Open main menu

SearchEditWatch this pageRead in another languageMotivationPage issuesThis article is about the theoretical construct. For the bike-sharing systemmanagement company, see Motivate (company).Motivation is a theoretical construct used to explain behaviour. It gives the reasonfor people's actions, desires, and needs. Motivation can also be defined as one'sdirection to behavior, or what causes a person to want to repeat a behavior and viceversa.[1] A motive is what prompts the person to act in a certain way, or at leastdevelop an inclination for specific behavior.[2] According to Maehr and Meyer,"Motivation is a word that is part of the popular culture as few other psychologicalconcepts are."[3]

Types of theories and models Edit

Motivation theories can be classified on a number of bases:

Natural vs. Rational: based on whether the underlying theory of human cognition isbased on natural forces (drives, needs, desires) or some kind of rationality(instrumentality, meaningfulness, self-identity).Content vs. Process: based on whether the focus is on the content ("what")motivates vs process ("how") motivation takes place.Neuroscience Edit

Main article: Motivational salience

Motivation as a desire to perform an action is usually defined as having two parts,directional such as directed towards a positive stimulus or away from a negativeone, as well as the activated "seeking phase" and consummatory "liking phase".This type of motivation has neurobiological roots in the basal ganglia, andmesolimbic dopaminergic pathways. Activated "seeking" behavior, such aslocomotor activity is influenced by dopaminergic drugs, and in micro dialysis revealsdopamine release during anticipation of a reward.[4] The "wanting behavior"associated with a rewarding stimulus can be increased by microinjections ofdopamine and dopaminergic drugs in the dorsorostral nucleus accumbens andposterior ventral palladium. Opioid injections in this area produce pleasure, howeveroutside of these hedonic hotspots they create an increased desire.[5] Furthermore,depletion or inhibition of DA in neurons of the nucleus accumbens decreasesappetitive but not consummatory behavior. Dopamine is further implicated inmotivation as administration of amphetamine increased the break point in aprogressive ratio self-reinforcement schedule. That is, subjects were willing to go togreater lengths (e.g. press a level more times) to obtain a reward.[6]

Psychological theories Edit

Motivation can be conceived of as a cycle in which thoughts influence behaviors,

behaviors drive performance, performance affects thoughts, and the cycle beginsagain. Each stage of the cycle is composed of many dimensions including attitudes,beliefs, intentions, effort, and withdrawal which can all affect the motivation that anindividual experiences. Most psychological theories hold that motivation existspurely within the individual, but socio-cultural theories express motivation as anoutcome of participation in actions and activities within the cultural context of socialgroups.[7]

Rational motivations Edit

The idea that human beings are rational and human behavior is guided by reason isan old one. However, recent research (on satisficing for example) has significantlyundermined the idea of homo economicus or of perfect rationality in favour of amore bounded rationality. The field of behavioural economics is particularlyconcerned with the limits of rationality in economic agents.[8]

Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Edit

Motivation can be divided into two different theories known as intrinsic (internal orinherent) motivation and extrinsic (external) motivation.

Intrinsic motivation Edit

See also: Flow (psychology) and IkigaiIntrinsic motivation has been studied since the early 1970s. Intrinsic motivation isthe self-desire to seek out new things and new challenges, to analyze one'scapacity, to observe and to gain knowledge.[9] It is driven by an interest orenjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying onexternal pressures or a desire for consideration. The phenomenon of intrinsicmotivation was first acknowledged within experimental studies of animal behavior.In these studies, it was evident that the organisms would engage in playful andcuriosity driven behaviors in the absence of reward. Intrinsic motivation is a naturalmotivational tendency and is a critical element in cognitive, social, and physicaldevelopment.[10] Students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely toengage in the task willingly as well as work to improve their skills, which willincrease their capabilities.[11] Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated ifthey:

attribute their educational results to factors under their own control, also known asautonomy or locus of controlbelieve they have the skills to be effective agents in reaching their desired goals,also known as self-efficacy beliefsare interested in mastering a topic, not just in achieving good gradesAn example of intrinsic motivation is when an employee becomes an IT professionalbecause he or she wants to learn about how computer users interact with computernetworks. The employee has the intrinsic motivation to gain more knowledge.[12]Art for art's sake is an example of intrinsic motivation in the domain of art.

Traditionally, researchers thought of motivations to use computer systems to be

primarily driven by extrinsic purposes; however, many modern systems have theiruse driven primarily by intrinsic motivations.[13] Examples of such systems usedprimarily to fulfil users' intrinsic motivations, include on-line gaming, virtual worlds,online shopping, learning/education, online dating, digital music repositories, socialnetworking, online pornography, gamified systems, and general gamification. Eventraditional management information systems (e.g., ERP, CRM) are being 'gamified'such that both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations must increasingly be considered.

Advantages: Intrinsic motivation can be long-lasting and self-sustaining. Efforts to

build this kind of motivation are also typically efforts at promoting student learning.Such efforts often focus on the subject rather than rewards or punishments.

Disadvantages: Efforts at fostering intrinsic motivation can be slow to affect

behavior and can require special and lengthy preparation. Students are individuals,so a variety of approaches may be needed to motivate different students. It is oftenhelpful to know what interests one's students in order to connect these interestswith the subject matter. This requires getting to know one's students. Also, it helps ifthe instructor is interested in the subject.[14]

Extrinsic motivation Edit

See also: Goal orientationExtrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain adesired outcome and it is the opposite of intrinsic motivation.[9] Extrinsicmotivation comes from influences outside of the individual. In extrinsic motivation,the harder question to answer is where do people get the motivation to carry outand continue to push with persistence. Usually extrinsic motivation is used to attainoutcomes that a person wouldn't get from intrinsic motivation.[15] Commonextrinsic motivations are rewards (for example money or grades) for showing thedesired behavior, and the threat of punishment following misbehavior. Competitionis an extrinsic motivator because it encourages the performer to win and to beatothers, not simply to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A cheering crowdand the desire to win a trophy are also extrinsic incentives.[16]

Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead tooverjustification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation. In one studydemonstrating this effect, children who expected to be (and were) rewarded with aribbon and a gold star for drawing pictures spent less time playing with the drawingmaterials in subsequent observations than children who were assigned to anunexpected reward condition.[17] However, another study showed that thirdgraders who were rewarded with a book showed more reading behavior in thefuture, implying that some rewards do not undermine intrinsic motivation.[18] Whilethe provision of extrinsic rewards might reduce the desirability of an activity, theuse of extrinsic constraints, such as the threat of punishment, against performing anactivity has actually been found to increase one's intrinsic interest in that activity. Inone study, when children were given mild threats against playing with an attractivetoy, it was found that the threat actually served to increase the child's interest inthe toy, which was previously undesirable to the child in the absence of threat.[19]

Behaviorist theories Edit

While many theories on motivation have a mentalistic perspective, behavioristsfocus only on observable behavior and theories founded on experimental evidence.In the view of behaviorism, motivation is understood as a question about whatfactors cause, prevent, or withhold various behaviors, while the question of, forinstance, conscious motives would be ignored. Where others would speculate aboutsuch things as values, drives, or needs, that may not be observed directly,behaviorists are interested in the observable variables that affect the type,intensity, frequency and duration of observable behavior. Through the basicresearch of such scientists as Pavlov, Watson and Skinner, several basicmechanisms that govern behavior have been identified. The most important ofthese are classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Classical and operant conditioning Edit

Main article: Motivational salienceIn classical (or respondent) conditioning, behavior is understood as responsestriggered by certain environmental or physical stimuli. They can be unconditioned,such as in-born reflexes, or learned through the pairing of an unconditioned stimuluswith a different stimulus, which then becomes a conditioned stimulus. In relation tomotivation, classical conditioning might be seen as one explanation as to why anindividual performs certain responses and behaviors in certain situations.[20][21]For instance, a dentist might wonder why a patient does not seem motivated toshow up for an appointment, with the explanation being that the patient hasassociated the dentist (conditioned stimulus) with the pain (unconditioned stimulus)that elicits a fear response (conditioned response), leading to the patient beingreluctant to visit the dentist.

In operant conditioning, the type and frequency of behavior is determined mainly by

its consequences. If a certain behavior, in the presence of a certain stimulus, isfollowed by a desirable consequence (a reinforcer), the emitted behavior willincrease in frequency in the future, in the presence of the stimulus that precededthe behavior (or a similar one). Conversely, if the behavior is followed by somethingundesirable (a punisher), the behavior is less likely to occur in the presence of thestimulus. In a similar manner, removal of a stimulus directly following the behaviormight either increase or decrease the frequency of that behavior in the future(negative reinforcement or punishment).[20][21] For instance, a student that gainedpraise and a good grade after turning in a paper, might seem more motivated inwriting papers in the future (positive reinforcement); if the same student put in a lotof work on a task without getting any praise for it, he or she might seem lessmotivated to do school work in the future (negative punishment). If a student startsto cause trouble in class gets punished with something he or she dislikes, such asdetention (positive punishment), that behavior would decrease in the future. Thestudent might seem more motivated to behave in class, presumably in order toavoid further detention (negative reinforcement).

The strength of reinforcement or punishment is dependent on schedule and timing.

A reinforcer or punisher affects the future frequency of a behavior most strongly if itoccurs within seconds of the behavior. A behavior that is reinforced intermittently,at unpredictable intervals, will be more robust and persistent, compared to one thatis reinforced every time the behavior is performed.[20][21] For example, if themisbehaving student in the above example was punished a week after thetroublesome behavior, that might not affect future behavior.

In addition to these basic principles, antecedent factors also affect behavior.

Behavior is punished or reinforced in the context of whatever stimuli were presentjust before the behavior was performed, which means that a particular behaviormight not be affected in every context, just because it was punished or reinforced ina particular one.[20][21] A lack of praise for school-related behavior might, forinstance, not decrease sports-related behavior usually reinforced by praise.

The various mechanisms of operant conditioning may be used to understand the

motivation for various behaviors by examining what happens just after the behavior(the consequence), in what context the behavior is performed or not performed (theantecedent), and under what circumstances (motivating operators).[20][21]

Incentive motivation Edit

Main section: Motivational salience Incentive salienceIncentive theory is a specific theory of motivation, derived partly from behavioristprinciples of reinforcement, which concerns an incentive or motive to do something.The most common incentive would be a reward. Rewards can be tangible orintangible, and is presented generally after the occurrence of the action or behaviorthat one is trying to correct or cause to happen again. This is done by associatingpositive meaning to the behavior and or action. Studies show that if the personreceives the reward immediately, the effect is greater, and decreases as delaylengthens.[22] Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action tobecome a habit.[22]

"Reinforcers and reinforcement principles of behavior differ from the hypothetical

construct of reward." A reinforcer is anything that follows an action, with theintentions that the action will now occur more frequently. From this perspective, theconcept of distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic forces is irrelevant.

Incentive theory in psychology treats motivation and behavior of the individual as

they are influenced by beliefs, such as engaging in activities that are expected to beprofitable. Incentive theory is promoted by behavioral psychologists, such as B.F.Skinner. Incentive theory is especially supported by Skinner in his philosophy ofRadical behaviorism, meaning that a person's actions always have socialramifications: and if actions are positively received people are more likely to act inthis manner, or if negatively received people are less likely to act in this manner.

Incentive theory distinguishes itself from other motivation theories, such as drivetheory, in the direction of the motivation. In incentive theory, stimuli "attract" aperson towards them, and push them towards the stimulus. In terms of behaviorism,incentive theory involves positive reinforcement: the reinforcing stimulus has beenconditioned to make the person happier. As opposed to in drive theory, whichinvolves negative reinforcement: a stimulus has been associated with the removalof the punishmentthe lack of homeostasis in the body. For example, a person hascome to know that if they eat when hungry, it will eliminate that negative feeling ofhunger, or if they drink when thirsty, it will eliminate that negative feeling of thirst.[22]

Motivating operations Edit

Motivating operations, MOs, relate to the field of motivation in that they helpimprove understanding aspects of behavior that are not covered by operantconditioning. In operant conditioning, the function of the reinforcer is to influencefuture behavior. The presence of a stimulus believed to function as a reinforcer doesnot according to this terminology explain the current behavior of an organism onlyprevious instances of reinforcement of that behavior (in the same or similarsituations) do. Through the behavior-altering effect of MOs, it is possible to affectcurrent behavior of an individual, giving another piece of the puzzle of motivation.

Motivating operations are factors that affect learned behavior in a certain context.MOs have two effects: a value-altering effect, which increases or decreases theefficiency of a reinforcer, and a behavior-altering effect, which modifies learnedbehavior that has previously been punished or reinforced by a particular stimulus.[20]

When a motivating operation causes an increase in the effectiveness of a reinforcer,

or amplifies a learned behavior in some way (such as increasing frequency,intensity, duration or speed of the behavior), it functions as an establishingoperation, EO. A common example of this would be food deprivation, whichfunctions as an EO in relation to food: the food-deprived organism will performbehaviors previously related to the acquisition of food more intensely, frequently,longer, or faster in the presence of food, and those behaviors would be especiallystrongly reinforced.[20] For instance, a fast-food worker earning minimal wage,forced to work more than one job to make ends meet, would be highly motivated bya pay raise, because of the current deprivation of money (a conditioned establishingoperation). The worker would work hard to try to achieve the raise, and getting theraise would function as an especially strong reinforcer of work behavior.

Conversely, a motivating operation that causes a decrease in the effectiveness of a

reinforcer, or diminishes a learned behavior related to the reinforcer, functions as anabolishing operation, AO. Again using the example of food, satiation of food prior tothe presentation of a food stimulus would produce a decrease on food-relatedbehaviors, and diminish or completely abolish the reinforcing effect of acquiring andingesting the food.[20] Consider the board of a large investment bank, concernedwith a too small profit margin, deciding to give the CEO a new incentive package inorder to motivate him to increase firm profits. If the CEO already has a lot of money,the incentive package might not be a very good way to motivate him, because hewould be satiated on money. Getting even more money wouldn't be a strongreinforcer for profit-increasing behavior, and wouldn't elicit increased intensity,frequency or duration of profit-increasing behavior.

Motivation and psychotherapy Edit

See also: Motivational interviewingMotivation lies at the core of many behaviorist approaches to psychologicaltreatment. A person with autism-spectrum disorder is seen as lacking motivation toperform socially relevant behaviors social stimuli are not as reinforcing for peoplewith autism compared to other people. Depression is understood as a lack ofreinforcement (especially positive reinforcement) leading to extinction of behaviorin the depressed individual. A patient with specific phobia is not motivated to seekout the phobic stimulus because it acts as a punisher, and is over-motivated toavoid it (negative reinforcement). In accordance, therapies have been designed toaddress these problems, such as EIBI and CBT for major depression and specificphobia.

Socio-cultural theory Edit

Sociocultural theory (see Cultural-historical psychology) (also known as SocialMotivation) emphasizes impact of activity and actions mediated through socialinteraction, and within social contexts. Sociocultural theory represents a shift fromtraditional theories of motivation, which view the individuals innate drives ormechanistic operand learning as primary determinants of motivation. Criticalelements to socio-cultural theory applied to motivation include, but are not limitedto, the role of social interactions and the contributions from culturally-basedknowledge and practice.[7] Sociocultural theory extends the social aspects ofCognitive Evaluation Theory, which espouses the important role of positive feedbackfrom others during action,[9] but requires the individual as the internal locus ofcausality. Sociocultural theory predicts that motivation has an external locus ofcausality, and is socially distributed among the social group.[7]

An example of socio cultural theory would be social settings where people worktogether to solve collective problems, such as athletic teams, study groups, workgroups, and civic organization.[23] Although individuals will have internalized goals,they will also develop internalized goals of others, as well as new interests andgoals collectively with those that they feel socially connected to.[23]

Social motivation is tied to one's activity in a group. It cannot form from a singlemind alone. For example, bowling alone is naught but the dull act of throwing a ballinto pins, and so people are much less likely to smile during the activity alone, evenupon getting a strike because their satisfaction or dissatisfaction does not need tobe communicated, and so it is internalized. However, when with a group, people aremore inclined to smile regardless of their results because it acts as a positivecommunication that is beneficial for pleasurable interaction and teamwork.[23]Thus the act of bowling becomes a social activity as opposed to a dull actionbecause it becomes an exercise in interaction, competition, team building, andsportsmanship. It is because of this phenomenon that studies have shown thatpeople are more intrigued in performing mundane activities so long as there iscompany because it provides the opportunity to interact in one way or another, be itfor bonding, amusement, collaboration, or alternative perspectives.[23] Examples ofactivities that may one may not be motivated to do alone but could be done withothers for social benefit are things such as throwing and catching a baseball with afriend, making funny faces with children, building a treehouse, and performing adebate.

Push and pull Edit

Push motivations are those where people push themselves towards their goals or toachieve something, such as the desire for escape, rest and relaxation, prestige,health and fitness, adventure, and social interaction.[24]

However, with push motivation it's also easy to get discouraged when there areobstacles present in the path of achievement. Push motivation acts as a willpowerand people's willpower is only as strong as the desire behind the willpower.[25]

Additionally, a study has been conducted on social networking and its push and pulleffects. One thing that is mentioned is "Regret and dissatisfaction correspond topush factors because regret and dissatisfaction are the negative factors that compelusers to leave their current service provider."[26] So from reading this, we nowknow that Push motivations can also be a negative force. In this case, that negativeforce is regret and dissatisfaction.

Pull motivation is the opposite of push. It is a type of motivation that is much

stronger. "Some of the factors are those that emerge as a result of theattractiveness of a destination as it is perceived by those with the propensity totravel. They include both tangible resources, such as beaches, recreation facilities,and cultural attractions, and traveler's perceptions and expectation, such asnovelty, benefit expectation, and marketing image."[24] Pull motivation can be seenas the desire to achieve a goal so badly that it seems that the goal is pulling ustoward it. That is why pull motivation is stronger than push motivation. It is easier tobe drawn to something rather than to push yourself for something you desire. It canalso be an alternative force when compared to negative force. From the same studyas previously mentioned, "Regret and dissatisfaction with an existing SNS serviceprovider may trigger a heightened interest toward switching service providers, butsuch a motive will likely translate into reality in the presence of a good alternative.Therefore, alternative attractiveness can moderate the effects of regret anddissatisfaction with switching intention"[26] And so, pull motivation can be anattracting desire when negative influences come into the picture.

Self-control EditMain article: Self-controlThe self-control aspect of motivation is increasingly considered to be a subset ofemotional intelligence;[27] it is suggested that although a person may be classed ashighly intelligent (as measured by many traditional intelligence tests), they mayremain unmotivated to pursue intellectual endeavours. Vroom's "expectancytheory" provides an account of when people may decide to exert self-control inpursuit of a particular goal.

DrivesEditMain article: Drive theoryA drive or desire can be described as a deficiency or need that activates behaviorthat is aimed at a goal or an incentive.[28] These drives are thought to originatewithin the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage thebehavior. Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, whichmotivates a person to seek food whereas more subtle drives might be the desire forpraise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing toothers.

Another basic drive is the sexual drive which like food motivates us because it isessential to our survival.[29] The desire for sex is wired deep into the brain of allhuman beings as glands secrete hormones that travel through the blood to thebrain and stimulates the onset of sexual desire.[29] The hormone involved in theinitial onset of sexual desire is called Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA).[29] Thehormonal basis of both men and women's sex drives is testosterone.[29] Mennaturally have more testosterone than women do and so are more likely thanwoman to think about sex.[29]

Drive-reduction theory Edit

Clark Hull was the behaviorist who developed the drive-reduction theory ofmotivation.Drive theory grows out of the concept that people have certain biological drives,such as hunger and thirst. As time passes the strength of the drive increases if it isnot satisfied (in this case by eating). Upon satisfying a drive the drive's strength isreduced. Created by Clark Hull and further developed by Kenneth Spence, thetheory became well known in the 1940s and 1950s. Many of the motivationaltheories that arose during the 1950s and 1960s were either based on Hull's originaltheory or were focused on providing alternatives to the drive-reduction theory,including Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which emerged as an alternative toHull's approach.[30]

Drive theory has some intuitive or folk validity. For instance when preparing food,the drive model appears to be compatible with sensations of rising hunger as thefood is prepared, and, after the food has been consumed, a decrease in subjectivehunger.[31] There are several problems, however, that leave the validity of drivereduction open for debate.

Cognitive dissonance theory Edit

Main article: Cognitive dissonanceSuggested by Leon Festinger, cognitive dissonance occurs when an individualexperiences some degree of discomfort resulting from an inconsistency betweentwo cognitions: their views on the world around them, and their own personalfeelings and actions.[22] For example, a consumer may seek to reassurethemselves regarding a purchase, feeling that another decision may have beenpreferable. Their feeling that another purchase would have been preferable isinconsistent with their action of purchasing the item. The difference between theirfeelings and beliefs causes dissonance, so they seek to reassure themselves.

While not a theory of motivation, per se, the theory of cognitive dissonanceproposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance. The cognitivemiser perspective makes people want to justify things in a simple way in order toreduce the effort they put into cognition. They do this by changing their attitudes,beliefs, or actions, rather than facing the inconsistencies, because dissonance is amental strain. Dissonance is also reduced by justifying, blaming, and denying. It isone of the most influential and extensively studied theories in social psychology.

Content theories Edit

The content theory was one of the earliest theories of motivation. Content theoriescan also be referred to needs theories, because the theory focuses on theimportance of what motivates us (needs). In other words, they try to identify whatour "needs" are and how they relate to motivation to fulfill those needs. Anotherdefinition could be defined by Pritchard and Ashwood, is the process used toallocate energy to maximize the satisfaction of needs.[32]

Maslow's hierarchy of needs Edit

Maslow's Pyramid

Content theory of human motivation includes both Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of

needs and Herzberg's two-factor theory. Maslow's theory is one of the most widelydiscussed theories of motivation. Abraham Maslow believed that man is inherentlygood and argued that individuals possess a constantly growing inner drive that hasgreat potential. The needs hierarchy system, devised by Maslow (1954), is acommonly used scheme for classifying human motives.[33]

The American motivation psychologist Abraham H. Maslow developed the hierarchy

of needs consisting of five hierarchic classes. According to Maslow, people aremotivated by unsatisfied needs. The needs, listed from basic (lowest-earliest) tomost complex (highest-latest) are as follows:[34]

Physiology (hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.)

Safety/Security/Shelter/HealthSocial/Love/FriendshipSelf-esteem/Recognition/AchievementSelf actualization/achievement of full potential/can never be fully accomplishedThe basic requirements build upon the first step in the pyramid: physiology. If thereare deficits on this level, all behavior will be oriented to satisfy this deficit.Essentially, if you have not slept or eaten adequately, you won't be interested inyour self-esteem desires. Subsequently, we have the second level, which awakens aneed for security. After securing those two levels, the motives shift to the socialsphere, the third level. Psychological requirements comprise the fourth level, whilethe top of the hierarchy consists of self-realization and self-actualization.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory can be summarized as follows:

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior. Onlyunsatisfied needs influence behavior, satisfied needs do not.Needs are arranged in order of importance to human life, from the basic to thecomplex.The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is atleast minimally satisfied.The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness andpsychological health a person will show.Herzberg's two-factor theory EditMain article: Two-factor theory

Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory concludes that certain factors in the

workplace result in job satisfaction, but if absent, they don't lead to dissatisfactionbut no satisfaction. The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime,but "respect for me as a person" is one of the top motivating factors at any stage oflife.

Some hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) were: company policy, supervision, working

The name hygiene factors is used because, like hygiene, the presence will notimprove health, but absence can cause health deterioration.Herzberg's theory has found application in such occupational fields as informationsystems and in studies of user satisfaction such as computer user satisfaction.

Alderfer's ERG theory Edit

Main article: ERG theoryAlderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created the ERG theory. Thistheory posits that there are three groups of core needs existence, relatedness,and growth, hence the label: ERG theory. The existence group is concerned withproviding our basic material existence requirements. They include the items thatMaslow considered to be physiological and safety needs. The second group of needsare those of relatedness- the desire we have for maintaining important personalrelationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if theyare to be satisfied, and they align with Maslow's social need and the externalcomponent of Maslow's esteem classification. Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needsas an intrinsic desire for personal development. Maslow's categories are brokendown into many different parts and there are a lot of needs. The ERG categories aremore broad and covers more than just certain areas. As a person grows, theexistence, relatedness, and growth for all desires continue to grow. All these needsshould be fulfilled to greater wholeness as a human being.[35] These include theintrinsic component from Maslow's esteem category and the characteristicsincluded under self-actualization.

Self-determination theory Edit

Main article: Self-determination theorySince the early 1970s Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan[36] have conductedresearch that eventually led to the proposition of the self-determination theory(SDT). This theory focuses on the degree to which an individual's behaviour is self-motivated and self-determined. SDT identifies three innate needs that, if satisfied,allow optimal function and growth: competence,[37][38] relatedness,[39] andautonomy.[40][41]

These three psychological needs motivate the self to initiate specific behaviour andmental nutriments that are essential for psychological health and well-being. Whenthese needs are satisfied, there are positive consequences, such as well-being andgrowth, leading people to be motivated, productive and happy. When they arethwarted, people's motivation, productivity and happiness plummet.[42]

There are three essential elements to the theory:[43]

Humans are inherently proactive with their potential and mastering their innerforces (such as drive and emotions).Humans have an inherent tendency towards growth, development and integratedfunctioning.Optimal development and actions are inherent in humans but they do not happenautomatically.Temporal motivation theory EditMain article: Temporal motivation theoryA recent approach in developing a broad, integrative theory of motivation istemporal motivation theory.[44] Introduced in a 2006 Academy of ManagementReview article,[45] it synthesizes into a single formulation the primary aspects ofseveral other major motivational theories, including Incentive Theory, Drive Theory,Need Theory, Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting. It simplifies the field of motivation andallows findings from one theory to be translated into terms of another. Anotherjournal article that helped to develop the Temporal Motivation Theory, "The Natureof Procrastination,[46] " received American Psychological Association's George A.Miller award for outstanding contribution to general science.

Achievement motivation Edit

Achievement motivation is an integrative perspective based on the premise thatperformance motivation results from the way broad components of personality aredirected towards performance. As a result, it includes a range of dimensions thatare relevant to success at work but which are not conventionally regarded as beingpart of performance motivation. The emphasis on performance seeks to integrateformerly separate approaches as need for achievement[47] with, for example, socialmotives like dominance. Personality is intimately tied to performance andachievement motivation, including such characteristics as tolerance for risk, fear offailure, and others.[48][49][50]Achievement motivation can be measured by The Achievement MotivationInventory, which is based on this theory and assesses three factors (in 17 separatedscales) relevant to vocational and professional success. This motivation hasrepeatedly been linked with adaptive motivational patterns, including working hard,a willingness to pick learning tasks with much difficulty, and contributing success toeffort.[51]

Achievement motivation was studied intensively by David C. McClelland, John W.

Atkinson and their colleagues since the early 1950s.[52] This type of motivation is adrive that is developed from an emotional state. One may feel the drive to achieveby striving for success and avoiding failure. In achievement motivation, one wouldhope that they excel in what they do and not think much about the failures or thenegatives.[53] Their research showed that business managers who were successfuldemonstrated a high need to achieve no matter the culture. There are three majorcharacteristics of people who have a great need to achieve according toMcClelland's research.

They would prefer a work environment in which they are able to assumeresponsibility for solving problems.They would take calculated risk and establish moderate, attainable goals.They want to hear continuous recognition, as well as feedback, in order for them toknow how well they are doing.[54]Cognitive theories EditCognitive theories define motivation in terms of how people think about situations.Cognitive theories of motivation include goal-setting theory and expectancy theory.

Goal-setting theory Edit

Main article: Goal-setting theoryGoal-setting theory is based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a driveto reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a reward in itself. Agoal's efficiency is affected by three features: proximity, difficulty and specificity.One common goal setting methodology incorporates the SMART criteria, in whichgoals are: specific, measurable, attainable/achievable, relevant, and time-bound. Anideal goal should present a situation where the time between the initiation ofbehavior and the end state is close. This explains why some children are moremotivated to learn how to ride a bike than to master algebra. A goal should bemoderate, not too hard or too easy to complete. In both cases, most people are notoptimally motivated, as many want a challenge (which assumes some kind ofinsecurity of success). At the same time people want to feel that there is asubstantial probability that they will succeed. Specificity concerns the description ofthe goal in their class. The goal should be objectively defined and intelligible for theindividual. A classic example of a poorly specified goal is to get the highest possiblegrade. Most children have no idea how much effort they need to reach that goal.

Expectancy theory Edit

Main article: Expectancy theoryExpectancy theory was proposed by Victor H. Vroom in 1964. Expectancy theoryexplains the behavior process in which an individual selects a behavior option overanother, and why/how this decision is made in relation to their goal.

There's also an equation for this theory which goes as follows:

{\text{I}}\,\times \,{\text{V}}} orMotivation = {\displaystyle {\text{Motivation}}=} Expectancy Instrumentality Valence {\displaystyle {\text{ Expectancy}}\,\times \,{\text{Instrumentality}}\,\times \,{\text{Valence}}} [55]M (Motivation) is the amount an individual will be motivated by the condition orenvironment they placed themselves in. Which is based from the following hencethe equation.E (Expectancy) is the person's perception that effort will result in performance. Inother words, it's the person assessment of how well and what kind of effort willrelate in better performance.I (Instrumentality) is the person's perception that performance will be rewarded orpunished.V (Valence) is the perceived amount of the reward or punishment that will resultfrom the performance."[55]Models of behavior change EditSocial-cognitive models of behavior change include the constructs of motivation andvolition. Motivation is seen as a process that leads to the forming of behavioralintentions. Volition is seen as a process that leads from intention to actual behavior.In other words, motivation and volition refer to goal setting and goal pursuit,respectively. Both processes require self-regulatory efforts. Several self-regulatoryconstructs are needed to operate in orchestration to attain goals. An example ofsuch a motivational and volitional construct is perceived self-efficacy. Self-efficacy issupposed to facilitate the forming of behavioral intentions, the development ofaction plans, and the initiation of action. It can support the translation of intentionsinto action.John W. Atkinson, David Birch and their colleagues developed the theory of"Dynamics of Action" to mathematically model change in behavior as aconsequence of the interaction of motivation and associated tendencies towardspecific actions.[56][57] The theory posits that change in behavior occurs when thetendency for a new, unexpressed behavior becomes dominant over the tendencycurrently motivating action. In the theory, the strength of tendencies rises and fallsas a consequence of internal and external stimuli (sources of instigation), inhibitoryfactors, and consummatory in factors such as performing an action. In this theory,there are three causes responsible for behavior and change in behavior:

Instigation (Ts) increases tendency when an activity has intrinsic ability to satisfy;Inhibition (Taf) decreases tendency when there are obstacles to performing anactivity; andConsummation decreases a tendency as it is performed.[58][59]Thematic apperception test EditMain article: Thematic apperception testPsychologists David C. McClelland and John W. Atkinson argued that motivationshould be unconscious. They refined measures of motivation by means of contentanalysis of imaginative thought using, for example, the Thematic ApperceptionTest.'[60][61]

Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic desires theory Edit

Starting from studies involving more than 6,000 people, Professor Steven Reiss hasproposed a theory that found 16 basic desires that guide nearly all human behavior.[62][63] Intrinsic motivation is the tendency to find challenges, to push to find outfor more, explore, and learn as much as possible. It is about reaching the mostpossible potential as a human being.[15] The 16 basic desires that motivate ouractions and define our personalities are:

Acceptance, the need for approval

Curiosity, the need to learnEating, the need for foodFamily, the need to raise childrenHonor, the need to be loyal to the traditional values of one's clan/ethnic groupIdealism, the need for social justiceIndependence, the need for individualityOrder, the need for organized, stable, predictable environmentsPhysical activity, the need for exercisePower, the need for influence of willRomance, the need for sex and for beautySaving, the need to collectSocial contact, the need for friends (peer relationships)Social status, the need for social standing/importanceTranquility, the need to be safeVengeance, the need to strike back and to competeAttribution theory EditMain article: Attribution (psychology)Attribution theory is a theory developed by psychologist, Fritz Heider that describesthe processes by which individuals explain the causes of their behavior and events.[64] A form of attribution theory developed by psychologist, Bernard Weinerdescribes an individual's beliefs about how the causes of success or failure affecttheir emotions and motivations. Bernard Weiner's theory can be defined into twoperspectives: intrapersonal or interpersonal. The intrapersonal perspective includesself-directed thoughts and emotions that are attributed to the self. The interpersonalperspective includes beliefs about the responsibility of others and other directedaffects of emotions; the individual would place the blame on another individual.[65]

Individuals formulate explanatory attributions to understand the events they

experience and to seek reasons for their failures. When individuals seek positivefeedback from their failures, they use the feedback as motivation to show improvedperformances. For example, using the intrapersonal perspective, a student whofailed a test may attribute their failure for not studying enough and would use theiremotion of shame or embarrassment as motivation to study harder for the nexttest. A student who blames their test failure on the teacher would be using theinterpersonal perspective, and would use their feeling of disappointment asmotivation to rely on a different study source other than the teacher for the nexttest.

Approach versus avoidance Edit

Main article: Motivational salienceApproach motivation can be defined as when a certain behavior or reaction to asituation/environment is rewarded or results in a positive/desirable outcome. Incontrast, avoidance motivation can be defined as when a certain behavior orreaction to a situation/environment is punished or results in a negative/undesirableoutcome.[60][66] Research suggests that, all else being equal, avoidancemotivations tend to be more powerful than approach motivations. Because peopleexpect losses to have more powerful emotional consequences than equal-size gains,they will take more risks to avoid a loss than to achieve a gain.[60]