are
discussed. Ventral guide hairs for orientation of subprecocial newborn toward
the matemal mammae are described. Distinguishing characters of species and
subspecies are provided in a key. The taxons are listed with the taxonomy of
each discussed, their geographic distribution plotted and mapped. (A
republication, occasioned by publisher's errors, of an article that originally
appeared in the American Joumalof Primatology, 1984, 6,
257-312. The designation of Saimiri boliviensis
peruviensis Hershkovitz dates from the first publication in the
American Joumal of Primatology, 1984, 6, 285. It is recommended
that all other references to this article be cited from the present
republication.)

Conservation

The Mountain Gorilla Project: Progress report no. 6. Wilson, R. (Projet
Gorilles de Montagne, BP36, Ruhengeri, Rwanda) Oryx, 1984, 18,
223-229. . . .
The Mountain Gorilla Project (MGP) has now been running in the field for over 5
years. This report covers its activities between November 1982 and February
1984. The MGP is devoted to the conservation of the mountain gorilla
Gorilla gorilla beringei in the Parc National des Volcans, Rwanda. This
park contains about half of the 250 gorillas in the Virungas, the chain of
inactive volcanoes on the Rwanda-Zaire-Uganda border that is the stronghold of
the subspecies. Another 115 are found in the Bwindi (Impenetrable) forest in
Uganda, which is now cut off from the Virunga population by a barrier of
cultivated land, and these 2 groups, totalling 360-370 animals, constitute the
world mountain gorilla population. The MGP has been instrumental in turning an
apparently hopeless situation around to one where the future of the mountain
gorilla hangs in the balance. The loss of habitat has been stopped, the
decline in the gorilla population in Rwanda has also been checked, the stage is
set for a population increase and the park is profitable. At the same time
poaching is still at an intolerable level, there are new problems created by
over-demand from tourism and the conservation education work is still in its
early stages. In the background the basic problems of over-population of
humans and a galloping growth rate remain unchanged, although their
consequences for the park are, in the writer's view, no longer inevitable. The
situation, however, is still not good, and the object of the project, to ensure
the survival of the mountain gorilla, is not yet attained. One of the most
important things is to keep the MGP in place in the field. If this is not done
it is likely that the gorillas will be lost.

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In many cases, the original source of references in this section has been the
Current Primate References prepared by The Primate Information Center, Regional
Primate Research Center SJ-50, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195.
Because of this excellent source of references, the present section is devoted
primarily to presentation of abstracts of articles of practical or of general
interest. In most cases, abstracts are those of the authors.

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