.................................Contents
1 Introduction .............................................47 ■ The Psychology of Public Space...............................................11 ■ Securing an Inclusive or Exclusive Urban Realm ..................39 What Makes a Space Convivial? ............................73 How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces? .........................151
2
3
4
............................................................................81 ■ Designed or Evolved? ................................................................................................................122 ■ Managing and Maintaining Public Spaces..................................................................................................................16 ■ Children and Public Space ............................................................................................... Shapes and Types of Public Space........................................................81 ■ Case Study: Ciutat Vella...................................................................................................................................................................11 ■ Why Have Public Space and Who Is It For?.........................................6 Public Spaces – Why Have Them and Who Are They For? .........................................................................................................................125 ■ Case Study: Padua.........51 ■ Aesthetics – Sensing the Character of an Area......................................................................................................................................................................................33 ■ Addressing the Use of Public Space by Young People.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................56 ■ Important Influences on the Use of Public Space.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4 ■ Defining Convivial Spaces ....................145 Index ...............................................130 ■ Case Study:York.......139 References and Bibliography ............................................................................................................1 ■ Overview..................................134 Conclusion:The Constituents of Conviviality.....................................................................................................................88 ■ Comfort..................................................................... Barcelona ......................................................................1 ■ Discussion....................................47 ■ Principles and Underpinnings...............................................................................................................111 ■ Case Study: Bristol.........................................107 ■ Joy.....................................64 ■ Size.............................................................................................................................................................................................................92 ■ Case Study: Berlin...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Francesc Guillen. with the research and production of this book:Tamsine O’Riordan. Michele Lavelle. I would like to thank the following people who have helped. in various ways. Clara Quintana. Lorenzo Segato and Jamie Roxburgh.
. unless otherwise acknowledged.vi
Acknowledgements
All photographs are by the author.

though in many places there is still a pretence that they can’ (quoted in Gallacher 2005 p11). when we have more overall wealth with which to potentially enrich spaces and places for citizens to enjoy.
1
. As Ken Worpole. Many books have been written about public space from a design (usually visual) point of view and some books have been written from a policy viewpoint.
T
Overview
Why. in some cases. it is clear that design or architecture alone cannot solve these problems. positively unpleasant?
What kind of public spaces do people prefer to be in? This book aims to tease out what gives some places ‘personality’ and ‘conviviality’. maintain and manage better quality built environments in future. have we often produced built environments that are bland or ill-conceived for public use and. which includes design and management set within the broader context of urban policy. one of the most prolific and perceptive writers about public space.CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
his is not just an urban design book. observes: ‘Given the deep social and economic nature of the circumstances that underpin or undermine a vibrant community and public space culture. because I feel that only by taking this multifaceted approach will we succeed in producing more convivial spaces. so that we can learn from the past and present to design. I have undertaken the rather daunting task of straddling several disciplines.The challenge in creating and maintaining successful public spaces is to achieve an integrated approach. nor is it a social policy book or management guide – in fact it is a bit of all three plus some more.

research and illustrated case studies.
Figure 1 Unconvivial: Dublin docks area redevelopment
Figure 2 Unconvivial: Causewayside.2
Convivial Urban Spaces
Drawing on theory. security.
Many studies of the urban fabric (including a number written by this author) start with an analysis of what is wrong. In the 1960s and 70s there was considerable published discussion about what differentiates livable urban environments from unpleasant (and subsequently problematic) ones (see for example Jacobs 1961. Edinburgh
.This important debate about the form and nature of successful spaces and places appears to have been superseded by narrower technical discussions about physical sustainability. Cullen 1961. Rapoport 1977). but this book will also look at what is right and see if there are any replicable formulas for successful public spaces and places. management and aesthetics. this book identifies the factors that draw people to certain places.

4
Convivial Urban Spaces
Discussion
I have spent most of my professional career working in or visiting the most unpopular and degrading parts of towns and cities. Less research has been undertaken into what ordinary citizens want from their public spaces and what they perceive as good places to be in (i. But in my travels to many towns and cities both here and abroad I have also tried to look at the flip side – what it is about some places that makes me feel good in them? There has been a recent interest in making ‘better public places’.g. the Good Place Guide and various CABE briefings). I have coined the term ‘convivial spaces’ to describe open. convivial spaces). linger or wander through. in an (often futile) attempt to help them improve. In America.g. the drive for better place-making is spearheaded by the New York-based Project for Public Spaces
Figure 5 Siena. through their support for the Commission for Architecture in the Built Environment [CABE]) and the built environment professions (e. Italy
and we now have the European Centre on Public Space driving a similar agenda on this side of the Atlantic. public locations (usually squares or piazzas) where citizens can gather. such as Stroget
.g.This book is based on a multidisciplinary understanding of what makes certain public spaces more successful than others and draws on user feedback as well as professional opinion and academic research. emanating both from the British Government (e.This has led to various guides on ‘place-making’ (e.e. But this guidance is based on what professional designers consider a good place. In some cases. the Urban Design Group).

Introduction
5
(the famous ‘walking street’) in Copenhagen. with all its concomitant problems. North London
. sociable. or attempts are made to design them in. Without such convivial spaces. convivial public spaces are more than just arenas in which people can have a jolly good time. usually referring to people. Ivan Illich used the term in the title of his seminal work Tools for Conviviality. towns and villages would be mere accretions of buildings with no deliberate opportunities for casual encounters and positive interactions between friends or strangers.‘Convivial’ is defined in dictionaries as ‘festive. work and leisure but are socially unsustainable and likely generators of future problems. but fail miserably. they are at the heart of democratic living (Carr et al 1992) and are one of the few remaining loci where we can encounter difference and learn to understand and tolerate other people (Worpole and Greenhalgh 1996). but it can equally apply to a situation. we are likely to drift into an increasingly privatized and polarized society. The trouble is that too many urban developments do not include such convivial spaces. we still produce many tracts of soulless urban fabric that may deliver the basic functional requirements of shelter. Famously. jovial and fond of merry-making’.
However. streets and their associated open areas can be convivial spaces. Places where people can be ‘sociable and festive’ are the essence of urbanity. Despite some improvements in urban development during the last couple of decades. cities.
Figure 6 Brent. Without good urban public spaces.

apart from residents and their approved guests. John Billingham and Richard Cole. Dallas. is allowed to enter. so in a profit-orientated society. chose case studies that answered affirmatively to the following questions: ‘Is the place enjoyable – is it safe. which may be broadly categorized under the headings of physical (including design and practical issues). with a variety of uses? Is it environmentally friendly – sunlit. human in scale. suggests that such places should consist of ‘a rich. Some town centres (e. on the presumed basis that they are costly to manage and might attract the wrong kind of person or usage. in their Good Place Guide (2002). that does not die at night or at weekends and is visually stimulating and attractive to residents and visitors alike’.This privatized retreat has reached its apotheosis in the ‘gated community’ where no one.This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as ‘SLOAP’ – space left over after planning. can we design such places at the drawing board? Critics of formal architecture and planning such as Bernard Rudofsky (Architecture without Architects [1964]) and Christopher Alexander (The Timeless Way of
. geographical (location). managerial.6
Convivial Urban Spaces
There are far too many sterile plazas and windswept corners that are spaces left over from another function (such as traffic circulation or natural lighting requirements for tall buildings).
Defining Convivial Spaces
Francis Tibbalds. So early sections cover the whys and wherefores of public space before moving on to principles and then some specific proposals and examples. space where people can just loaf around is not seen as a financial priority. contemporary worries about security. Furthermore. vibrant.g. litigation and ‘stranger danger’ result in the urban realm becoming increasingly privatized and controlled. but there do seem to be some common elements. in his seminal work Making People-friendly Towns (1992). Can such places be genuinely described as ‘civilized’? In this book I suggest that there is no single blueprint for a convivial space. sensual (meaning how a space directly affects one or more of our five senses) and psychological (how the space affects our mind and spirit). Urban land is at a premium.
The book is structured to flow from the theoretical and political to the practical.Texas) and suburbs have more or less given up on informal communal spaces altogether. mixed-use environment. wind and pollution-free? Is it memorable and identifiable – distinctive? Is it appropriate – does it relate to its context? Is access freely available?’ Given that many convivial places seem to have grown organically through an accumulation of adaptations and additions.

avoid constructing more bad ones and remedy some of the already existing bad ones. sociology. Africa. I also stress the significance of management and geography and how all these objective factors affect our senses and psychology. many do. It could be claimed that Europe has the longest history and most sophisticated experience of designed public spaces (from classical Greece and the Roman Empire onwards).The post1947 culture of master-planning whole urban areas is less likely to accommodate the fine grain. but not to be confused with. outlined above.Introduction
7
Building [1979]. This book is not an exercise in cosy nostalgia. such as Canary Wharf (London) or La Défense (Paris). local nuance and adaptability that seem to be at the root of convivial places. that constitute convivial spaces. rather than trying to build them from a blueprint – this is discussed in ‘Designed or Evolved?’ in Chapter 4 (page 81). we should be able to create more good ones. I mostly refer to urban spaces in Europe. A Pattern Language [1977]) suggest that we are better off ‘growing’ good places and spaces. You may disagree with me about the kind of places that are convivial. India and the Far East
. conviviality is a subjective feeling. The rest of this book attempts to unpack the various factors and observations. Although arguing for a more humane approach to urban development that encourages positive social interaction. but this would be to downplay the importance of public spaces in all cultures and civilizations. anthropology and urban design. based on a multidisciplinary understanding of the functioning and perception of the built environment. Ultimately. Examples will be given of comparatively recent ‘unplanned’ places that have considerable ‘personality’ and recent developments or redevelopments that have transcended the sterility of many modern built environments. underpinned by. this is not based only on the author’s whims but aims to be scientifically balanced and academically rigorous. By understanding what the ingredients of a successful public space are. I recognize that good urban design is a
crucial factor in all this. clean and symmetrical environment.You may even enjoy spending time wandering around the closely supervised and sanitized spaces of out-of-town shopping malls such as Cribbs Causeway near Bristol and Bluewater in Kent.There are some ancient and modern examples to suggest that it is possible to design convivial places as a whole. but for what reasons? And why do other people loathe such places? There are many such questions to be answered about the effect of different places on different people. but unlike many books on the subject. drawing on theory and research from environmental psychology. Because of my background. but they tend to be relatively small in scale. experience and cultural heritage. you may enjoy the buzz of a much more hard-edged. the actual physical state of a place.

And as Edmund Bacon (1975) says: ‘Only through endless walking can the designer absorb into his being the true scale of urban spaces’ (p20). account of urban public space. North Africa
Source: Kathryn Smith
Figure 8 Campo Santa Margarita.
Figure 7 Marrakech.8
Convivial Urban Spaces
all offer historic examples of fine and popular public spaces. suggesting that the need for convivial space is fundamental to human nature:
You will also notice that many of the photographs of people’s behaviour in public spaces have been taken in my adopted home town of Bristol. so I am not apologetic about using so many images from my locality. but I hope not xenophobic.This is purely opportunistic insofar as I regularly have reason to walk through the streets and squares of Bristol and I always carry a camera in case of a chance encounter. What follows is therefore a primarily Britishfocused. Eurocentric influenced. for example.Venice – European conviviality exemplified
. I would argue that the way people use the public spaces of Bristol are not fundamentally different to how they would use them in Newcastle or Rotterdam.

is the ‘litmus test’ of conviviality – successful spaces have people lingering in them. to me. the book aims to flow from the theoretical and general to the practical and specific. public spaces are about people. What a waste of space! The main body of the book is divided into three sections. One thing that will become immediately apparent is the sheer number of photographs – a deliberate ploy. but there are still administrations and designers who do not keep this as their central focus. suggesting how we might apply our knowledge to create or maintain ‘convivial urban spaces’. but where are the people?
. on the basis that photographs can often tell you much more about public space than any amount of text could. However.
Figure 9 Oval Basin: part of the new Cardiff Bay redevelopment – nice big space.The third section aims to be a more practical one.You will note that (with the exception of some photos of unsuccessful spaces) nearly all the photographs have many people in them.Introduction
9
In terms of structure.The second section covers the theories and principles that influence the way we design and manage public spaces. with the result that we end up with impressive or monumental spaces that are mostly empty or underused.The first section argues the case for having public space and discusses the social policies that affect the kind of public spaces we have. with such a multifaceted subject.
This. there is bound to be some overlapping and arbitrary ordering of information and discussion. Ultimately.This may sound like a platitude.The five case studies aim to illustrate many of the points raised in the various sections. I also hope that you will find inspiration (or in some cases warning) from the sheer wealth of fascinating public spaces that proliferate in so many countries.

.

Academic conferences now ask the question. humans are a highly sociable species. As Kayden (2005) notes: ‘Corporeal public space has of late taken something of an intellectual beating in a world currently fascinated by cyber-public-space and chastened by declining civic virtues. As Worpole and Greenhalgh (1996) point out. they are unlikely to be a total substitute for the buzz and unpredictability of real life being played out 360 degrees around you. I intend to concentrate predominantly on small-scale open spaces in towns – squares. Many of these spaces are useless or dangerous and abandoned. the public realm is the playground in which society reinvents itself. with the result that ‘this renders their definition as public space null and void’ (p14).
Bunschoten 2002 p6
Why Have Public Space and Who Is It For?
simulations of cyberspace become. plazas.
R
eports of the death of public space have proven to be premature. on the whole. piazzas.CHAPTER TWO
Public Spaces – Why Have Them and Who Are They For?
Public Space is the playground of society. community centres and parks (see for example Mean and Tims 2005). is public space dead? Yet any observer of city streets and sidewalks understands that urban residents. However sophisticated the
11
. I should clarify what I intend to concentrate on in this book. employees and visitors are not ready just yet to abandon physical space for more esoteric worlds’ (p136). many designers and architects regard public space as the publicly owned empty bits between buildings. However. pocket parks and some kinds of street – the kind of places that William Whyte (1980) focused on for his groundbreaking study in New York. I am conscious that for a public space to be real it has to be used. Public urban space can cover a wide variety of situations. including libraries. After all. Indeed it could just be because of the ascendancy of virtual realities such as Sim City and Second Life that people crave real encounters with other real people in real environments. and the company of others seems to be fundamental to our sense of existence and belonging.

wellbeing. Therefore well-designed and well-managed public spaces could contribute to overall happiness – surely a satisfactory end in itself and the ultimate goal of enlightened policy?
Health and wellbeing
Urban public spaces offer obvious health benefits insofar as city residents and workers can get fresh air and exercise in them. However. conflict resolution.
. have found that ‘environmental and urban conditions’ are critical to people’s sense of wellbeing:‘Location specific factors are shown to have a direct impact on life satisfaction’ (Brereton et al 2006 p2). Little wonder that governments from the extremes of the political spectrum. driven by free-market economics.12
Convivial Urban Spaces
Why. In an increasingly privatized world.This is presumably why people go mad when held in solitary confinement and why this is used as the cruellest form of punishment. resulting from more sedentary lifestyles (National Heart Forum et al 2007. Indeed Worpole and Greenhalgh (1996) claim that:‘Public space. if public spaces are so potentially problematic. equitable and enriching urban life’ (p25). learning. to mention but a few benefits. we would argue. is now of central political importance to questions of sustainable. Greenspace Scotland 2004).There is a growing view that the success of good social policy should not be measured by economic gains but by improvements in wellbeing and happiness of citizens (Layard 2005). whether totalitarian or free-marketeers. do we bother to have them at all? This is where we enter the big concerns of social policy.Ward Thompson and Travlou 2007). to name but a few) have claimed that successfully functioning public space is fundamental to the furtherance of democracy and civilized life. Finbar Brereton and colleagues at University College Dublin. indeed public space can be seen as somewhat of a liability. both being provided by good public spaces. There is also a suggestion that they can promote mental health and wellbeing too (see for example Guite et al 2006. Kellert and Wilson 1993). humans seem to need both social contact with others and some access to greenery in order to maintain psychological balance (see Wilson 1984. find public space potentially problematic. unless it can be used as a locus for selling and consumption. Richard Sennett and Ken Worpole.
urban residents and workers is becoming critical in the light of increasing levels of heart disease and obesity. Large claims indeed – surely public spaces are no more than that – places where the general public are allowed? But it has been noted by many that public spaces are important for health. many commentators over the years (including Lewis Mumford. tolerance and solidarity.This requirement for healthy spaces accessible to
Learning
Insofar as effective public spaces are arenas for the ‘theatre of everyday life’ they offer considerable social learning opportunities. Possibly as a result of our evolutionary heritage.

both through ad-hoc encounters and through organized events such as festivals and demonstrations. public spaces are often used as arenas for education (field visits) and research (the ubiquitous interviewer with a clipboard.
Conflict resolution. rather than stereotyping them from monocultural enclaves. for example. skateboarders may be observed by office workers on their lunch-break and people of different ethnicities and abilities can share a bench.
In the more formal sense of ‘learning’. Public spaces also offer opportunities to build up a sense of solidarity with your fellow citizens.
Figure 10 Barcelona. This contrasts markedly with the experience of (for example) visiting an IKEA store in an out-of-town shopping mall where one mixes with a homogeneous but segmented part of the population. they offer one of the few opportunities for people to directly encounter other people with different norms. So. in the same city-centre space. found in so many urban spaces).Public Spaces – Why Have Them and Who Are They For?
13
Because by definition they are universally accessible. backgrounds and values. behaviours and cultures. but suffice to say at this point that tolerance comes from close encounters with other citizens. Spain
. tolerance and solidarity
Elsewhere in this book there is discussion about the positive aspects of encountering difference and potential conflict in public space. People can thus learn about what makes up their society and how other people can have different attitudes.

both directly through sales of refreshments. as well as social and environmental value. but also indirectly by making the towns where they are located more popular visitor attractions. good public spaces increase property values and are good for business. Glasgow
Economic benefits
So much urban policy seems to be driven these days by the desire to make profits that it can be refreshing to claim that public spaces are worth having for purely non-fiscal reasons. However. The transformation of city centres such as Melbourne in Australia (Gehl and Gemzoe 2001) and Glasgow in Scotland and their subsequent increases in tourist visits are at least partly attributable to improvements in their public spaces. In its 2004 reports ‘Please Walk on the Grass’ and ‘Does Money Grow on Trees?’ CABE Space argues that.14
Convivial Urban Spaces
Figure 11 St Enoch’s Square.
. convivial places can also generate financial benefits. market produce and so on.

open public places have been at the heart of civilized urban life. public spaces. public spaces are the gathering places where the citizenry can express their solidarity and also dissent. particularly the less surveyed ones. loitering laws and curfews. Less encouraging legislation usually centres around the control of public spaces by the use of surveillance. political and economic value. Positive legislation that has helped to further the provision of public space includes the British ‘section 106’ clause.
. politics and the law
I do not intend to reiterate the history of public spaces. public spaces have also been subject to various laws and controls. apparently expressing the power of the ruling regime and the insignificance of individual citizens. report or intervene. pamphleteering and soapbox orations. Red Square. when others have done it well already (see for example Bacon’s 1975 work and Moughtin’s 1992 introductory chapter). In summary. first espoused by Jane Jacobs (1961) and the presence of ‘capable guardians’ (see Felson and Clarke 1998). i. at least since the ancient Greek agora. Indeed. Moscow and Plaza de la Revolución. both positive and negative. and the similar New York ‘incentive zoning’ scheme (see Kayden 2005).
Democracy
In democratic societies.This is based on the theories of having ‘eyes on the street’. are where change is fermented and where countermeasures are formulated. so important for grassroots democracy. Havana) tend to be huge and intimidating. but at this stage it is worth pointing out that well-used convivial places are the alternative to downtown areas abandoned to criminals and the socially rejected. As Denis Wood (1981) points out.) Because they are so important in civic life. crimes are less likely to occur if potential offenders are aware that there are law-abiding citizens in the area who could witness. suffice to say that.They are the locations for demonstrations. which allows local authority planning departments to negotiate the provision of public space as a condition of awarding planning permission to developers.e. dispersal orders. small urban public spaces have huge social.Public Spaces – Why Have Them and Who Are They For?
15
Urban security
A later chapter will go into detail about crime and safety in public spaces.
History. the quality and extent of urban spaces could be used as a litmus test for the state of various societies’ political health (think of the great parks of London in the 18th century and the reclaiming of Copenhagen’s streets for pedestrians in the 20th century. Famous public spaces in non-democratic states (such as Tiananmen Square. No wonder that totalitarian regimes try to control the use of public space by heavy policing. as has happened in a number of US cities. exclusion orders. surveillance and curfews. Beijing.The extent to which any town contains suitably convivial spaces is a reflection on how civilized it is.

Ultimately there are political choices to be made about how we invest in development and regeneration that will determine whether we end up with a predominantly exclusive or inclusive urban realm. Ironically the people who are least at risk of street crime (older people and women.The actual risk of becoming a victim of crime is usually less than the fear people feel. Currently there is a debate about whether we should be providing exclusive or inclusive built environments as a means of promoting urban security. certain places at certain times become arenas for drunken confrontation and intergroup conflict. while young men. those most at risk. some have argued) to reconcile inclusive with exclusive approaches to urban security. in the absence of the moderating presence of a broad mix of citizens.16
Convivial Urban Spaces
Securing an Exclusive or Inclusive Urban Realm
A crucial influence on whether people will use or avoid urban public spaces is the degree to which they feel safe in them. It can also lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy as.The consequence of all this is that certain public spaces become monoculturally dominated – Saturday nights in town centres. Certain assumptions are made in this debate. On one side are the ‘designing out crime’ proselytizers who seek closure and limitation of use of spaces.
. on the other side are the New Urbanists. whereas the joint ODPM/Home Office-sponsored publication ‘Safer Places’ (2004) is much more equivocal.
This debate has become more salient since the publication of a raft of governmentsponsored reports aimed at informing practitioners about how to revitalize our towns and cities. trying (not entirely successfully.This section will set the debate within the broader context of the links between urban design. or parts of parks for example – which undermines the intention for public spaces to be democratic places for all. Urban Villagers and 24 Hour City people who want to ‘crowd out crime’ through mixed use and maximizing activity in public areas. but it is the latter that can lead to avoidance. human behaviour and other social factors that may affect levels of crime and feelings of security in the public realm. about the degree of influence different styles of urban development can have on crime and offending. for example) tend to be the most fearful. are less fearful (or at least pretend to be!) (see Shaftoe 2004).The reports emanating from the Urban Task Force (1999) and the government quango CABE Space (2005) come down firmly in favour of inclusive urban design as a means of achieving safer public spaces.

there are some crucial differences that need contextual explanation.This is because. visitors and loafers.
Figure 12 Knowle West. Dijon
. social.
What can be deduced from these pictures alone challenges the notion. surrounded by shops and provided with communal facilities. you realize that there are huge variations in motivations and likely reasons to commit crime. One is a safe place to be in. Figure 12 is a peripheral housing estate in Bristol while Figure 13 is of a square in the heart of an ancient city (Dijon). quality of life and the built environment. context (socioeconomic) and context (cultural). proselytized by the adherents of crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) (see Saville 1996).The differences between these pictures offer a stark illustration of the links between urban security.Public Spaces – Why Have Them and Who Are They For?
17
Spot the difference
Both the photographs on this page are of public squares in medium-sized provincial cities. the other is hostile and the scene of considerable crime and incivilities. while the Bristol square is only likely to be used by local people living on one of the most disadvantaged estates in the city. Bristol
Figure 13 Place François Rude. that you can simply ‘design out crime’ either in a hard (physical security) or soft (natural surveillance via new urbanism) way. Once you have looked at the wider geographical. economic and demographic context of any built location. Attempts to redesign the Bristol square (with new shutters.The Dijon square welcomes a mixed population of shoppers. CCTV for safety and a public seating area) have simply not succeeded in the face of overwhelming deprivation in the surrounding area. A ‘reading’ of these two images could suggest that urban security is about context (geographical). shopfronts. although both squares are about the same size.

And the designing out crime brigade are on the offensive (see for example Town and O’Toole 2005).
Figure 14 Shopping mall. what design and management policies should we be adopting to make public spaces safer? Or is design irrelevant? I don’t think it is. all other things rarely are equal. on the ground the default drift seems to be towards closure. CABE 2004a). that seem to have as much effect as direct things like target-hardening and surveillance. secured by design (SBD) developments will be less victimized than non-SBD ones but. It should be noted too that shopping arcades and malls are the gated communities of
commerce. in the real world of urban polarization. Despite the government’s promotion of inclusive urban places. The alternative consists of the development of permeable environments with mixed use and plenty of public spaces. such as desirability and the types of usage it facilitates. South Gloucestershire
. all other things being equal.There has been some research into the effectiveness of designing out crime that claims positive outcomes (see for example Armitage 2000) and obviously.18
Convivial Urban Spaces
Design to keep out or bring in?
Given this problem of ‘context’. in a deliberate attempt (using concepts such as ‘the Urban Village’ and ‘place-making’) to build social capital and a sense of community (see Neal 2003). fortification and exclusion. with all the pluses and minuses that this implies (see Gold and Revill 2000). However. We are mostly relying on gut feeling and faith. CCTV and private security are all evidence of this exclusive drift.The proliferation of gated spaces (see Atkinson and Blandy 2006).The trouble is that the security benefits of such inclusive urban spaces have been hardly researched at all. this topic area has been both under-evaluated and mired in political debate about what kind of places we want. but it is the indirect results of design. often through the Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE) (see for example ODPM 2002.

we are in danger of becoming increasingly prejudiced and narrow-minded. there is a strong and wellestablished argument to the contrary – that the safest places are well-populated with both users and casual passers-by who provide more ‘eyes on the street’ to informally police public spaces (Jacobs 1961. However. and through the use of dispersal orders and curfews in the UK. as we only choose the company of likeminded individuals in our increasingly cocooned daily routines. mingle and be observed. we need a public realm … which is inclusive’ (p33). for example. the police now have powers to exclude young people in particular from streets and public spaces. Sennett claims in his book The Uses of Disorder (1973). Richard Sennett (1986) has argued that ‘people grow only by the processes of encountering the unknown’ (p295) and the best places to encounter difference and the unfamiliar are public spaces. In order to achieve that. it has failed. why should we trouble ourselves with creating or maintaining public spaces and permeable neighbourhoods? Why not just seal everything off and discourage people from wandering around or hanging about in urban areas? To some extent this is what is happening in parts of the US and South Africa. If everyone in a society can’t enjoy
all the public spaces within a town then it can’t police itself. where all segments of society can cross paths. Without this observation and engagement with ‘difference’. The argument in favour of inclusive public spaces goes considerably beyond a narrow focus on security to include health.Public Spaces – Why Have Them and Who Are They For?
19
Inclusive public space – why bother?
Given the previous comments about the obvious security improvements achieved through fortification and enclosure. wellbeing and even the very nature of ‘civilization’. Gehl 2003). As Roger Evans recently stated (2006) ‘When a society stops policing itself.
Figure 15 Bristol
.

encounters. between various persons and groups. indeed to encourage. cities with a lively public realm are more likely to appeal to tourists and other visitors.The outcome of this is a series of exclusionary initiatives encouraged by the Home Office (ranging from legal controls. rather than turning us in on ourselves. the greatest possible number of meetings. We are. too. such as alcohol bans and dispersal orders. It is
. challenges. Finally.20
Convivial Urban Spaces
In a similar vein Louis Mumford (1964) asserted that the function of city public spaces is ‘… to permit. places that are well designed and cared for feel safer and people tend to use them more.The CABE Manifesto for Better Public Spaces (2004a) claims that: ‘Many parks and streets are so derelict and run down that people feel scared to use them.
Convivial spaces versus hostile places
Jan Gehl (2003). In contrast. an eloquent supporter of urban public spaces.’ So how do we stop the disintegration of public spaces and design or ‘grow’ new ones? More fundamentally. after all. with the actors taking their turn. argues that ‘the disintegration of living public spaces and the gradual transformation of the street areas into an area that is of no real interest to anyone is an important factor contributing to vandalism and crime in the streets’ (p78). can ‘design’ (in the physical layout sense) determine or influence the degree to which a particular urban space is inclusive or exclusive? Much current policy and practice emanating from the British Government’s crime reduction mandate seems to regard public space as a mere arena where various control measures are imposed. More people on the streets and in squares means more footfalls past and into shops and cafes. to increased surveillance through CCTV and police community support officers) which sometimes seem to be at odds with the more inclusive ‘urban renaissance’ policies espoused by the Department for Communities and Local Government (formerly the ODPM).The transformation of Melbourne’s public spaces (see Gehl and Gemzoe 2001) is a case in point. there is an economic argument in favour of reviving public space. providing as it were a stage upon which the drama of social life can be enacted. William Whyte (1988) claims that the increases in private travel and electronic communication. have actually stimulated a greater need for face-to-face contact. Because ‘people attract people’. a social and sociable species and we need affirmative interaction with other humans for our health and wellbeing. as spectators’ (p173).

North London: Chalkhill Estate.
The extent to which we have gone down a path of exclusion and formal control.
Deployment of personnel
The traditional way of keeping ‘undesirables’ out of public space. people who are ‘different’.This was done even before the police were formed and has seen a recent revival with the increasing use of private security firms. street wardens and police
Figure 16 Brent. is to put someone in a uniform and send them out on patrol. whereby control measures using deployment of personnel.Public Spaces – Why Have Them and Who Are They For?
21
intriguing (and perhaps significant) that this dichotomy is a mirror of the conflicting debate in academic and practitioner circles about inclusion or exclusion in urban design and security. as opposed to designing in good behaviour. but it is not clear whether it is a justifiable argument for more oppressive control of the public realm. now demolished
. Such an argument has been used in the past to legitimize intense housing management of poorly designed high-rise council estates (DoE 1993). formal surveillance and legal sanctions have to be used to compensate for ‘bad’ physical infrastructures that would be too costly to ameliorate. or just other people’s children. whether these be potential criminals. is elaborated below. It could be argued that this is a realistic response. vagrants.

so they (supposedly) refrain from doing anything that could render them liable to prosecution. assuming that the perceived surveillance is comprehensive enough. Instead of having distinctively clothed people walking around an area. Cities such as Coventry and Sheffield have employed uniformed ‘ambassadors’ whose job is to provide a welcome and reassurance to visitors as much as it is to deter offending. while the control person reclines in their televisual eyrie.
Electronic surveillance
Electronic security surveillance could be termed ‘armchair patrolling’. An approach to security based on electronic surveillance attracts exactly the same caveats as those mentioned above for uniformed patrolling. because of its technological intricacy.
Figure 17 City-centre ambassadors.
Uniformed patrolling is. malfunction or malicious damage. Shaftoe 2002). uniformed patrolling is a purely repressive measure where anyone lingering in public space is regarded as a suspicious person and undesirables are hounded out of sight. it is vulnerable to breakdown. Furthermore. paid for by residents’ subscriptions and some shopping malls pay a supplement to the local police force to pay for extra patrolling. Overall CCTV schemes have produced mixed results in terms of crime reduction (Welsh and Farrington 2002. there are distinctively boxed electronics surveying an area. In some affluent areas. in some quarters.There is now a better understanding. that merely ‘moving people on’ is not really solving anything.The users of public spaces are made aware (through signs on poles and lampposts) that their every move is being videotaped to be used as potential evidence against them. Sheffield
. a reassurer and a fear-reducer and may act as a deterrent to the would-be offender. At worst. standard police patrolling has been augmented by private security personnel. at best.22
Convivial Urban Spaces
community support officers.

Coventry was the site of the first by-law banning the consumption of alcohol in town-centre streets and public spaces (Ramsay 1989. for noise control). Fyfe and Bannister 1998. fences. For example. in the belief that intolerance of small delinquencies would prevent the commission of bigger offences. but one has to ask if the problem has not been moved elsewhere.Public Spaces – Why Have Them and Who Are They For?
23
At best CCTV can extend the reach of the guardians of communal public spaces and can offer a protective ring of security until a problem can be sorted out by appropriate personnel. by-laws and licensing restrictions which can be invoked by local authorities to ‘clean up’ the streets. but its effectiveness as a sustainable approach to controlling antisocial behaviour and nuisance in the streets was soon challenged.
Physical barriers
Along with surveillance and legal controls of the types mentioned above. At worst it can become an intrusive. to sites such as parks just outside the city centre.
Another approach to stamping out undesirable behaviour in public spaces was to rigorously enforce the law right down to the most minor infraction. grilles and shutters can all contribute to a safer built environment (Crouch et al. 1990) and since then such street drinking bans have spread exponentially. humiliating and repressive means for controlling excluded populations.The appropriate use of security doors. If you keep criminals away from their targets (by deterrence or fortification). walls.g. vandalism and vehicle crime). move on loiterers.)
Legal controls
For surveillance and security personnel to be able to sweep offenders and undesirables off the streets. who suggested a number of other circumstances and factors that might have influenced crime reductions. the main way of controlling space in order to minimize the opportunities for crime has been the installation of actual barriers to separate potential offenders from potential victims or their property. 1999). but at what expense to the liberty
. Morgan and Newburn (1997) questioned the approach on the grounds of practicality – a lack of police resources and competing demands to tackle serious crime. of course you will reduce some types of crime (notably burglary. This zero tolerance approach gained huge populist support for a short time in the late 1990s. loutish behaviour and binge drinking. as appears to have been the case with Coventry. At the other end there are civil remedies (e. locking systems. and arrest people for causing an obstruction. particularly in response to moral panics about street beggars. (See Lyon 1993. Williams et al 2000. At one end of the legal spectrum there are police powers to stop and search people suspected of behaving offensively. they will need to call on legal sanctions. Such legal and licensing measures do appear to have had an effect in reducing crime and particularly antisocial behaviour in town centres.The approach was also challenged by Young (1998).

or certain categories of people. in the hope that crime and antisocial behaviour will be ‘crowded out’ by the range of legitimate activities and the behavioural norms of the majority of law-abiding citizens (Bianchini 1994). At the same time. the criminal act is only a very occasional part of their daily life. psychopathology or homelessness. frustration. these managers are aware that crime and insecurity are big disincentives to potential users (KPMG/SNU 1990. diversion or intensive support. there is a current move towards making our streets and town centres more attractive. In other words the potential offender has been made unwelcome and the offence has been made more difficult to commit. using by-laws or other social controls. It should be pointed out that management strategies can also be devised to exclude people. at the same time reducing the density (if not the actual number of incidents) of crime and antisocial behaviour.atcm. there are very few career criminals.
Management
Most of the measures described above have attempted to deal with the problem of crime and insecurity through a greater or lesser degree of exclusion and repression. Some people seem to prefer this exclusive kind of security (particularly in North America). Many ‘offenders’ are bored young people who would engage in more legitimate pursuits if they were given the chance (Graham and Smith 1994). an environment that is undesirable to everyone. Coventry Safer Cities 1992). the risk with these measures is that the problem will move to a different place or change to a different type of crime.
. but of course you need a certain level of wealth to be able to enjoy it. in the process.org). livable and vital.This revitalization of streets and public areas in Britain is being spearheaded by Town Centre Managers (see www. people who commit offences often do so out of boredom. Although their primary focus is to improve the economic fortunes of town centres. In reality.
Instead of excluding undesirables and creating. Programmes that only focus on crime reduction may be too narrow most of the time and there is the risk that they impoverish the urban realm. Enlightened strategic management of town centres and public spaces can make them more attractive. Ellin 1997). it is important to engage with the minority who are displaying unwelcome or desperate behaviour – they may need help. by either discouragement or actual prohibition. desperation or as a by-product of a personal problem such as addiction. As already indicated.24
Convivial Urban Spaces
and freedom of movement of law-abiding individuals? Do we want to scuttle from our fortified domestic enclaves to intensively patrolled shopping malls in our centrally locked cars? (see Davis 1992. as no attempt has been made to deal with the motivation to commit crime or to engage with those likely to offend. For even the most hardened recidivist.

The ‘24 Hour City’ concept is a relatively new approach to revitalizing streets and town centres (Montgomery 1994.Therefore it is quite possible to engage with such people to help them meet their underlying needs or resolve their difficulties. support and activities in an adjacent building (Safe Neighbourhoods Unit 1993). relying on charitable initiative and local goodwill. As intimated before. although they have generally been piecemeal. In the USA. Another major attempt at animating our public spaces is to temporally extend their use round the clock and for all sections of the urban community. recruited young people who were loitering and intimidating shoppers in a central street
and offered them a meeting place. Examples include the alcohol-free bar run by the Salvation Army in central Swindon. France. thus diverting them from crime and antisocial behaviour. and even the Big Issue magazine sold by the homeless as an alternative to begging.The 24 Hour City initiatives adopted by local authorities include licensing initiatives. Increased safety is seen to derive from improved natural surveillance provided by increases in the numbers and range of people using the streets. the Travelers and Immigrants Aid of Chicago operated the Neon Street Clinic. Comedia 1991.Public Spaces – Why Have Them and Who Are They For?
25
Integration and absorption
The notion of inclusion and neutralization of crime and insecurity described in the management approach above can be taken one step further. where homeless and runaway young people could receive comprehensive advice and assistance from a range of professionals. but with crime prevention or disorder reduction as an added bonus. Busking. Often their primary aim is humanitarian. In some continental European countries this integrative approach to crime and disorder reduction holds greater sway. street festivals and so on all bring more people into the public arena with the belief that they will be extra ‘eyes on the street’ to improve the feeling of safety and security for other users. As a result. such as
. For example.
Animation
By ‘animation’ I mean anything that brings public spaces to life in a positive way. Holland. pavement cafes. In Britain this approach has offered some promising innovations. the Centrepoint Shelter for homeless runaways in Soho. Bianchini 1994). including older people who are otherwise less in evidence after dark. London. A project in Rotterdam. A review of British initiatives (Stickland 1996) showed that improving night-time safety was the principal reason for introducing the 24 Hour City concept. a group of delinquents who used the entrance to a metro station as their operating base were contacted by a team of detached youth workers. they made a video about youth problems in the city centre and most of them were helped by social workers to reintegrate into normal community life (King 1988). in Lille. or just ‘hang out’ somewhere warm and dry until they were ready to use the services available (Dryfoos 1990). ‘criminals’ are usually people with needs or difficulties who happen to be hanging around in public spaces because they have nowhere else in particular to go.

there has been support for mixed occupancy and use of urban areas. CABE 2004a and b. in contrast to a planning orthodoxy in the post-war years that had encouraged segregation and zoning.26
Convivial Urban Spaces
staggering closing times to avoid concentrations of people and increasing the number of late-night licences. den-building. Worpole and Knox also argue that ‘Slack spaces are needed (or should be acknowledged where they already exist) where minor infringements of local by-laws. are more likely to report or act on problems. Gehl 2003). some of these deviant activities will be illegal and intolerable. shops closing later. but as Denis Wood persuasively argues. for example. However. the promotion of street entertainment and festivals. some commentators suggest that the way we design or redesign streets and public spaces can directly contribute to their sociable and law-abiding use by all citizens (Billingham and Cole 2002. if we clear these screened places. problematic domination of certain public spaces by monocultures (for example young drinkers in town centres at night) has highlighted the importance of achieving a more balanced and varied use of public space. security personnel don’t want hidden corners and entrapment spots. and managers and animators need physical facilities and spaces in which to organize services and activities. City-centre residents add extra informal surveillance to public spaces and. More recently.
clear lines of sight).
Mixed use
Ever since Jane Jacobs published her landmark polemical essay in 1961. the stimulation of cafe and restaurant activity. hanging out and drinking. but even things like CCTV need good design (to allow
.
Accommodating deviance and unpredictability
Efforts to sanitize and control every inch of public space risk that we eliminate all the ‘shadowed’ (Wood 1981) or ‘slack’ (Worpole and Knox 2007) places that allow for activities that the participants don’t want to be seen or heard by others. All this points to an indirect role for good urban design. informal ball games. as they have a vested interest in the neighbourhood. we also remove the possibilities of deviant activities that are harmless or positively valuable as articulations of resistance to the status quo: ‘it would be a dead world indeed without the shadowed spaces’ (Wood p95). Clearly. such as skateboarding. this was pioneered in Norwich and is now increasingly part of planning policy throughout the country. ‘Living over the shop’ has been an increasingly favoured approach to get more people back into British town centres. bridging the gap between offices closing and the start of entertainment activities through. are regulated with a light touch’ (Worpole and
Inclusive designs
Most of these interventions don’t seem to have much to do with design.

such marginalized groups are usually very good at finding their own ‘slack’ or shadowed spaces where they can get on with their own lives out the way of others. homeless people.Public Spaces – Why Have Them and Who Are They For?
27
Figure 18 Fort Worth. premarital or extramarital sex and nude swimming.
Figure 19 Bristol
. alcoholics. heavy petting.Texas
Knox 2007 p14). so long as their presence is not causing a real threat to the safety of others. It is also important to remember that in a democratic and civilized society. Depending on one’s degree of tolerance one could also add to this list (as does Denis Wood): nose-picking. Worpole and Knox point out that citizens are very good at selfregulation and that this is the best way to handle such grey areas. those receiving ‘care in the community’ and ‘tribes’ of young people are citizens just like anyone else and
therefore should be allowed to occupy public space. In fact.

stunt bikers who make use of walls and different levels in plazas.28
Convivial Urban Spaces
Figure 20 Torquay. England (2007). chance or coincidence that makes many want to celebrate the potential of public space’ (Findings summary p4). Indeed it is often the offer of chaos. Poland
.
Examples of this might be children who play with the flooring materials and puddles in playgrounds (rather than the swings and climbing frames).
Figure 21 Krakow. Devon
Caroline Holland and her fellow researchers. concluded that: ‘The vitality of the urban scene requires some degree of human unpredictability. or language exchange students who colonize a particular city-centre space as a meeting place. who studied social interactions in public spaces in Aylesbury.

It is used as a pedestrian route into and out of the subterranean station platforms and.
unauthorized users are completely excluded from the residential areas by access-controlled gates. part of Birmingham’s mixed use inner-city revitalization but.The developers and property managers would undoubtedly justify this extreme version of exclusion by asserting that it was the best way to attract higher-income residents back into the inner city. but it does mean that substantial tracts of open space in central Birmingham are inaccessible to ordinary citizens. as with many such central locations. so that there is now no other reason to be there other than to shop or purchase refreshments in a cafe (Figure 22).
Figure 22 Seatless shopping mall.Public Spaces – Why Have Them and Who Are They For?
29
Some lessons from two case studies
Birmingham
The shopping mall built above Birmingham’s main railway station is a curious hybrid of public/private space. was a warm and covered gathering spot for people with nowhere else to go (and not necessarily any money to spend).The centre management responded to this by removing the communal seating. There is some limited communal seating in the Convention Quarter. in an even more draconian response than that at the shopping mall above the station. Birmingham Figure 23 Birmingham Convention Quarter residential area
.

This does not inevitably lead to the exclusion of ‘non-consumption’ activities. By way of complete contrast. only a few miles to the west. what the public is allowed to do or not to do is at the whim and under the control of the landlords. An exclusionary approach to people management was taken at the Eaton Centre. but usually they will have to be justified in terms of business benefits. shopping malls have. as described below. the primary purpose of a shopping mall is to generate profits for the businesses that operate there. in some ways. It may or may not have been a coincidence that the mall’s owners filed for bankruptcy in 1999 and were taken over by the Sears group. alcoholics.The trouble is that. the Mall was experiencing serious crime problems. Dufferin Mall is the main local retail centre and thus attracts a crosssection of the local population. the huge mall that dominates the centre of
Figure 24 Dufferin Mall food court.Toronto
Toronto. Set in one of Toronto’s less salubrious but most cosmopolitan neighbourhoods. as a result of theft and violent and threatening behaviour by gangs
. Unlike real public spaces.30
Convivial Urban Spaces
Toronto
As mentioned earlier.The Centre had a large team of security guards who among other things were tasked with enforcing the exclusion of several thousand Toronto residents who were deemed to be ‘undesirable’ (presumably the homeless. become the new version of the ‘village pump’. because malls are privately owned. where citizens gather in all weathers to use services but also to mingle with others and possibly socialize.Two very different approaches to this have been taken in shopping malls in Toronto. In the early 1990s. the management of the Dufferin Mall adopted a completely different approach. drug addicts and problematic young people) (Poole 1994).

phac-aspc. and particularly the food court. it is difficult to untangle the various strands (covered earlier) that might influence human behaviour either for better or worse in public spaces. what kind of society do we want? To complicate matters still further. there is the important business of community control. Rather than filtering out all those but serious shoppers. we may say we want one thing (say ‘an urban renaissance’) yet our desire for other things (such as ‘security’ and ‘control’) may actually lead to practices that achieve the latter and deny us the former. a literacy programme. showing the sound commercial sense of such an inclusive approach to the whole population. ‘animation’ and culture. youth work. as a place to ‘hang out’. Sampson et al
. the manager at the time of these changes. apart from such things as impregnable physical barriers. and is now hugely popular with local people. i. play facilities. particularly women. the safer that neighbourhood is.html
Summary
As with so many areas of study that involve real people in real environments.Their philosophy. See for example Hirschfield and Bowers 1997. management. is that ‘The better the quality of neighbourhood life. as explained by David Hall.ca/ph-sp/phdd/implement/ dufferin-mall-story. educational outreach work with school truants and excludees and drop-in centres in some shop units for different advice and counselling services. which seems to be one of the most important differentiators between safe and unsafe neighbourhoods. Layered on top of all this complex series of interactions is the whole political frame of social aspiration.
For a more detailed account of the Dufferin Mall social intervention programme go to: www. including a community newspaper. Many local people. First. It seems more likely that design and physical layout will have a softer type of influence that will interact with other factors such as location. Generally one can say that the more community control and social cohesion there is in a neighbourhood.’ The practical outcome of this commitment was a huge range of integrative and involving activities centred on the Mall. There appear to be two issues that transcend the ‘designing out crime versus designing in good behaviour’ debate.e.gc. the management of Dufferin Mall made a conscious and successful effort to engage socially as well as commercially with all its users and the surrounding community. were avoiding the Mall because they regarded it as a dangerous place. Given the complexity and adaptability of the human species it would be far too simplistic to say that the way we design the urban realm has a direct influence on how everyone will behave in it. the better the business environment – a reciprocal relationship placing an onus on business to assume its full share of responsibility for ameliorating social problems – business giving back to the community that supports it.Public Spaces – Why Have Them and Who Are They For?
31
of young people who were using the Mall.The Mall achieved significant reductions in crime and disorder – a 38 per cent drop in reported crime over a five-year period (Wekerle 1999).

planners and urban designers have an important role to play in designing or redesigning safe and secure neighbourhoods. but through different means and on a different scale. both sides of the safer environments debate claim that their methods generate informal social control. where we interact only with a few like-minded friends and colleagues? In which case we should go for ‘defended space’.
1997. levels of crime and safety are more likely to be determined by bigger socio-economic. many new urbanism developments are turning out to be monocultural and riddled with regulations. many new urbanist developments (particularly in the US) have turned out to be quite exclusive (for example ‘Seaside’ and ‘Celebration’ in Florida). Somerset
exclusive clubs. Do we want a mostly privatized existence.‘new urbanism’ delivers this more zestful way of life but. Or do we want a more open quality of life in which we can wander where we please. Interestingly. I wouldn’t want to suggest that the built environment is irrelevant as a backdrop to human behaviour. Second. as traditional small towns did throughout history! Ultimately. which takes us back to the original two images in this chapter. we need to decide what quality of urban life we want. as Town and O’Toole’s article points out. but their contribution is part of a much bigger whole. encounter lots of different people. cultural. Supporters of gated communities (see Figure 25) would argue that such neighbourhoods encourage social cohesion and on the other hand. So it may be that neither defensible space nor new urbanism can provide us with the kind of vibrant neighbourhoods that could be stimulating to live and work in. socialization and geographical factors than they are by the design of our urban spaces. but take a few more risks in the process? In theory. and most importantly. centred on our well-defended homes and
. however. Finally. Maybe we should adopt policies and practices in regeneration that both adopt reasonable levels of security and encourage designs that allow for interaction and integration. I believe that architects.32
Convivial Urban Spaces
Figure 25 Backwell.

and is potentially one of the most exciting places for them to play. stranger danger. Scotland
.
Figure 26 Charente Maritime. Healthy outdoor play has been emasculated in many areas by adult preoccupations with health and safety.Public Spaces – Why Have Them and Who Are They For?
33
Children and Public Space
Outdoor space is hugely important for children’s development (Moore 1986). It is important for their health. children are in no more danger in public spaces than 30 years ago (see Goodchild and Owen 2007). as some commentators have noted. potential litigation. The general trend for outdoor play provision in the UK for the last 50 years has been to provide robust fixed equipment in fenced-off designated areas (usually in a corner of a recreation field). Despite various media-fuelled panics. children are more likely to die of boredom than from any outdoor public danger. both mental and physical. poor maintenance. adventure or scope for them to exercise their imaginations (see Figures 26 and 27). France
Figure 27 Dornoch. In fact. economies in public services and even aesthetics. I say potentially because we often provide them with stultifying environments which offer very little delight. as mollycoddling parents keep their kids indoors and local authorities remove any trace of adventurous opportunities from the public realm.

Three features of this different approach are integration into the townscape. a different approach in parts of continental Europe.34
Convivial Urban Spaces
Undoubtedly.
Figure 28 Backwell. but even a cursory observation of the multitude of these spaces scattered around our towns and villages will reveal underuse if not abandonment. However. Somerset Figure 29 Paris
. some of these ‘ghettos of swings and springy chickens’ have been reasonably successful. now being gradually incorporated in the UK (following the lead of Stirling in Scotland). is resulting in more vibrant play provision for children. mixed use and loose materials.

The example in Krakow (Figure 30) benefits both parents and children. with only emergency or special access being allowed for vehicles.This will usually consist of seating with a cafe or picnic tables (Figures 32 and 33).
Figure 30 Krakow.
Mixed use
The Krakow example also highlights the value of having facilities for adults as well as children.Public Spaces – Why Have Them and Who Are They For?
35
Integration into the townscape
Children and their accompanying carers prefer short journeys to play areas and therefore it is likely that spaces will be better used if they are part of the neighbourhood. In the Amsterdam example (Figure 31). Poland
Figure 31 Amsterdam
. This can also create livelier places for all. part of the street has been reclaimed as a dedicated play space. as well as creating a lively scene for passers-by.

more naturalistic approach. Bristol Figure 35 Gropiusstadt.The play space has proved to be hugely popular with children. In Germany (most notably in Freiburg and Berlin) play-space providers have wholeheartedly embraced this looser.Public Spaces – Why Have Them and Who Are They For?
37
Loose materials
When they have the choice. Berlin
. should be a valuable outcome of play. which. after all.
Figure 34 Combe Dingle. with the resulting playgrounds looking very different from the shiny metal and rubber-matted surfaces that characterize many British playgrounds. such as water. sand and wood. a new play area created in the inner-city green space known as ‘The Meadows’ (Figure 36 overleaf) has combined the more traditional fixed play attractions with copious quantities of sand.
In Edinburgh. adolescents and their parents. children are more inclined to play with natural elements.This seems to allow them to be much more creative. wood bark chippings and water channels.

There is an increasing recognition that
It has been noted by some play experts that children will often get the most out of play facilities when they use what is there in ways other than intended. or at least be allowed for. many play and recreation areas in the UK have become increasingly sterile and useless as a result of adult and statutory authorities’ fears about safety. along with local authority lawyers and insurance companies.
Unpredictable use
Figure 36 Play space.38
Convivial Urban Spaces
this ‘risk-averse’ culture has gone too far and indeed both the British Health and Safety Executive (HSE) and the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA) have issued guidance to play providers that a reasonable amount of risk in play is perfectly acceptable as long as the benefits outweigh the risks.This should be encouraged.The main inhibitors to more adventurous play for our children remain parents. An example
Figure 37 Central Bristol
. Edinburgh
Risk and adventure
As mentioned previously.The Meadows. as it can lead to more creativity.

public space is young people. We call them derogatory names (e. banks of streams and rivers where you can get muddy. cramping both their physical and psychological development in the process. vandals. particularly teenagers.
Figure 38 Hanging out and skating. Barcelona
Addressing the Use of Public Space by Young People
The segment of the population most likely to be found in. This leads to a further point – some of the most exciting spaces for children and young people to play in are shadowy or spare bits of the urban fabric: patches of wasteland where you can make ‘dens’. In the United Kingdom we mostly dislike young people. in public spaces is seen as most demanding and potentially problematic. in so doing. thugs. self-harm and delinquency. but. yobbos. Repressing their natural
inclinations to get out of their homes and learn to playfully socialize risks displacing their energies into the very things that concerned parents are trying to avoid – drug misuse. antisocial or illegal outdoor activity.g.Public Spaces – Why Have Them and Who Are They For?
39
might be children playing with the sand or loose bark that has been provided as a soft surface material. It is ironic that parents who are trying to protect their children by not allowing them to go out and play or socialize on their own may in many cases be doing more harm than good.Yet. As we gradually clean up and control every nook and cranny of the urban realm.This may be one way to partly get round the legal liability dilemma that some local authorities fear – designate a public structure as art or a water feature. the presence of some young people. rather than as a playful space. children will seize play opportunities even in environments that are not explicitly designated as play spaces. and to benefit from. Young people and particularly adolescents are at a very vulnerable and influential developmental stage in their lives. for adults at least. they may turn them into unhealthy ‘bedroom recluses’.They may be able to temporarily repress their offsprings’ inclination to engage in risky. What happens to them during these transitional years will influence their long-term physical and mental health. Furthermore. we are in danger of losing such ‘loose’ places. tearaways)
.

Young people gather in what are seen by adults as inappropriate places because we do not provide appropriate places.
.They are often seen as being ‘guilty before proven innocent’. the removal of seating in public spaces where young people have started to hang out). Members of the public call the police if youths gather at bus shelters. high streets and malls.Youth clubs have been cut back. parks.g. threatening them with penalties (e.40
Convivial Urban Spaces
Figure 39 Hanging out in York
that we wouldn’t dare use for any other segment of the population.g. as in the case of ‘threatening gangs of youths’ gathering in public spaces. And young people don’t want to be shunted into the margins of neighbourhoods – they usually and rightly demand equal access to the prime sites such as town centres. in alleyways or outside shops at night. Where are they meant to gather? Homes have got smaller. The standard strategic response to groups of young people in public or communal areas is to try to force them out – either by moving them on (using police. We should be enabling this healthy socialization process by ensuring that there are places and spaces where youngsters can gather and ‘hang out’. fines for skateboarding). security guards or CCTV). or removing the opportunities for them to gather at all (e. But the phenomenon of young people socializing in groups away from immediate adult supervision is an important
developmental stage – moving from the family nest to independent adulthood (Waiton 2001).

drugs and rock’n’roll. Some shelters have been designed and even built by the target group of young people themselves. At best this merely moves the problem and it may well lead to other more serious difficulties that could cost dearly in the long term. Hayle Cornwall
harm reduction and risk management approaches to such activities. If young people have been involved in this or in other ways. they will engage in risky and illegal activities. the more attractive they appear to rebellious youth determined to kick against the traces of adult censure. indeed the more we try to ban these. it is better to let them do these things in designated spaces out of harm’s way.This is used as a justification to move young people on. they are more likely to safeguard ‘their’ investment. We therefore need to take
Figure 40 Youth shelter. Some imaginative solutions to the need for young people to gather and ‘hang out’ include: ■ Youth shelters and sports systems. We can’t stop kids indulging in sex. not all our strategies for the use of spaces by young people are aimed at excluding them. get too boisterous and show off in front of their peers. to minimize potential damage both to young people and the adults affected by them. These consist of good quality structures where young people can gather without supervision and without causing annoyance to adult residents (see Hampshire and Wilkinson 2002). take a few risks. However.
. than to try and repress such activities altogether.Public Spaces – Why Have Them and Who Are They For?
41
Adults often worry that if teenagers are allowed to gather with minimum supervision and surveillance. It is true that they will sometimes make fools of themselves. impose curfews and ban them from specific locations using sanctions such as dispersal orders. Fortunately.

Wrexham – the largest housing estate in North Wales. tough and tumble locations have mostly been emasculated by health and safety worries. these rough.42
Convivial Urban Spaces
Figure 41 Ciaia Park. A few proper adventure playgrounds do survive.
. some young people have discovered that the entire urban realm is a potential adventure playground and. from its start in France. Sadly. with the result that many young people have fewer opportunities to experiment and take risks under benign adult supervision.Wrexham
The location of such shelters is critical – not so close to homes that adults become irritated. ■ Adventure playgrounds. the parcours or ‘free-running’ movement has burgeoned in many cities. between or from – a beautiful example of subverting the original intentions of the built environment to create a healthy (if dangerous and potentially illegal) activity. but not so isolated that young people are vulnerable to uncontrolled victimization. It is also important that they are regularly maintained.This involves the use of walls and other built features as daring structures to jump over. including an inspiring one in the middle of Ciaia Park. as if successful they are likely to experience a lot of wear and tear. Enterprising as
they are.

but without totally removing the excitement and ‘buzz’ that young people need. they will tell you what they want and they will often be keen to get involved in providing services and facilities.The space works as an attraction for young and old alike. Finding this balance between adventure and mollycoddling requires an approach that includes design. On the other hand we must minimize the danger and victimization that young people all too often experience in public spaces (Percy-Smith and Matthews 2001). play and socialize in reasonable safety. Belgium
. It has been said that: ‘Young people these days – they’ll take anything. especially responsibility. the process of involvement is as important as the physical outcome. Grown-ups don’t necessarily know best and even if they think they do. where young people have been involved in the choice and construction of youth shelters.Public Spaces – Why Have Them and Who Are They For?
43
■ Skateboarding.’
Design and management implications
We need to ‘design in’ the facilities and locations where children and young people can meet. where a site over the main railway line that cuts through the centre has been made into an urban space for all. design and management of public spaces (White 1998). We should remind ourselves that young people are citizens just as much as adults are. with a built-in skateboarding bowl. there have been fewer subsequent problems with their use and maintenance (Hampshire and Wilkinson 2002). stunt bike and rollerblading spaces. designed according to the specification of a group of local skaters. indeed they represent society’s future. For example. If you ask young people. management and social interventions.
One of the most important strategies is to include young people themselves in the planning.
Figure 42 Central Brussels. Such spaces work best when young people have been involved in their design and location. An inspiring example can be found in central Brussels.

44
Convivial Urban Spaces
Young people are likely to want both structured and unstructured facilities and activities. it should be pointed out that children and young people are much more likely to be victims at the hands of their peers and family than they are by adult strangers. If you just provide one facility without providing for adaptable use or dedicated locations for other groups. while minimizing one statistically low risk. Generally speaking. One size does not fit all (White 1998). these young men in Harlem have colonized the area that had been designed for parents to sit in while they kept an eye on their children in the adjacent playground. you may find that there is conflict over space and the intended target group is edged out. increase the risk of cramping the healthy and social development of their offspring. teenagers prefer locations with lower supervision that are not immediately overlooked by parents’ homes. However. facilities for pre-teens need to be very close to where they live and need to be closely managed by adults or. Concerned parents who won’t let their children go out on their own for fear that they might be abducted by paedophiles and psychopaths. By contrast. Because there is nowhere else for them to meet. Location and journey time to facilities for young people are crucial factors.
Figure 43 Harlem.Young people want to hang out with their own particular clique or gang. in the case of open play spaces. Different groups and individuals will want different things. they need to be visible from parents’ homes.
. despite the prevailing moral panic about ‘stranger danger’. New York. Fourteen-year-olds will not necessarily want to be in the same places as 12-year-olds – a couple of years make a huge difference at that age.You cannot just provide one skateboard ramp and assume you have fulfilled your obligations to youth. However they don’t want to be completely isolated from the general public. Pocket parks in squares
or closes surrounded by housing are safer and likely to be better used than play spaces in the corner of more distant parks and open spaces.Teenagers are concerned for their own safety and rightly so – they are at particularly high risk of being victimized (National Centre for Social Research 1998).

Young people probably feel safer in areas that are also accessible to adults. Adults can provide informal social control and supervision and can call on specialist agencies if problems arise. prosocial development. footpaths and parks.
Figure 44 Central Cardiff
Conclusion
In the UK we mostly regard young people as potential problems. organic and adaptable.
. without removing the frisson that young people need and enjoy.Public Spaces – Why Have Them and Who Are They For?
45
Although dedicated locations sometimes work. But is this a disaster. As part of their development it is valuable that they learn to interact with other citizens.
Planners and urban designers may feel deeply frustrated when the area they designed as an outdoor seating area for office workers becomes colonized by skateboarders (Figure 44). and means that they resort to more devious means to ‘hang out’.This repressive approach damages young people’s potential for healthy. public car parks. become neurotic bedroom recluses. and ensuring that what is provided minimizes harm and victimization risk. or even more worryingly. young people should be entitled to equal rights of access to general public space. rather than for a fixed single use? (Sennett 1973). preferably to be excluded from public space. such as town squares. inclusively and creatively to the needs of young people to socialize in public spaces by involving them in design and provision. or should we regard public spaces as dynamic. We need to respond positively.

.

A number of people have attempted to establish a set of ‘principles’ to inform the design and production of successful urban spaces. with all the means available. promote intricacy.CHAPTER THREE
What Makes a Space Convivial?
Principles and Underpinnings
7 8 9 10 Thou shalt build legible environments Thou shalt build to last and adapt Thou shalt avoid change on too great a scale at any one time Thou shalt. so that all industry was in one place. This section covers some of these ‘principles and underpinnings’. over time. joy and visual delight in the built environment. residential in another and leisure facilities in yet another. for example. and so on.
A
s a bridge between theory and practice. there are various aspects of the design and management of public spaces that affect how successful or problematic they may be. Francis Tibbalds (1989 p467).This was a reaction to the modernist and mechanistic approach that had been promoted by the Congrès International d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM) in its famous Athens Charter of 1933.This was found. published in heavily edited form by Le Corbusier and colleagues in 1943. where different types of uses were allocated to different areas of the city.
Mixed use and new types of urbanism
After the Second World War planning in Europe and North America was heavily influenced by the thinking of the CIAM and favoured a ‘zoning’ approach. suggested the following ‘Ten Commandments’ of urban design. most of which are directly applicable to public spaces: 1 2 Thou shalt consider places before buildings Thou shalt have the humility to learn from the past and respect the context of buildings and sites Thou shalt encourage the mixing of uses in towns and cities Thou shalt design on a human scale Thou shalt encourage the freedom to walk about Thou shalt cater for all sections of the community and consult with them
These principles are closely aligned to the urban design values espoused by Jacobs and Appleyard (1987) in their ‘urban design manifesto’. to create a number of
47
3 4 5 6
.

48

Convivial Urban Spaces

adverse side effects and, in relation to the subject of this book, it often resulted in the abandonment of central public areas for significant times of day or days of the week, as well as creating bland and indeterminate open spaces around residential blocks. As a reaction to this, there emerged the ‘urban villages’ movement in the UK (see Neal 2003) and ‘new urbanism’ in the US (see Duany and Plater-Zyberk 1991).The fundamental idea underpinning this approach is to mix uses together to create more integrated neighbourhoods, which are more sustainable and capable of building ‘social capital’, as people are more likely to know each other and interact. Public spaces are a core part of this new urbanist or urban village approach. By providing more ‘eyes on the street’ and community cohesion, these new developments (or reworking of old ones) are also supposed to be safer and
Figure 45 Poundbury, Dorset

more resistant to crime and antisocial behaviour. However, they have come under some criticism (see for example Town and O’Toole 2005) and some of the brand new flagship developments, such as Poundbury in England and Seaside in Florida, US, have turned out to be worryingly monocultural with underused public space. Other more low-key developments that are better integrated into the surrounding urban fabric (such as Bordesley urban village in Birmingham) seem to work better.

Legibility
This is a term originally coined, for urban design purposes, by Kevin Lynch (1960). He defines it as ‘the ease with which [the cityscape’s] parts can be recognised and can be organised into a coherent pattern’ (p2). So, in terms of public space, it means

What Makes a Space Convivial?

49

knowing where you are, knowing how to get to where you want to be and feeling that the space has visual coherence.Yet, as a result of accretions of street furniture and signs, many of our public spaces are incoherent and confusing. The problem of unacceptable stuff in the public realm can be categorized under seven headings: 1 Clutter – general uncoordinated street equipment, signs and furniture.

3

Duplication of equipment

Figure 47 Castle Park, Bristol

4

5

6 7

Illegibility (literally) – signs that you can’t read because they have not been cleaned or maintained, or are obscured by vegetation. Interruptions and obstructions – such as having waste bins, lamp posts, bike racks and so on. located in the middle of footpaths. Redundancy – old equipment or fittings that have not been removed. Uncoordination – different things added by different departments or agencies, with no overall consistency of design or integration.

Figure 46 Clifton, Bristol

2

Confusion and contradiction (including misdirection by signs that have been knocked or turned in the wrong direction).

Figure 48 Harbourside, Bristol

50

Convivial Urban Spaces

The environmental psychologists Rachel and Stephen Kaplan assert that the coherence and legibility of the public realm is important, as ‘the struggle to pay attention in cluttered and confusing environments turns out to be central to what is experienced as mental fatigue’ (Kaplan and Kaplan 1989 p182).

Firmness or looseness?
In the UK in particular, the whole system from planning through to detailed design and construction allows for very little flexibility – the very thing that the evolution of convivial spaces requires.The result is that we too often end up with rigid designs that cannot easily be changed, once it is found they are not well adjusted for optimum use. A looser ‘see what happens’ approach with money

held back for adjustments and modifications is likely to deliver spaces much more attuned to user needs (see Brand 1994). As Andersson (2002) observes: ‘… the design of a city must be regarded as an ongoing process, one that people need time to become acquainted with’ (p112). He goes on to give the example of Sergels Torg, a plaza in central Stockholm which was built with stark modernist zeal in the early 1970s, but soon declined into desolation and misuse. Modest, incremental changes begun in 1998 (such as lighting, resurfacing and changed circulation arrangements) have helped to make it a more successful gathering place, as originally intended, although its fundamental design as a sunken, hard space surrounded by traffic means that it will never be entirely ‘convivial’.

Figure 49 Sergels Torg, Stockholm

I mean anything that affects our behaviour or feelings. which at best makes for lively. plus the journals Environment and Behaviour and Journal of Environmental Psychology). this has had a substantial influence on the design and management of urban spaces. Other responses are to do with such psychological effects as interpretation. being places for trading. An extreme position in this respect is the ‘design determinist’ one. However. coherence. based on the nature of human behaviour and preference. conversing.Yet there is an additional dimension to public space – it can fulfil certain psychological needs as well as purely physical ones. In extreme cases public spaces will be colonized by certain groups. many of which have been clarified with the help of environmental psychology. Some of this will relate to some basic human behavioural characteristics such as territoriality. 1977.What Makes a Space Convivial?
51
Attempts to establish principles for what makes a successful public space. In terms of designing good public spaces. interpersonal distance. varied and intriguing occupation of space. intrigue and curiosity.
The Psychology of Public Space
Public spaces serve a number of practical functions.This is potentially problematic in public open space. sense of safety.
. allowing people to observe diversity and difference without having to get directly involved in it. There has been substantial interest and study over the years into the relationship between human behaviour and urban form (see for example Canter 1974. legibility. most notably urban security. but more often there is a kind of accommodation between various groups and interests. it helps to understand how people are likely to respond and relate to the space available and how they make spaces work for them. because in theory it belongs to everyone and no one.
Territoriality
One of the most fundamental human traits (presumably from our tribal hunter-gatherer origins) is the need to mark and claim territory. 1990. In truth it is likely that we both affect and are affectd by space. will be influenced by the values of the person defining them and are thus ‘normative’ (to use the social science jargon). resting and so on. there are some more objective underpinnings that can inform good design and management. where theoreticians such as Alice Coleman (1985) blamed badly designed built environments for ‘causing’ the high levels of crime being
committed in them. meeting. At the other end of this continuum of thinking about the degree to which design of space can influence behaviour are those who note the degree to which people can adapt to their surroundings and ‘make the best of a bad job’. In some fields. Rapoport 1977. perhaps youth gangs or street drinkers. distribution and the need for different types of observation and communication (Canter 1974). By ‘psychology’ in this context.

In the photo above. If there is choice of sitting and lingering places and some are unoccupied. rather than sitting right next to a stranger. when there is opportunity to do otherwise. As the space becomes more congested. Indeed people who sit right next to strangers. people have to accommodate themselves gradually more closely to each other.
. but always according to some unwritten law about ‘reasonable distance’. it is normal to sit on or occupy
a vacant space some distance away from the others already there. who are trying to distance themselves in a tight situation by turning away. taken in Padua.52
Convivial Urban Spaces
Figure 50 Padua
Interpersonal distance
Linked to the above points about territoriality is the need to keep appropriate distance or proximity according to relationship. are treated with suspicion and discomfort by those already occupying the space. the couple intertwined in the foreground contrast with the strangers from another culture surrounding them.

The need for different types of observation and communication
Interpersonal distance will be determined (if there is any choice) by the activities people are engaged in. as well as informal seating and leaning opportunities such as ledges.
Figure 51 Harbourside. If the space consists of an area of closely cut grass then this range is easily accommodated (Figure 52).There are certain preferred locations where people tend to cluster and others that people try to avoid. but this is not always practicable. People who
are only there ‘to watch the world go by’ will want to be further away from others than those who are hoping to have some kind of casual interaction.What Makes a Space Convivial?
53
Distribution
However. who in turn would be further away than those who are interacting with close friends. steps and low walls. it has been noted (see for example Canter 1974. Bristol
. Generally. A good public space will offer the chance for the whole range of these activities to occur and this has implications for the arrangement of places to sit or linger.The ideal is movable seating (see page 102). but if the area is hard landscaped then careful consideration will have to be given to the location of benches. Whyte 1980) that people do not distribute themselves evenly across an entire public space. in public space. locations where one can observe others without being exposed from all sides oneself are preferred.This may explain the enduring attraction of ledges (where one’s back is protected by the wall behind) and the avoidance of backless benches in the centre of public spaces (unless there is no other choice).

Bristol
Interpretation. A fair amount of research has been done into how we extract ‘meaning’ from space (see for example Canter 1977. this is probably an inheritance from our ancestors who had to identify and memorize suitable hunting and gathering grounds.This is a crucial factor that will significantly determine whether or
. by which he means ‘… the ease with which its parts can be recognised and can be organised into a coherent pattern’ (p2). For Kevin Lynch (1960) a good place
should be ‘legible’. identifying where we are and the qualities it appears to offer. both of built form and activity. Rapoport 1977. How this coherence is achieved is the subject of some debate in urban design circles. In theory a coherent space should be all of a piece.
Sense of safety
One of the things that people are adept at ‘reading’ (if not always accurately so) is the degree to which an unfamiliar place appears to be safe or unsafe. legibility and coherence
Our minds are skilled at ‘reading’ space – i. both in terms of its built form and the kind of activities (or lack of activities) going on there. Madanipour 1996).e.54
Convivial Urban Spaces
Figure 52 College Green.This is mostly done through visual interpretation of the cues a space gives us. yet many of the spaces that people love contain variety and diversity. Again.

Marsh 1990). disabled people and those from ethnic minorities) will feel nervous about using certain public spaces.
Intrigue and curiosity
People want coherence and a sense of safety in public spaces. but they don’t want blandness (Kaplan and Kaplan 1989. women. One of the psychological attractions of a good public space is the promise that it will satisfy our innate curiosity.
Figure 53 Bland green space.They will gauge how safe a place appears to be (in terms of risk of personal victimization) by studying the people occupying that space. which are discussed in the next section.What Makes a Space Convivial?
55
not they choose to linger in that space. but also by looking at physical attributes (such as the amount of light.
Aesthetics
Woven into all this psychology of space are our aesthetic experiences. We like to be intrigued by the possibility that there is more to a space than initially meets the eye and that if we move through it there may be further intriguing discoveries. as there is a risk that certain demographic groups (such as older people.This underpins the attraction of unfolding townscapes as espoused by Cullen (1961).This has particular implications for the facilities and management of public space. potential hiding places and entrapment spots).This is also an important factor in good park design – there is nothing more boring than a park or green space where you can immediately see everything that is there. The design of public spaces should also allow for clear views and the possibility of easy escape or refuge. where a series of linked but not immediately visible spaces are designed to gradually reveal themselves as you move through them. Dublin
. even if their risk of victimization is quite low (see Shaftoe 2004).The assessment of risk will depend on who you are – generally people will feel more at ease when they see people similar to them already occupying that space in a relaxed way.

If we are not surrounded by buildings – in the countryside – we are still surrounded by people-made structures: walls. (Lynch 1971 p189)
As Westerners. the road to get us from one place to another easily. terracing. nor are they ‘impractical’ or merely decorative. we understand and interpret the city through the technical rather than the sensory. do actually serve a functional purpose. roads. at first emotionally unsatisfied and then physically ill’ (p103). It can be argued that even structures that are not obviously functional. sea defences and so on. when talking about the ambiance of cities: ‘Architecture without sense appeal makes people moody. Halpern 1995. such as monuments.
Figure 54 Eastville Park. such as marking a location or asserting power. (Landry 2006 p40) Sensuous requirements may coincide or conflict with other demands but cannot be separated from them in designing or judging. as the quotations opening this section highlight.56
Convivial Urban Spaces
Aesthetics – Sensing the Character of an Area
Constricted. However.This is not just a trivial spin-off from their true technical purpose. ponds. or even nobler than other concerns. Guite et al 2006.) As Thomsen (1998) remarks. in addition to all this technical function. for better or worse. for by affecting our minds and senses these spaces and places can profoundly influence our health and wellbeing. (See for example Appleyard 1981. yet it is the sensory from which we build feeling and emotion and through which our personal psychological landscapes are built. we all spend most of our time in the built environment. Nearly all these built items have a function and can therefore be regarded as existing for technical reasons – the house to keep us warm and dry. Sensing is indispensable to being alive. we are surrounded by them when we go out. the stone wall to protect the crops. places and spaces affect us aesthetically – they affect our minds and senses. These in turn determine how well or badly a place works – even economically. grumpy. If we are not in buildings. Bristol
. paths. let alone socially or culturally – and how it feels to its inhabitants and visitors.

as Landry (2006) reminds us ‘sights are better articulated. Spain
Despite the latter point. because in general we have a rich vocabulary around physical appearance’ (p50). Not only can we describe visual qualities with words. in the past. This section will analyse the visual and nonvisual aesthetic qualities of successful public spaces in an attempt to arrive at some broader aesthetic principles. Rather. as urban design has. the visual impression of place is likely to be the most powerful sensory experience for people with good sight. harbours or rivers. but we can augment them with maps. most noticeably aurally.
. drawings and photographs. underplayed these. plans. Although it could be argued that the main aesthetic experience of most public spaces is a visual one. But as Rasmussen (1959) notes: ‘It is not enough to see architecture.What Makes a Space Convivial?
57
Kaplan and Kaplan point out in their book The Experience of Nature (1989) that: ‘Aesthetic reactions reflect neither a casual nor a trivial aspect of the human makeup. Underlying such reactions is an assessment of the environment in terms of its compatibility with human needs and purposes.
Figure 55 Zaragoza. you must experience it’ (p33).There will be some emphasis on the non-visual senses. they appear to constitute a guide to human behaviour that is both ancient and far-reaching. preferring instead to concentrate almost exclusively on the look of places.The sounds (mostly traffic) of the big city penetrate all but the most secluded of urban spaces.Thus aesthetic reaction is an indication of an environment where effective human functioning is likely to occur’ (p10). lakes. Where there are water features. weirs and fountains produce relatively high levels of white noise in contrast to the silence of still water. they affect the senses in other ways. Furthermore.

However. (Madanipour 1996 p99)
Figure 57 Parc Guell. we go beyond appearances.58
Convivial Urban Spaces
significant sensory factor. even in urban spaces. the usual urban pollutants (such as exhaust fumes) are likely to be noticeable and it may be that at certain times of the year the smell of vegetation (either flourishing or decaying) could be a
. In terms of smell. Barcelona – powerfully textural
Figure 56 Frome Valley.We do not create mere appearances but spaces that we can use for different purposes. we only concentrate on shapes. a three dimensional experience. Finally. both in terms of the different types of surfacing underfoot and the qualities of built features and foliage. as in cities we can be overwhelmed by too much olfactory stimulation. is the feeling of warmth or coolness caused by the microclimate. If our understanding is limited to a visual understanding. urban spaces can have some noticeable textural qualities. rather than just see it. even if not actually touched. which.The same applies to the design of spaces. If. it could also be the absence of smell that could make somewhere an aesthetically pleasing environment.We can enter this space. can be experienced.Variations in shelter and shade can affect wind chill and the degree to which the warmth of the sun can penetrate. Bristol
The other sense that is noticeably affected. we start a spatial understanding. however.

and this applies just as much to non-visual as visual aspects. even when wearing sturdy shoes. the immediate sensory experience. we generally experience the environment as we move between places. … This intensification of one’s awareness of ‘being here’. in a pleasing environment intensifies one’s sense of wellbeing. The photograph of a stepped path leading up to an urban park in Bristol (Figure 58) encapsulates some of these points. and the effort of passing through a space. is to focus attention on the present moment. and assuming we want people to have positive aesthetic experiences (Taylor 2008) we should optimize surface treatments. as in a Zen garden. and the effect. microclimates and gradients to provide the best sensory experiences.The paving is smooth but uneven. In relation to non-visual aesthetic experience this will include the feeling of surfaces underfoot.
Figure 58 Eastville Park. the feel of the paving underfoot. giving it a tactile effect. Each step is special and unique. particularly if this entails climbing or descending. lingering or
loitering. the air or wind against our skin. movement through space (along with time of day and seasons) has to be factored into any consideration of aesthetic principles. As Lennard and Lennard (1995 p38) point out: This type of thoughtfully constructed floorscape can also be a work of art that increases the pedestrian’s enjoyment and awareness of the experience of walking.What Makes a Space Convivial?
59
Movement
As mentioned by Taylor (2008). Bristol
. the changing materials. All these factors should therefore be considered as part of the urban design of a space. Unless we are sitting.

condition from actual risk and spaces need to be designed with fear reduction in mind. However. It could be argued that they are not primarily about aesthetic experience. is mostly about ensuring that the layout of a space minimizes opportunities for crime and antisocial behaviour and maximizes the chances that help will be forthcoming from others in the case of victimization or an accident. In terms of light and shade deciduous trees have the huge advantage of offering light penetration during the darkness of winter and canopies of shade during the intensity of summer. Generally in Northern Europe we need to protect people from the wind and cold and maximize access to daylight. drink and converse. it should also be noted that. whereas in other. but separate. spaces might be designed to encourage cooling breezes to pass through and to provide shade from the baking sun. Finally. as long as the changes are not too steep. for example.This can be achieved. which affects our feeling of warmth or coolness can be considerately designed through the use of enclosure versus exposure and planting. which may or may not be formal benches. eat. shrubs and trees can be invaluable. by minimizing the number of potential entrapment spots and designing routes so as to encourage regular passers-by along footpaths (see Shaftoe 1998 and Shaftoe and Read 2005). in an urban design context.60
Convivial Urban Spaces
The relatively gentle slope of the stepped path also demonstrates the importance of handling gradients appropriately. people enjoy the three-dimensionality created by slopes and tiers (for example the popularity of the sloping Piazza Del Campo in Siena and the Spanish Steps in Rome). Changes in level will inevitably be felt by the pedestrian (through differential physical exertion). hotter parts of the world. as well as seen. Reassurance. According to analysts of effective public space (see Whyte 1980. Fear is a related. As well as using walls and buildings to create a protective microclimate. Gehl 2003) these ‘comfort’ opportunities are crucial to making a place work (see page 92). Comfort is primarily achieved by providing appropriate spots in which to linger. people prefer to be at street level rather than on raised decks or sunken plazas (see the research of Whyte 1980 and Gehl 2003).
. the microclimate. but it appears that. sit. Clearly the topography of the site will be the fundamental determinant of levels and inclines. Most of these activities centre around sitting spots. but (for example) the tactile experience of a comfortable bench and the feeling that one is in a safe environment imply that there is a connection. Moreover feelings of comfort and reassurance in a place are so fundamental to its use (or abandonment) that they must be considered as a core principle of good urban design.
Comfort and reassurance
The two concerns of providing comfort and reassurance are founded in both physical and psychological needs. in dense urban spaces.

perhaps harking back to our heritage as hunter-gatherers. Al fresco food and drink offers great sensory pleasure.What Makes a Space Convivial?
61
Figure 59 El Hospitalet neighbourhood.
Figure 60 Kiosk cafe.This should be encouraged in public spaces both by providing for picnicking and liquid refreshment and through the provision of foodstalls and cafes. The delight of hearing the rustling of the wind through trees and the sound of birdsong is a welcome antidote to the urban cacophony dominated by traffic noise. However. Both Whyte (1980) and Gehl (2003) point out that opportunities for conversation need to
be appropriately designed. Another non-visual aesthetic pleasure that can be provided for in a well-designed and managed public space is the auditory one. but through eating and drinking in public spaces. not so much of the landscape(!). but it also should not be so quiet that other people passing by or sitting close by can overhear the conversation. there is also an active auditory dimension – that of conversation. Barcelona
One of the non-visual aesthetic pleasures that can be enjoyed outdoors is taste. Lisbon
. People need to be able to speak and listen without voices getting drowned out by other noises.

These intense experiences of change or difference in nature – especially those that are particularly enjoyable – may provoke shared expressions of delight and pleasure. the sound of wind through the trees. Furthermore. or perhaps it is more symbolic. Water can offer a huge soundscape. Bristol
.62
Convivial Urban Spaces
Natural elements
The feel of the warm breeze. water making contact with the skin is one of the most fundamental sensory pleasures. Many of these factors interact in a synergistic manner.
Figure 61 Millennium Square. but the sounds and smells may be subliminally affecting our perception of it. and enclosures that are neither claustrophobic nor agoraphobic. intrigue. (Lennard and Lennard 1995 p39)
We generally feel comforted by experiencing natural elements in the landscape (Guite et al 2006). The final set of principles could be considered to be at the borderline between aesthetics and environmental psychology. or a sudden chill draft. Maybe this is to do with our evolutionary heritage from water creatures. or gusts of blown autumn leaves waken the passerby to the present moment. appropriate scale. which presumably explains the perennial popularity of splashing and paddling. so although the scale and intrigue of a space may be experienced primarily visually. Some of this is sensed visually. likewise a place may look mysterious. but natural elements are also experienced through hearing and touch.Trees rustle and birds sing in the bushes. Enclosure may be observed but it will also be felt through the microclimate it creates. These are to do with designing spaces and places that create a sense of mystery. from drips to babbling brooks to the roar of full-scale waterfalls. perhaps it is the fact that our bodies consist of over 80 per cent water. but perhaps the most vivid and popular sensual experience for humans is that of water (see Whyte 1980). it will be the sound and feel of it that will reinforce that experience.

We may think. The fountains lining the centre of the promenade. as we wander through an ancient southern European cityscape. we should change the name of their discipline to something that is less visually biased in its terminology!
. it should be pointed out that our experience of a place is usually based on a combination of several senses. Urban designers’ skills are therefore much more likely to be used within a visual aesthetic where they can come up with drawn solutions. a faux cobbled surface has been incorporated into the vehicular highway. We thus risk losing another whole palette of aesthetic experiences in the built environment – those that enhance the possibilities of delighting our senses of hearing. France
Finally. if we want urban designers to pay more attention to non-visual aesthetics. but the warm breeze against our skin and the smells of marble and roasted coffee along with the sound of conversations in exotic tongues are also contributing to our sense of place. for reasons presumably of visual aesthetics. to the detriment of those trying to have conversations on the adjacent seating areas.What Makes a Space Convivial?
63
Conclusion
Visual aesthetics dominate urban design thinking and guidance. although visually intriguing. presumably because (for those of us with good sight) what is seen in the environment is often the strongest sensual stimulation. where. that we are being enthralled by what we see. By contrast the central square of Rochefort in south-west France is almost completely pedestrianized. with consequent reduced traffic noise. A classic example of this is the new centre promenade in Bristol. Maybe. and the water features are designed to positively encourage playful interaction. can hardly be heard because of the traffic noise and people are not encouraged to splash about or paddle in them. meaning drawing. As a result traffic tyre noise is higher than usual. touch and smell.
Figure 62 Rochefort. But there is also a tautological factor that limits our incorporation of non-visual aspects – the term design comes from the same root as the French word dessin.

now that it is generally understood that the presence of internal combustion engines is not conducive to conviviality. Once a street has been permanently reclaimed from vehicular traffic. Even Birmingham. Most North American cities and British cities such as Birmingham gave vehicles priority over pedestrians and most public spaces became polluted through-routes or parking areas. cafes and stalls can spill out on to it and new surface treatments can be installed. previously one of the most car-friendly cities in Europe. Starting in Copenhagen in 1962 (where the first conversion of a vehicular route into a pedestrian street occurred). is gradually reclaiming urban space for pedestrians.64
Convivial Urban Spaces
Important Influences on the Use of Public Space
The rise and fall of the car
During the mid to late 20th century the motor car became a dominant feature in urban space. as may be the case for a festival.This is nicely illustrated when streets are briefly reclaimed for other uses.
.
Figure 63 Chicago
there has been a rolling backlash against the dominance of the motor vehicle in our towns and cities. celebration or demonstration.

Bereft of people sitting on the grass this site would look dreary and unappealing. the space is large enough to allow a variety of users to share it comfortably (young people in the back ground and older people from an ethnic minority in the foreground). when we see people like us lingering in a space.
Thus it becomes tautological that convivial spaces tend to be full of people looking at ease. over and above any physical or environmental attractions that the place may have. Significantly. It should therefore not be surprising that nearly all the convivial spaces portrayed in this book are well populated. As Lennard and Lennard (1995) observe: ‘Human beings require and depend on contact with other human beings. we are a sociable species (on the whole!) and therefore feel at home with other people around (Whyte 1988). but as people are already there (taking advantage of one of the few areas of grass in a city centre).Thus.66
Convivial Urban Spaces
People attracting people
As a species we are sociable animals who like to gather in groups or packs. we are attracted to it. in a self-reinforcing cycle. we are attracted to it. An example of this is shown in Figure 66. As mentioned earlier. It is self-evident that to be in the presence of other human beings is reassuring! Perceiving their presence –
Figure 66 College Green. Bristol
. Wanting to be in the presence of other people appears to be based on several psychological needs.

. For various reasons. mate-seeking and simple voyeurism (in the positive sense). feel uncomfortable in crowds. And indeed introverts generally enjoy observing others. which brings us on to the next psychological need – people-watching. we can do this in our private dwellings or by going to the countryside. even if they feel awkward being too visible themselves. hearing and touching – enables all to experience themselves as less alone’ (p84).This peoplewatching phenomenon is formalized in southern Europe in the slow mass promenading along certain city streets and squares in the evening (known in Italian as la passeggiata and in Spanish as el paseo) or even in the daytime. we enjoy observing other people going about their business and
leisure.What Makes a Space Convivial?
67
Figure 67 La Rambla: one of the great places for experiencing the theatre of public life (including street entertainment and real-life crime!)
through looking. Some people. but the best reality show is that found in well-used public spaces with provision for endlessly watching the world go by at no cost. most notably extreme introverts and agoraphobics. as down La Rambla in Barcelona. Another example of this people-watching enthusiasm is the popularity of pavement cafes (see Figure 68). If we do need to escape the crowds.This is exemplified by the popularity of reality television shows. including social learning. but this is a minority in any population.

And
. not Italians’.There is little more scary than a deserted city centre at night.This need to feel safe in public spaces is particularly salient for young people. which is partly why there is such a strong argument for encouraging mixed (both demographically and activity-wise) use of public spaces (Worpole and Greenhalgh 1996). who are demographically most at risk of becoming victims of street crime (Shaftoe 2004).
Climate
When the enlightened planners of Copenhagen started closing off trafficclogged streets and encouraged bars and cafes to put tables and chairs out on the streets. outdoor cafe seating and occupancy increased proportionately (see Gehl and Gemzoe 1996). alfresco sitting has become more and more popular in northern Europe. The exception would be when the city streets are dominated by groups of people behaving aggressively or threateningly. However. as more and more streets and squares were returned to pedestrian-only use. cynics told them that ‘we are Danes. people tend to congregate in spaces or use streets that already have other people in them as an assurance that there are ‘capable guardians’ (Felson and Clarke 1998). It is easy to linger outside in southern Europe and the tropics (Figure 69) – although it can sometimes get too hot (Figure 70)! Despite the less favourable weather conditions.68
Convivial Urban Spaces
Figure 68 Amsterdam
Another reason why people attract people is the need to herd together for safety.

. Morocco
Many convivial spaces have good microclimates engendered by the enclosure effect of low-rise buildings and even when the temperature drops. management and usage of the space in question) trigger various psychological reactions ranging along a continuum from fear and unease (leading to a desire to escape from the space) to delight and comfort (leading to a desire to linger and enjoy the space).70
Convivial Urban Spaces
Figure 71 Torquay. If the worst comes to the worst. these initial visual cues (resulting from the design. However. removing the need to resort to air-conditioning. convivial spaces can be totally or partially roofed.
Figure 72 Souk. Shade and ventilation can achieve a cooling effect. Devon
it is telling that when southern European language students come to the UK they still happily gather outdoors (Figure 71). from the searing heat rather than the bitter cold. people can keep warm in suitable clothing and with the support of outdoor heaters. nearly all our initial cues about whether we find a place convivial will be based on visual perception (although smell and noise could be lesser factors). Marrakech.
Source: Kathryn Smith
What attracts us
Significantly. Cities closer to the equator also need protection from the harshness of the climate.

although the authors of such publications usually accept that good design of the urban fabric is not an end in itself. is it environmentally friendly – sunlit. mixed-use environment. in his seminal work Making People-friendly Towns. chose case studies that answered affirmatively to the following questions. is access freely available?’ (p0. wind. but a means to engendering feelings of wellbeing and delight in the citizens who use squares and piazzas. wedged between the cathedral. human in scale. Francis Tibbalds. is it appropriate – does it relate to its context?.What Makes a Space Convivial?
71
Figure 73 Amsterdam
Most literature and guidance about good public spaces comes from a design perspective. Geographical factors can often override design and other considerations. vibrant. that does not die at night or at weekends and is visually stimulating and attractive to residents and visitors alike’. John Billingham and Richard Cole.and pollution-free?. in their Good Place Guide. suggests that such places should consist of ‘a rich.11).
Location
The other key factor that determines whether people are drawn to use certain public spaces is their location. with a variety of uses?. the town hall and an arterial road
.This triangular public space. as is the case with College Green in Bristol (see Bristol case study). ‘is the
place enjoyable – is it safe. is it memorable and identifiable – distinctive?.

as was found in the ‘Five Spaces for Glasgow’ project (described in Gallacher 2005). combined with an imaginative play space. underpopulated or difficult-to-access location.Yet the green is hugely popular with a primarily. however well-designed and managed it may be. Bristol
Figure 75 Earswick. young population.
If a public space is in an isolated. ‘The real estate people are right about location. of its location close to the centre of the city where most public transport converges. but not exclusively. For a space to function truly well it must be central to the constituency it is to serve – and if not in physical distance. most notably skateboarding. in visual accessibility’ (p128). location. As William Whyte (1988) points out.
Figure 74 College Green. location. I believe. it will not thrive. It is much more difficult to create convivial spaces in primarily residential areas. Ken Worpole (in Gallacher 2005) suggests that public spaces work best in urban areas that have mixed use.York – new covered water trough as a rather pointless public space feature
Attempts to create public spaces in new low-density suburbs may look good on master plans but may well become meaningless and underused in reality.The exception might be a pocket park.
. by virtue.72
Convivial Urban Spaces
could not be regarded as a particularly attractive place from a design point of view and the management positively discourages certain uses.

rather than being intended as friendly places for people to meet in.What Makes a Space Convivial?
73
Size. Such places do have their useful functions as places of mass assembly and demonstration. but it will not feel cosy. London
. were built by rulers as political statements of their power and influence. In my view. off Oxford Street. If the space is very large (such as the Plaza de la Revolución in Havana. but do ‘breathe out’ through their surrounding linking spaces. Red Square in Moscow or even Trafalgar Square in London). such as
these. the most convivial spaces in Central London. On the other hand. the place may inspire awe. if a space is too small. are relatively small. for example. there do seem to be some key dimensions that make a public space feel convivial. Shapes and Types of Public Space
Does size matter?
In terms of overall surface area. Most big squares.
Figure 76 St Christopher’s Place. it can feel claustrophobic and not have enough surface area to allow for convivial activities and encounters.

Jan Gehl suggests a similar maximum and points out that the maximum distance for being able to distinguish facial expressions is about 25m. Kevin Lynch suggests between 12 and 24m along each side as the ideal size for a small space. often as an incremental result of their medieval origins. Even fine symmetrical squares in Continental Europe (such as Place des Vosges in Paris and Plaza Mayor in Madrid) often feel less sterile as a result of tree planting and intriguing links to the surrounding neighbourhood. going up to about 100m for large squares. beautifully expressed in a slogan seen in the window of a shop extolling the virtues of their custom-made fitted kitchens: ‘harmony without symmetry’.
do not stimulate the eye (Cooper Marcus and Francis 1998). Gehl 2003).Yet we also seek coherence and sense. Steve Abley (Abley and Hill 2004) notes that the maximum distance for seeing any human movement is 135m: ‘Medieval squares had average dimensions of 57 x 140 metres which indicates that we previously designed public spaces based on “social distances” but have lost these design skills over time’ (p9.
Shape
People seem to like a bit of intrigue in their surroundings – repetition and bland facades
Figure 77 Madrid: corner leading out of Plaza Mayor
. By studying numerous existing public spaces.5). he attempts to categorize the various types of shape that have come into existence. Rob Krier in his book Urban Space (1979) spends a considerable amount of time detailing many options and variations in the shape of public space.74
Convivial Urban Spaces
Several writers on urban design have suggested optimum dimensions (Lynch 1971. Although many public spaces in British towns are called ‘squares’ they very rarely are. Christopher Alexander suggests that a small public square should never be more than 22m across. Alexander 1977.

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75

Curves and bends in public spaces offer intrigue and the prospect of something interesting round the corner.This was the basis for Gordon Cullen’s (1961) thinking about successful townscapes that revealed themselves sequentially rather than being all there at once. And as Hundertwasser (see Kliczkowski 2003), the delightfully eccentric remodeller of some of Vienna’s dour buildings, claimed, ‘straight lines are utterly alien to human beings, to life and the whole of creation’. Christopher Alexander (2004a), in his work on morphogenesis, also notes that natural forms are hardly ever rectangular, let alone square. It must also be of significance that many of the most popular pieces of architecture (such as Gaudi’s in Barcelona, the Sydney Opera House, the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao and the ‘Gherkin’ in London) are curvaceous.

Types of public space
A broad definition of public space would cover anywhere that is universally accessible to citizens and could therefore include everything from national parks to town hall foyers. Mean and Tims (2005) take a radical approach to identifying public space and include such things as car-boot sales and arts centres under this banner. However, as mentioned earlier, this book focuses on the middle range of urban spaces that are used as general gathering and breathing places. Although there is some overlap, in the following paragraphs I identify the types of space that can perform these functions in a convivial way.

Figure 78 Smaller square leading off the main market square, Krakow, Poland

76

Convivial Urban Spaces

Open squares
These are the classical places where people have gathered throughout history and they still epitomize most people’s stereotype of public space. Even within this typology, there is a huge range of sizes, shapes and functions (see Krier 1979).

in Sheffield); others have another primary function – often as a transport interchange or marketplace, but are still accessible to and usable by any members of the public.The huge covered foyer area of Madrid’s revamped Atocha Station is a fine example of this.

Enclosed and/or covered spaces
Primarily for reasons of the vagaries of the climate, some successful public spaces are partially or totally covered. Some of these are truly public (as with the Winter Gardens

Rather more contentious are the huge ‘private’ public spaces that have burgeoned in many North American and European cities over the last few decades. Although these malls have some characteristics of urban public space, they are usually privately owned

Figure 79 Plaça Reial, Barcelona – a classic open square, but with arcading for shade and protection

and are primarily targeted for use by consumers.The owners don’t want people to just hang around there – they want them to spend money and everything is designed explicitly or subtly to facilitate this.They are therefore much more controlled than a true public space, with restrictions on activities that are not purely consumptive – busking and demonstrating, for example.They are also likely to be heavily monitored by day and sealed off at night.They offer then a kind of sanitized version of public space, without any of the rough edges or unpredictability that make true public space so vital and democratic.

particularly those with a high concentration of apartments.The classic urban green space in the UK is the Georgian communal or public garden. such as the green ring round the centre of Krakow which is the
Figure 82 Victoria Square. surrounded by terraced houses (see Figure 82).
Boulevards and linear parks
Public space may run parallel to traffic arteries or be a pedestrian route in its own right (see Jacobs 1993). greenery helps to cut down noise and pollution and also has benefits for health and wellbeing (Kellert and Wilson 1993. Clifton. Such spaces need a higher level of maintenance than hard landscaped areas but can prove to be very popular oases in densely built-up areas. Guite et al 2006). at others they are reclaimed from former uses. Bristol
.The important factors are that it should give priority to pedestrian use and lingering and that there should be sufficient softening and separation from vehicular movement (usually by providing broad footpaths set back from the road with trees and other forms of landscaping).78
Convivial Urban Spaces
Pocket parks and green spaces
Quite apart from the aesthetic and amenity aspect of small areas of soft landscaping in towns. as with the Parisian boulevards. Sometimes these are built into the townscape.

Bideford in Devon (see CABE Space 2007) and the South Bank of the Thames in London are all examples of the rediscovery of the delights of lingering by the waterside. Many maritime and riverine cities have created or reinstated waterfront promenades. Waterford in Ireland. which runs along the route of an abandoned urban railway line. Paris
. Ireland: reclaimed public space by the river.
Figure 83 Waterford.What Makes a Space Convivial?
79
route of the former city walls. One of the most inspiring and successful examples of a reclaimed linear park is the ‘Promenade Plantée’ in Paris. but rather isolated by the adjacent busy traffic artery
Figure 84 Promenade Plantée. some of it a viaduct with new shops and workshops underneath.

rather than scuttle along. so that one can wander through a series of unfurling tableaux. streets can once more become fully public spaces where people feel comfortable to linger. Now even the remotest European towns have their traffic-free streets reclaimed for the pedestrian. Denmark was the trailblazer in this (see Gehl and Gemzoe 1996). Algajola in Corsica. eat and drink. Northern Portugal
Reclaimed streets
As the motor vehicle is gradually being pushed back from the centre of cities. closely followed by the French and then the rest of Europe.80
Convivial Urban Spaces
Figure 85 Monção. Padua in northern Italy and York (the last two are featured as case studies in this book) contain fine examples of such linked urban spaces.
. Sarlat Le Canéda in southern France. diving into the occasional shop or cafe.
Linked spaces
Some of the most enjoyable public spaces are those that consist of a series of squares connected by short pedestrian routes.

(Landry 2006 p2) Many of the theories and principles of urban design assume that it is a mechanistic. arrived at through a systematic series of assessments based on land use. Christopher Alexander has done some fascinating research in this direction (described in The Nature of Order) and uses the term ‘morphogenesis’ to describe this more natural approach to building and development. can we design such places at the drawing board? Critics of formal architecture and planning such as Bernard Rudofsky (Architecture without Architects) and Christopher Alexander (The Timeless Way of Building. but they tend to be relatively small in scale (see for example the Barcelona case study on page 81). however. emotional. I think we have a lot to learn about how plants and natural environments grow. (Abley and Hill 2006 p8. when they don’t have one.7) The city is discussed in barren eviscerated terms and in technical jargon by urban professionals as if it were a lifeless. topography and so on. circulation.They usually do their best work.There are some ancient and modern examples to suggest that it is possible to design convivial places as a
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.CHAPTER FOUR
How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
Designed or Evolved?
whole.
G
iven that many convivial spaces seem to have grown organically through an accumulation of adaptations and additions. rather than trying to build them from a blueprint. In fact it is a sensory. Gradual organic growth of townscapes is often best. detached being. local nuance and adaptability which seem to be at the root of convivial places. evolve and adapt to local circumstances and then to mirror this in the development of the built environment.The post-1947 culture of master-planning whole urban areas is less likely to accommodate the fine grain. lived experience. A Pattern Language) suggest that we are better off ‘growing’ good places and spaces. fixed discipline that can lead to a definitive ‘master plan’. Some architects and planners like a blank slate.

and group. with the result that the built environment will rapidly become unhealthy for most of its inhabitants. as the quotes above indicate. In their abstruse treatise on ‘space syntax’ (mapping how urban spaces are used by people) Hillier and Hanson (1984 p140) do make the clear assertion that: . In this book he is particularly critical of design as a rigid production of buildings and fixed spaces and gives. . suggesting. there is an alternative approach that is much more messy and incremental and thus not to the taste of the urbanist professionals who generally seem to prefer purity and finality. and for responding appropriately to those needs’ (p22). examples of what he terms ‘low road’ environments which are much more amenable to adaptation to the messiness of life and inevitable social evolution. the technological metaphor is not practical.
. as the planners and designers move on to their next project. a rigid design is produced that is implemented and then left. He referred to ‘the exasperatingly complicated organism that is a town’. while modern systems do not work because they fail to produce it. Clearly. . was developed by Brand (1994) in his account of How Buildings Learn.This concept of urban design as a continuous and adaptive process. that good architecture is not necessarily produced by design specialists but by the spontaneous and continuous activity of a whole people.82
Convivial Urban Spaces
As a result. However. as an alternative approach. but because they have not had the power to be adaptive over the course of time’ (p100). it simply doesn’t work’ (p101). but it seems undeniable. it is extraordinary that unplanned growth should produce a better global order than planned redevelopment. Sennett (1973) highlighted this unhelpful professional obsession with order when he described master plans as an attempt to produce perfect ‘machines’ which would (inevitably) break down because they were so rigid and could not accommodate the evolving history of human and social development: ‘… they have failed. Lennard and Lennard (1995) liken a welldesigned city to a healthy organism where individual cells modify and adapt themselves in response to continuous feedback loops with other parts of the organism: ‘ … a healthy city is one in which finely tuned mechanisms exist for recognising the needs of every individual. not for lack of technical expertise. a rigid master-planning approach to urban design is not going cope with the need for constant adaptation and adjustment.
Rudofsky (1964) was one of the first theorists to challenge the view that a good built environment required specialists to design it in a complete way. if you believe this. mostly by illustrative material.The inference seems unavoidable that traditional systems work because they produce a global order that responds to the requirements of a dual (inhabitants and strangers) interface. rather than a fixed science. ‘In the shaping of cities.

Alexander asks why our modern cities so often lack a sense of natural growth. was achieved incrementally.How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
83
The principal proselytizer of good urban design as an organic growth process is Christopher Alexander.
Figure 86 Copenhagen city centre
. it is telling that one of the most successful urban design initiatives in Europe – the reclaiming of the historic heart of Copenhagen through pedestrianization of streets and the creation of a series of linked squares. buildings and squares.
In the light of this discussion. and goes on to suggest a set of rules and guidelines by which we can inject that organic character back into our high streets. with no overall master plan (Gehl and Gemzoe 1996). commencing with his book New Theory of Urban Design (1987) and subsequently developed in his series The Nature of Order (2004a).

it is more fundamental than that. alienating.
. Historically. it is an art. rest and play but in their more extreme forms their plans led to sterile. which was explicitly aimed at giving the ruling class a better means of controlling the seething masses. purified environments for work. most towns and cities just grew organically. On the one hand was the planned city movement led by visionaries such as Ebenezer Howard. but the reaction in the 19th and 20th centuries was arguably too extreme.They mould the physical into shape and frame its use and how it feels’ (p5). where an elite who have allegedly ‘mastered’ the science of creating an effective built environment impose their worldview on the ordinary citizenry. One of Sennett’s theses is that this separation and control of ‘other’ populations is actually dangerous in the longer term as it generates prejudice and can lead to ‘big’ violence (such as revolutions and riots) rather than the small everyday conflicts that are actually a healthy way of people getting to know. controlling system of dealing with the built environment and a bottom-up. implying as it does a masculine.These people had the best intentions to provide people with hygienic. with the exception of a few planned defensive or military settlements (such as Richelieu’s in France). He therefore argues that a certain amount of disorder is actually a good thing and that the planners’ desire to order and predestine human function is doomed to failure or worse – violence. It is no coincidence that much of the literature on this alternative approach to urban design regards a good built environment as an organism rather than a machine. Sennett (1973) points out that the origins of master-planning can be traced back to Hausmann’s redesign of Paris. by creating broad and straight routes that would facilitate the speedy deployment of armed forces. Landry (2006) asserts that city-making is not a science.
The very term master-planning is telling in itself. preferably created by ‘… the people who populate the city. democratic one. As Sennett also relates in Flesh and Stone (1994). Furthermore it will affect whether people have to adapt to a predetermined environment or whether the environment can be adapted to best meet people’s needs. fixed urban design approach and a more incremental organic one is not just a question of two different styles of treatment. mechanistic environments from which we still reap negative social consequences (see for example Hartcliffe in Bristol or Bijlmermeer in Amsterdam). It is the difference between a top-down. dominating system. Undoubtedly this led to problems such as congestion and strained infrastructure.84
Convivial Urban Spaces
The contrast between a master-planned. complemented later by the modernist urbanist movement spearheaded by Le Corbusier. understand and accommodate each other. Nash’s designs for Regent Street and Regent’s Park were also intended to allow the upper classes to speedily pass by the lower orders hanging around on street corners.

There are a few examples of new masterplanned urban spaces that do seem to work as vibrant locations to hang out in (see for example the new Potsdamer Platz described in the Berlin case study). allowing for very little easy adjustment once their dysfunctions became apparent.These examples were master-planned to within an inch of their life. the Jerde Partnership International. has made its reputation by ‘creating places to be’. they are still soulless locations with very little human stimulation (consider the Coventry City Centre Precinct before its recent costly redevelopment. comfortable and happy. evocative places where people feel safe. designed by Jerde Partnership International
. unique places
Figure 87 Horton Plaza.How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
85
Even when these environments have not become places of misery and last resort. Les Halles and La Défense in Paris or central Milton Keynes). One American design practice.Tellingly John Jerde asserts that ‘what we seek to create are inviting. San Diego.

It is this use of colour and an almost overwhelming variety of styles and spatial treatments that gives his new spaces a feeling of incremental accretion.livingneighbourhoods. Alexander argued that what he calls the morphogenetic approach to urban design is the only true form of built-environment sustainability. there will be no money left to modify things.org). but there is a more sober interpretation. context and culture. genial places where variegated populations gather to have a fantastic time’ (Jerde 1998 p69). as the snagging period will have long since expired. Even if they could be persuaded to go back there is the likelihood that in their arrogance they will blame the users for not treating their creations correctly (according to the instructions and ideology) or. the places people made had life’ (Alexander 2004b p6). from planning
. one of the most beautiful public spaces in the world. On top of this is all the suffocating legislation. rather than the master-planned uniformity that makes so many new urban spaces look sterile. As a result of the morphogenesis and the complex adaptation that was possible under these conditions. it was shaped. as the defining feature of Jerde’s urban spaces is a high level of fantasy. will ‘adapt to the prevailing conditions’ and many other plant-like analogies. In his Schumacher lecture of 2004 (partial transcript available from www. very few architects and planners revisit the developments they helped to form to see how they have fared over the years. in fact critics of his approach describe his work as ‘Disney-like’ and one of his most famous places is CityWalk at the Universal Studios in Los Angeles – a kind of recreated urban street encrusted with colour and variety. As Brand (1994) points out. It is not casually that he uses the adjective ‘fantastic’. be ‘pruned and grafted’. He then goes on to give an example of the morphogenetic evolution of St Mark’s Square in Venice. He points out that traditional societies always took a morphogenetic approach to the
development of the built environment: ‘Whatever it was.86
Convivial Urban Spaces
that speak to a site’s climate.The concept of morphogenesis is a biological one.The cynic would argue that they don’t want to have their noses rubbed in the mess they have created. which is that there is just no incentive for them to go back and see how their buildings and spaces have ‘learnt’. can ‘bend with the wind’. to explain that any living organism is an evolving system in which what is changing in the organism is always drawn from the form of what was in the moment just before. and adjusted and so on and so forth. The ‘organic’ urban designs. incremental approach to urban design appears to lead to so much more ‘people-friendly’ environments. modified. why do we do so little of it? Part of the answer lies in the way we have set up the suite of builtenvironment professions and the legislation that supports (or inhibits) them. shaped again. So if this organic. as espoused by Alexander and others. because it produces a wholeness for the future that is the physical manifestation of our social and cultural aspirations. if they are humble enough to admit their mistakes.

which evolved over hundreds of years). surely we should be encouraging this more ‘organic’ approach to urban design. to find a whole range of adaptations to the buildings and spaces. nearly all of which would be regarded as ‘impurities’ by the original designer.
Given that human beings are eager to adapt and personalize their environments incrementally and that the results have so much more character. visited a Le Courbusier-designed housing estate 40 years after it had been completed. usability and ‘soul’. As Alexander (2004b p6) comments: The idea that we have inherited from the thinking of the last years is that when you build something. which create a very rigid system of predetermined strategies and designs. we slipped into a fiction which was that it is actually possible to make a blueprint of a piece of the environment. yet we are still producing too many sterile places resulting from top-down. but we are still not very good at developing healthy and tasteful places.The most obvious manifestation of this is the imprinting of ‘desire lines’ along circulation routes not predetermined by the urban designers – the trampled flower bed on the shortest route to the main entrance of a public building or the muddy corner short cut on the way out of a landscaped car park (see Brand 1994 p187). Now this is a fiction. Boudon (1969). or the completed environment. People who use the built environments created by the professionals are usually desperate to modify and personalize their surroundings. aligned with a different resourcing system.Through education.How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
87
through to building codes and regulations. a social researcher. rather than rigid schemes that cost dearly when they are found to be defective. blueprint thinking. Most European countries have abandoned the wholesale clearance and rebuild approach that characterized the immediate post-war period. it should be possible to operate a more organic regime to produce urban designs capable of adaptation.
. you make a plan which is so detailed that it can become a specification for a contractor and protect you in a court of law if something goes wrong with a particular line of bolts. Such places are likely to be better used and cared for (just think of St Mark’s Square in Venice. and have it work.This legal reasoning began to dominate architecture and construction – and as a result of accepting it. modified legislation and more post-occupancy evaluation.

the Ciutat Vella.The Ciutat Vella is a densely populated part of the city.88
Convivial Urban Spaces
Case Study: Ciutat Vella. arcaded square that despite its pleasant appearance had a reputation for crime and antisocial activities. Of particular interest. are the improvements to the ancient central area. an ancient neighbourhood punctuated with a number of convivial spaces. lined with cafes and public seating. Further down La Rambla.To the east of the famous Rambla (an iconic public space in its own right) lies the Barri Gotic. Barcelona
In the last 25 years. the area immediately to the west of La Rambla. it is now a much safer place. Barcelona has moved from a place deliberately held back by the Franco dictatorship to become one of the most progressive cities in Europe. consisting mostly of old apartment buildings rising up to five storeys above stores and workshops. built along very narrow streets. As a result of some refurbishment and a constant police presence. and especially El Raval. from an urban space point of view. Plaça Reial is a formal.
. such as Plaça del Pi.

Since the 1980s the municipality has intervened drastically to ‘normalize’ the area. cafe tables and buskers
The whole of El Raval.The intervention has mostly consisted of selective demolition and rebuilding of some parts to create new urban spaces. the neighbourhood was dominated by drug dealers and users.How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
89
Figure 88 Plaça del Pi. Despite its historic status. workplaces (such as new university buildings. but a pity formed by the removal of entire blocks they feel they have to sit in their cars! of problematic tenements.
.The most striking change is the creation of several new public squares (usually with car parking underneath). publishing offices and galleries) and new homes for residents of the cleared buildings who wanted to stay in the area.This square is regularly filled with market stalls. prostitutes and petty criminals. Figure 89 Plaça Reial: police presence. with some considerable success – at least in the northern half of the neighbourhood. on the other side of La Rambla. was considered a no-go area for many years.

90
Convivial Urban Spaces
Figure 90 Plaça Reial: New street furniture has offered both formal and informal sitting opportunities
Thanks to its close working relationship with community organizations and its commitment to accommodating the existing resident population. the programme of improvement in El Raval seems to be succeeding in upgrading the area without the wholesale gentrification process that occurs in many other high-value inner urban areas in Europe.
Figure 91 Rambla del Raval: a new square created by the demolition of a complete city block of old buildings
.

How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
91
Figure 92 Plaça dels Angels. has proved to be a popular gathering place for young people
Figure 93 Plaça de les Caramelles: a new square primarily for the residents of the new social housing blocks that surround it
. created next to the new Contemporary Art Museum in the heart of El Raval.This square.

William Whyte’s (1988) groundbreaking research into successful public spaces tested various possibilities. such as location and size. He concluded: ‘No matter how many other variables we checked.92
Convivial Urban Spaces
Comfort
Seating
Probably the single most important provision to ensure a successful public space is a sufficient range of opportunities for sitting. with the result that it is rarely used (Figure 95): The main problem seems to be that public space designers and providers not only provide the wrong type of sitting opportunities.
. to establish what were the key factors that differentiated successful (i. crucially.e. the built environment is littered with seating of the wrong type. well-used) public spaces from unsuccessful ones. but.
Figure 95 Sheffield
Figure 94 Central Bristol
But despite the willingness of people to apparently sit almost anywhere (Figure 94). in the wrong place. one basic point kept coming through. 97). they put fixed seating in the wrong places (Figures 96. We at last recognized that it was the major one: People tend to sit most where there are places to sit’ (p110).

Conventional seating arrangements. 100). in southern climates the converse is true. Broad steps are a classic example of this (Figures 99. In northern climates they should be south-facing to catch the sun. so seats without a wall or other barrier behind them are likely to be underused (Figure 98).
Figure 98 Temple Quarter.Therefore it is important to provide a range of seating opportunities in any public space and for seating to be flexible and adaptable. As with shoes. rather horizontal surfaces that
serve multiple functions. Orientation is a crucial factor as to whether steps (and other horizontal sitting surfaces) will become popular. Bristol
. the best seating does not actually consist of custom-designed benches or chairs. with suitable protection behind. may appeal to older people (Figure 101). In many cases.94
Convivial Urban Spaces
Generally people sitting down like to observe rather than be observed (particularly from behind). They should also offer some kind of spectacle – usually a street scene – as steps in particular make an ideal grandstand. Different people require different seating types and locations according to circumstances. for seating there is no ‘one size fits all’.

This seems to be a universal phenomenon. even if it means subverting the conventional arrangements for seating and use. It is therefore important that seats and their surroundings should be designed to allow this. rather than assume that people will only sit in the obvious place. as Figures 102–108 demonstrate. For this reason.
Figure 102 Barcelona
. one of the things that people enjoy about public space is to be able to ‘watch the world go by’ or more specifically to observe other people. good vantage points are cherished.96
Convivial Urban Spaces
Vantage points
As mentioned earlier.

How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?

97

Figure 103 Bristol

Figure 104 Vietnam
Source: Vietnam photo: Kathy Sykes

Figure 105 Krakow

98

Convivial Urban Spaces

Figure 106 Padua

Figure 107 Padua

Figure 108 Bristol

How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?

99

Shelter and protection
The vagaries of the climate mean that in many areas seating will need to be at least partially protected from cold winds or bright sunshine. As Figures 109–112 show, there are various innovative approaches, from partial screening right up to total enclosure and creation of a winter garden.
Figure 109 Glass-fronted seating area, Bristol

How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
101
Figure 112 Winter Garden. Sheffield
.

and Parade Gardens. have been provided (Figure 115).
However there are examples where movable seating has been provided in completely permeable public areas.102
Convivial Urban Spaces
Movable seating
One of the most exciting possibilities with seating is to provide chairs that users can move about and group as they wish (Whyte 1988). Lennard and Lennard (1995 p46) describe how the city of Munich took the ‘bold and imaginative step’ of providing movable chairs in a couple of its central squares: ‘Critics who warned that the chairs would be stolen or vandalised have.’
Figure 113 Jardin du Luxembourg. Paris. where cast-iron seats. which can be dragged into new positions but would be difficult to run away with. such as the River Danube waterfront walk in Budapest. Figures 113 and 114). for example. At a stroke this overcomes the difficulty that urban designers have of locating seating appropriately. been proved wrong. happily. Paris
. Different people will want to sit in different ways according to who they are with and the weather conditions. The chairs are enormously popular and have contributed significantly to the success of Munich’s pedestrian zone. Bath. Generally it is thought that movable seating can only be provided in areas that can be secured at night (for example the Jardin du Luxembourg.

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Convivial Urban Spaces
Leaning
Sometimes people don’t want to go as far as to sit down. plinth.These leaning opportunities usually are a by-product of their core function. which may be a piece of public art. either because they want to survey the scene from a standing position or because they are only intending to pause briefly.
Figure 116 Venice
Figure 117 Padua
. bollard or suitable wall. Leaning places are therefore a small but valued part of the public realm (see Whyte 1980).

those with children and people with disabilities (Holland et al 2007). but adequate provision of suitable public toilets is part of the fundamental infrastructure for successful public spaces (see Greed 2003). Barcelona
.How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
105
Comfort breaks
It is hardly the most glamorous of subjects for urban designers and policy makers to deal with.These can range from cafes and bars with outside tables to portable refreshment kiosks where people can get takeaways to be consumed in adjacent sitting areas. Many local authorities seem to regard public toilets as a liability (and drain on their resources).
Figure 118 Park Güell. rather than an asset and there has been a worrying trend of closure over the last few decades. Inadequate toilet provision has a particularly
discriminatory effect against older people.
Eating and drinking
Food and drink outlets can attract people to a public space.

This is a blunt instrument aimed at banning street drinking alcoholics from the public realm.
One important factor to be considered is the provision of suitable litter bins and their regular emptying. East Berlin
. He goes on to suggest that by deregulating some public spaces or parts of them.
Figure 119 Picnickers. street-drinkers are citizens too and. Such spaces either need grass or suitable perching places. Public spaces can rapidly appear unappealing if they are strewn with discarded food and drink containers or overflowing bins. A disturbing trend in the UK has been the imposition of by-laws to prohibit the consumption of alcohol in designated public spaces. but it potentially affects all of us. as the photograph of a vacant building lot in Berlin demonstrates (Figure 120).This could also apply to groups of young people who just want to hang out or skateboard. even if not specifically designated as such. this ‘looseness’ or ‘slackness’ could perform a necessary and useful social function.106
Convivial Urban Spaces
There could also be suitable places for picnics. Portugal Figure 120 Impromptu food court. Sometimes the mere addition of a food outlet and a few tables can transform somewhere into a convivial space. as long as they are causing no harm to others. Lisbon. some shelter (from sun or wind) and a reasonable aspect. And as Ken Worpole (2007) points out. they should have a legitimate right to frequent public space.

not far from the Brandenburg Gate (and therefore at the heart of reunified Berlin).’
. with places where people can just hang out. water and eating opportunities
The most intriguing of these quasi-public spaces is the Sony Centre. Although this centre is an open access space. Berlin has been the subject of a huge amount of reconstruction. has been completely remodelled as a primarily commercial area (offices.
Figure 121 A winning combination of public art. particularly in the former east zone where the following two examples of remodelled public space are situated. which has been constructed from scratch as a huge. semi-enclosed town square (see Flierl 2002.How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
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Case Study: Berlin
Since German reunification in 1990. Leier 2004). retail and leisure) but with a significant public space component. Flierl (2002 p24) is critical of its primarily consumption-based and controlled function. as a theme park – ‘its theme was city and downtown. describing it as being conceived along the lines of Disneyland.
Potsdamer Platz
The Potsdamer Platz. only a virtual one. but it is not a real city and downtown.

Figure 124 Seating and public art rolled into one
Figure 125 Mosaic mural and flower planting
. A concerted attempt was made by the Berlin municipality to bring colour. considerable effort was put into creating lively and intriguing public spaces. to emphasize the principle of bringing colour and delight into people’s lives by adding actual colour to the built fabric – such a simple but effective approach.How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
109
Marzahn
A very different location is Marzahn. variety and vitality to this dreary peripheral neighbourhood. in order to prevent its slide into undesirability and decline. As well as work on remodelling the housing. The whole regeneration project was subtitled ‘der Stadtteil mit Farbe’ (the neighbourhood with colour). a former East German housing estate at the easternmost fringe of the Berlin conurbation.

yet be durable. Switzerland
.This can be achieved broadly in three ways – through the provision of good hard and soft landscaping. as they are more resistant to wear and weathering. As well as being ends in themselves. Soft landscaping (in the form of plants. but this can be enhanced by providing focal points to draw people in and encourage them to linger. Materials need to look good. they often provide the catalyst for an impromptu conversation between strangers. may prove to be economical in the long term. as well as offering health and
Figure 128 Zurich.Vast areas of concrete and tarmac do not offer much delight. can be a great source of delight. although expensive. as a successful public space will get a lot of usage.How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
111
Joy
One of the characteristics that differentiates successful from avoided public spaces (and indeed is at the heart of the notion of conviviality) is the range of opportunities they provide for the experience of joy or delight. yet these are the principle surfacing materials in too many public spaces.
Hard and soft landscaping
The selection of the right kind of surfacing and cladding materials can have a substantial effect on the success of a public space. High quality materials such as marble and granite. Some of this pleasure is achieved by watching or interacting with other people. shrubs and trees). public art and entertainment.

Wellconsidered planting can: soften the hardness of surrounding buildings. in the summer
they offer shade from bright sunlight and in the winter they shed their leaves to maximize the availability of natural light. Covent Garden. Hough 1989). provide boundary treatments. London
. introduce variety and seasonal difference and offer a more comfortable microclimate. have a calming effect on users. particularly in northern climates where grey skies and low light predominate for much of the year (Mahnke 1987).
Colour
It should also be remembered that colour brings joy.112
Convivial Urban Spaces
practical benefits (see for example Kaplan and Kaplan 1989. moderate pollution.
Figure 129 Neal’s Yard. frame views and vistas.This latter point is a particular bonus of deciduous trees.

so he did it literally – by the cheap but highly visible transformation of the existing built environment through colourful painting of exterior surfaces.How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
113
When asked. people prefer colourful environments (see Duttmann et al 1981). renegade artist Friedensreich Hundertwasser was encouraged by an enlightened mayor to remodel buildings and structures using colour and soft landscaping.Veneto region
When Albania.Yet most architecture and urban design is drearily monochromatic. became liberated from Soviet control. the mayor of the capital city wanted to brighten up people’s lives. One of
the most famous examples of this is Burano in the Venetian lagoon.
Figure 131 Tirana. buildings and spaces can be transformed through the imaginative use of colour (see Marzahn. also Kliczkowski 2003). In Vienna. Berlin case study). the poorest country in Europe. when for a remarkably small capital outlay. When people are left to their own devices in the built environment. Albania
Source: Tobias Woldendorp
. It seems as though designers have enough to think about without the added complication of colour.
Figure 130 Burano. with spectacular results (see Figure 132 overleaf. where local fishermen have competed with each other to paint their houses brightly. one of the first things they will do is brighten up their surroundings with paint and murals.

Figure 133 Grafton Street.How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
115
Public art
Public art is a well-established presence in public space. Historically. Bristol
. usually to commemorate some great event or famous person. Dublin
Figure 134 Millennium Square.This triumphalist approach has. this has been of the monumental kind. in the last few decades. Usually this will consist of a sturdy sculpture or mural. been increasingly replaced by a more populist and often witty type of art (see Lennard and Lennard 1995).

Figure 136 This mural by the artist Banksy appeared without permission in central Bristol and has subsequently become a visitor attraction
. which usually takes the form of graffiti or stencilling. as can be seen in Figures 136–138.116
Convivial Urban Spaces
Figure 135 Rue du Midi. Brussels
In Brussels the city administration has a proactive policy of commissioning murals to brighten up drab gable end walls throughout the city centre (Figure 135).There are mixed views about whether such works constitute vandalism or art and this will vary according to the quality of the result. Rather more contentious is the notion of informal public art. there is a danger that authorities take a blanket stand against any form of guerrilla art. when some of it actually enhances the public realm. However.

How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
117
Figure 137 This graffiti in a Paris street has brightened up a drab concrete end wall
Figure 138 This huge mural in Zaragoza was painted on a partially demolished structure that was to be redeveloped
.

Figure 139 Lisbon. Portugal
. whereas an almost identical structure I came across in Barcelona was hugely popular – presumably the weather made it more comfortable to lounge on.
The rather miserable-looking ‘seating sculpture’ in Edinburgh reminded me of the importance of context when furnishing the built environment.The rather brutal sculpture in a Lisbon street (Figure 139) has been made even less attractive by graffiti and fly-posting. Public art should have an immediate appeal and not be so esoteric that citizens do not know what it is. Concrete is not much fun to lie on in Scotland – it is too cold and damp.118
Convivial Urban Spaces
Public art fixtures (such as murals and sculptures) need to be robust and resilient and should not offer invitations to defacement.

with Frank Gehry’s big fish sculpture in the background
. Edinburgh Figure 141 Sculptural ‘recliner’: Barcelona waterfront.How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
119
Figure 140 Is it a seat? Is it a sculpture? Holyrood.

Poland
. However. Barcelona Figure 143 Street band. they can offer substantial social and democratic benefits. they are a low-cost way to bring public spaces to life with the minimum of regulation. Krakow. there has been a long history of street entertainment. Such events often make city administrators nervous as they are not predictable and can be messy.This can consist of formal events such as festivals and bandstand concerts.
Figure 142 La Rambla.120
Convivial Urban Spaces
Entertainment
As with public art. or through the enabling of busking and informal events such as brica-brac stalls and demonstrations.

Figure 144 Folk dancing. except in areas of high demand. street entertainment is usually self-regulatory. as it is an almost no-cost way to bring colour. Covent Garden.How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
121
A number of municipal administrations have set up licensing (e. and Bath) or simple regulatory contracts (e. However. Perhaps this is a case of nobody in most municipalities actually having the responsibility or inclination to encourage this kind of animation. insofar as people will soon lose interest in poor quality acts and any behaviour which causes substantial offence can always be dealt with by existing laws. Budapest
. joy and delight to public spaces and there seems to be an endless potential supply of artists and performers eager to exercise their talents in public.
It is therefore surprising that more street entertainment is not encouraged. Berne in Switzerland) to ensure the quality and benignity of street entertainment. London.g.g. whether proactively by organizing events or simply by designating spaces for buskers and so on.

in south-west England.
Queen Square was completed in Georgian times and is a large formal square. the other problem is that nearly all the terraced buildings surrounding the square are used as offices. Additional seating has been put in. has a population of 400.122
Convivial Urban Spaces
Case Study: Bristol
Bristol.
Figure 145 Queen Square
. it is underused for much of the time.The central area is particularly well endowed with public spaces. Although visually impressive. but it only really comes alive when special events are mounted there.000. Part of the problem is that it is probably too large to be a convivial space. both old and new.

but also for all ages. including cafes and stalls. the Centre Promenade was essentially the centre of a huge traffic circulation system. with the result that during daylight hours it is always buzzing with activity.The space was extensively remodelled with new seating. The St Nicholas Markets area is a partially covered Victorian space. the cathedral and one of Bristol’s main shopping streets.The Green was vastly improved by the removal of a through road that passed between the Council House and the cathedral (along the left-hand side of Figure 147). its central location and degree of greenery makes it one of Bristol’s most successful gathering places. planting and a water feature (the latter
Figure 146 St Nicholas Markets
Figure 147 College Green
Figure 148 Centre Promenade
. particularly for young people. Until 2000. Despite its relatively bland design.How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
123
so there is very little life to spill out on to the open space except at lunchtimes. which benefits from a wide variety of activities. College Green is sandwiched between the Council House (Town Hall).

Attempts were made to downgrade and slow the traffic but this has not been entirely successful. Its saving grace is a number of water features which are popular cooling-off and paddling places when the weather is warm. with the result that this is still a noisy and somewhat exposed place to be.The Square straddles a large underground car-park and this has limited the amount of feasible soft landscaping.The result is a big shiny space that has a rather clinical feel to it. are recent additions to Bristol’s cityscape. Millennium Square and its linked neighbour. Anchor Square.124
Convivial Urban Spaces
being rather ironic insofar as the space is a huge concrete slab spanning part of the ancient harbour).
Figure 149 Millennium Square
Figure 150 Millennium Square
.

places can be managed with a heavy or light touch. the way public spaces are managed (and animated) is as crucial to their success as their physical attributes. The widespread use of CCTV in the UK has come under some criticism. not only from civil liberties groups. southern England
Similarly.How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
125
Managing and Maintaining Public Spaces
Arguably.
Figure 151 CCTV monitoring centre. indeed. quite intimidating. Some commentators (see for example Wood 1981. heavy formal policing of public spaces can make them feel uncomfortable for certain users. but also from those who have questioned its value as a crime prevention tool (see Shaftoe 2002. even for people who are there perfectly legally. Holland et al 2007) note that if places are over-regulated in an oppressive manner they become less convivial and. As suggested in the section on inclusion versus exclusion (page 16). Welsh and Farrington 2002).
Figure 152 South-west England
.

Padua
Figure 154 Park keepers. to resort to formal social control. often from the long-term unemployed register. public spaces and public transport. Bologna
. it may be necessary.This latter approach achieves a double benefit of both providing a reassuring official presence in public spaces and altering indigenous citizens’ stereotypical view of immigrants as being potentially problematic. who were trained.126
Convivial Urban Spaces
Of course. while patrolling streets. In some Italian cities. in places notorious for illegal or intimidating activity. a number of British cities have taken other innovative approaches to managing and policing their public spaces by employing street wardens or ‘ambassadors’ – uniformed staff who can provide advice and reassurance to users of public spaces.
In response to the perceived need to have ‘more eyes on the streets’ the Dutch Government supported municipalities in the training and appointment of ‘city guards’ (stadswachten). even more innovative approaches have been taken in terms of staffing public space.These were people. eventually taking the role of ‘Police Community Support Officers’ in many British towns. at least for a while. This approach spread to other European states and arrived in the UK under the guise of ‘street wardens’. As mentioned earlier (see page 21).The city of Padua employs retired people on a part-time basis to keep an eye on their urban parks. put in uniforms and then given the task of advising and reassuring members of the public. while in Bologna volunteers are recruited from immigrant groups to act as park keepers. while also dealing with day-to-day management issues.
Figure 153 Park keepers. as for example in Barcelona’s Plaça Reial – see case study on page 88.

in the case of new public spaces. but will often thwart further deterioration (Kelling and Coles 1996). have an interest in the day-to-day and long-term viability of spaces. the designers will have got every detail right at first. because nobody takes a holistic view of how they can be modified according to use and needs. adjusting signage or incorporating new planting. Public art officers could also potentially improve the quality of life in public space. Good public space management is about more than making places safe and crimefree. yet there is rarely any budget or allowance made for post-occupancy evaluation and subsequent modifications. If damaged street furniture is not fixed. encouraging or initiating interesting activities. In fact public spaces can fail. unlike architects. Even something as relatively simple (yet so
. it should also be proactive in several ways. particularly if their remit could extend to the promotion of street entertainment and impromptu cultural activities rather than just visual art. unless it is regularly and consistently maintained. further damage will escalate. members of the public normally find ways of accommodating their different needs and informally enforcing acceptable behaviour. In some cases (Bristol being an example) councils employ people specifically to strategically manage the city-centre public spaces.How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
127
Worpole and Knox (2007) note that citizens have a remarkable capacity for self-regulation. as the environment deteriorates into a free-for-all target for destruction (see Zimbardo 1973). Quick repairs not only show that a place is cared for. it will inevitably deteriorate over time as a result of wear and tear and vandalism.They are therefore well placed to make or request the necessary adjustments and modifications that are inevitably necessary during the lifespan of any public space. One example is offensive graffiti and tagging – speedy removal (possibly with the application of anti-graffiti coatings) has been shown to deter further spraying. urban designers and planners
(who produce their designs and then walk away). or fail to meet their full potential. Another successful UK management initiative in recent years has been the appointment of town-centre managers. As long as a public space is not totally out of control or completely dominated by one faction. as offenders do not have the time to celebrate their markings. However durable the fabric of a public space is. obviously this can include improving the quality and attractiveness of the public realm. provision of extra litter bins and benches in certain locations. ensuring adequate maintenance and repair of the physical fabric and initiating micro-adjustments in the light of observable use. Taking the latter point first. town-centre managers and others responsible for the ongoing management of public space. Examples might be realignment of footpaths to reflect ‘desire lines’. Although they often have a remit to improve the economic prospects of town centres. It is highly unlikely that.

128
Convivial Urban Spaces
often neglected) as regularly emptying litter bins and clearing up strewn rubbish can have a crucial effect on the quality and perception of public spaces. such as water features. In Denmark. such as the removal of redundant signs and equipment. there is a continuing traditional trade of ‘streetbuilder’ (Strassenbauer in German) – someone skilled in all the interconnected elements of maintaining public outdoor space. with the result that maintenance and upgrading is fragmented and incoherent.Venice
. Germany and other continental European countries. being neglected altogether (CABE Space 2007). In the UK
there is generally no such urban caretaker who has overall responsibility for the upkeep of the urban realm.This is compounded by the UK custom of providing funding for capital expenditure. no one is actually monitoring and then reacting to the overall condition of public spaces on a daily basis. resulting in the deterioration of many promising features (Brand 1994. fancy lighting and public artworks. with some aspects.The problem here is often that. with very little provision for long-term ongoing maintenance. Gallacher 2005). in the absence of people such as park keepers.
Figure 155 St Mark’s Square.

Although free festivals in public spaces need subsidizing.How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
129
The final point about management (also mentioned earlier.
Figure 156 Folklore festival in central square. fills the squares and streets of the Jewish Quarter simply as a result of all the local cafes and restaurants offering free soup. this can often be justified and achieved as a result of the extra economic benefits they bring to the town (through more visitors staying and spending). page 120) is the potential of public space managers to create or facilitate lively and intriguing activity – sometimes known as ‘animation’ of spaces. However. Another example is the ‘Streets Alive’ event held annually in Bristol. a soup festival in Krakow. Poland.They make up any losses by the substantially increased sale of drinks and other food. This can be as simple as licensing or allowing street entertainers and vendors. northern Portugal
Figure 157 Streets Alive festival. the way public spaces are managed and animated is as important as design and location in the creation and maintenance of conviviality in the public realm. where environmental groups are allowed to reclaim selected streets and turn them into ‘living rooms’ for the day. All in all. Free music from buskers and local bands adds to the ambience. many of these animations need not cost very much and may indeed be selffunding. or as complex as organizing large public events such as fairs and festivals. Bristol
.Viana de Castelo. For example.

Figure 158 Piazza dei Signori: one of a series of linked central squares
. enlightened urban space planning has not reached out to the suburbs where some of the new public spaces are as dismal as anywhere in Europe. However. It has a series of classic Italian piazza in the historic central area and an extensive programme of pedestrianization that has made it into a very people-friendly city.130
Convivial Urban Spaces
Case Study: Padua
Padua (Padova in Italian) is a typical medium-sized city (about 400.000 population in the greater urban area) in the Veneto region of Northern Italy.

How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
131
Figures 159 and 160 Prato della Valle. It is now a safe and successful gathering place both by day and night
.one of Europe’s largest urban squares. was a place better known in Padua for drug dealing and other antisocial activities until overgrown vegetation was removed and tree crowns were raised.

public spaces rapidly lose their conviviality.
Figure 163 This plaza in front of a new development on the edge of the historic centre could be anywhere and is used by no one
Figures 164 and 165 Public space in the Selvazzano suburb of Padua has been virtually abandoned – not surprising when the local authority has erected a sign forbidding almost every kind of playful activity
.How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
133
Outside the central area.

nestling as it does among a mixture of old buildings and some reasonably sympathetic new ones. has been created and appears to be successful. St Mary’s
Square. Most of these spaces have been in situ for hundreds of years.York has the benefit of being a tourist destination and thus can sustain a high level of street animation. but one new space.
. although it should be pointed out that all but one of its central squares predate the tourist influx. As an ancient market and administrative centre it has an abundance of central public spaces.134
Convivial Urban Spaces
Case Study:York
York has a population of 180.000 and is a historic city – where the Viking and Roman settlements were overlaid by a medieval street pattern that forms the basis of the current layout within the city walls.

How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?
135
Figures 166 and 167 Trampolining and busking in Parliament Square
.

136

Convivial Urban Spaces

Figures 168 and 169 King Square

How Can One Create and Sustain Successful Public Spaces?

137

As with so many other historic cities, public spaces in the areas of new development (see, for example, Figure 75 on page 72) have been much less successful than in the historic core. It may be that, as illustrated in the Glasgow experiment described by Gallacher (2005), public space can only be truly successful in dense, mixed-use urban cores.This is borne out in York, where the new St Mary’s Square in the heart of the old town has proved to be a convivial space.

Figure 170 St Mary’s Square: a new space and part of the Coppergate redevelopment

spirit and senses). not monolithic) – this should comprise interesting landscaping. As with most attempts at categorization. so in order to create some order out of an otherwise random list. these are particularly important where there are changes in level. but successful spaces do seem to share some common elements. the elements are categorized as follows:
■
■
Physical
■ Plenty of sitting places (not necessarily formal fixed benches) ■ Good quality and robust – successful public spaces will get a lot of wear and tear. finegrained development copes with the
■
inevitable changes affecting public space and allows it to go on thriving Asymmetrical.
T
■
I suggest that there is no single blueprint for a convivial space. either in a town or
139
. durable materials will save money in the long term ■ Adaptable (both for different uses and over time) – organic.e. often because they have grown and evolved in response to the topography and dynamics of the surrounding area Variety and intriguing details (i. in order that no one should be disadvantaged by their physical ability or needs Not too large – or too small!
Geographical
■ Location (urban core. yet well proportioned (balance without symmetry) – most successful public spaces are not completely rectilinear. and intriguing use of colour and/or texture on built vertical surfaces Carefully considered and appropriate horizontal surface treatments – for both practical and aesthetic reasons. geographical. including plants. Investing in high quality. These may be broadly categorized under the headings of physical (including design and practical issues). neighbourhood or suburb) – generally public spaces work best when they are reasonably central.CONCLUSION
The Constituents of Conviviality
his section aims to pull together and summarize many of the points raised earlier in the book. shrubs and trees. there is some overlap as some elements may be listed under more than one category. incremental. managerial and psychological and sensual (how the space affects our mind.

picnicking.They also work better when they are surrounded by mixed uses rather than monocultures such as offices or housing ■ Type of neighbourhood and surrounding areas – new public spaces are sometimes used to attempt to regenerate downtown or formerly problematic areas. allowing for variety of use and the pleasure of moving through a cityscape ■ Relation to transport (motorized and pedestrian routes) – unless they are just for people living in the immediate surroundings. round-theclock culture – there is a fine balance to attain between ensuring security and imposing excessive surveillance that makes people feel uncomfortable – on
the whole people are good at policing themselves. if the immediate surroundings are still perceived as unsafe or neglected. but should not be dominated by their presence
■
■
■ ■ ■
Managerial
■ Diversity of use – people need a variety of reasons to gather and linger ■ Promotion of a relaxed. if rubbish is not cleared up promptly. people are unlikely to go there or run the risk of lingering there ■ Clusters. as people attract people. such as stalls. many of the most successful urban cores have more than one public space. sequences and strings of spaces – as the case studies show. users will not hesitate to dump more) Vehicular circulation banned or tightly controlled Adequately lit Animation – there should be opportunities for plenty of human activity. good public spaces will need to be easily accessible by all means of transport.g. However. skateboarding. busking.There needs to be sufficient but not oppressive supervision so that crime risk and incivilities are kept under control Inclusiveness – ideally everyone should feel welcome in a good public space. and are at the convergence of routes that people use for other purposes.140
Convivial Urban Spaces
neighbourhood. so the best management encourages a variety of people to be using the space at all times. Lack of adequate maintenance also leads to ‘tipping’: an escalation of damage and deterioration (e. even if parts of it have dedicated group activities (such as play spaces or skateboarding opportunities) Well maintained and clean – a place that is obviously cared for will be much more popular than one that looks neglected.These mixed activities should be encouraged rather than deterred
. graffiti tagging that is not swiftly removed will encourage more.

but not so quiet that you can be overheard ■ No bad smells – preferably pleasant aromas (such as coffee.There are clearly some objective considerations. be applied to quality literature. but they are unlikely to facilitate a feeling of conviviality ■ Individuality and uniqueness – places with distinctive character and identity become positively memorable and may attract repeat visits. People will have the sense that they are in a unique place. water) ■ Acoustically pleasant – not too much mechanical noise (so you can talk).Conclusion:The Constituents of Conviviality
141
Psychological and sensual
■ Human scale – people seem to enjoy a sense of enclosure without feeling claustrophobic. the way in which these qualities combine to please the human consciousness is not an exact science. trees. Furthermore.This will result in a space that is complex. adequate lighting. but there appears to be a core set of attributes that will please more or less anyone.g. but coherent ■ Feeling of safety (unthreatening) – this can be achieved through design and the management of the space. layout and animation of a place may have on the degree of personal comfort and delight. beyond these are many subjective effects that the design. but a high proportion of them contribute to the spaces I have observed as working well. movie or piece of music – everybody has different tastes. many of the bullet points above could. amenable microclimate and safety from motor traffic. cinema or music.The nearest analogy might be the experience of a good novel. However.
. Different people will be affected by different combinations of elements to some extent. such as even paved surfaces. Huge structures (whether they be walls or buildings) and vast open spaces may be awe-inspiring. metaphorically. fresh baking or flowers) ■ Opportunities to eat and drink – self-catering and purchasable
I am not suggesting that to qualify as a completely convivial space all the above elements should be present. plants. seating or ‘loitering’ locations. Indeed. but there is wide agreement about which are the classics. and is also perceived by observing the behaviour of others ■ Comfortable microclimate – both sun and shade and protection from cold winds (but encouragement of cooling breezes in hot climates!) ■ Visually satisfactory – not too dazzling or gloomy ■ Incorporation of natural elements (e.

graffiti. but make sure that they are linked and oversee each other ■ install pedestrian-friendly lighting (mounted not too high and incorporating full colour spectrum luminaries) ■ have litter bins adjacent to benches. but if necessary use species with a maximum mature height of 1. fly-posting and vandalism ■ put in place systems for regular greenery maintenance and rubbish removal ■ have public toilet facilities on site or accessible nearby ■ use the highest quality materials.142
Convivial Urban Spaces
Finally. Plant specially prepared trees of suitable species (Advance Nursery Stock) at a minimum size of 14–16cm girth. play spaces.g. What do they like and dislike? What problems do they perceive? What do they want? What would they like to change? ■ follow ‘desire lines’ for footpaths (it may be necessary to do this retrospectively) ■ provide a variety of sitting opportunities (not just fixed benches) ■ think about the microclimate and provide protection and shelter as appropriate ■ provide opportunities and facilities for people to eat and drink ■ encourage ‘animation’ of the space through activities. here are some very practical and specific things that the designers and maintainers of public spaces can do and avoid doing. formal or informal ■ define open spaces with trees clear stemmed up to 3. fittings and plants that the budget can afford (they will save money in the long term) Don’t: ■ put public spaces in isolated or lowdensity locations ■ design spaces that result in entrapment spots or poor surveillance ■ put too many restrictions on the use of public space
. Use support stakes and metal bar or grille protectors in vulnerable locations
■ minimize the use of shrubs.5m. youth shelters. picnic tables and shelters.0m ■ use see-through metal bar fencing (if barriers are needed) ■ apply anti-graffiti coatings to accessible vertical surfaces in vulnerable locations ■ consider having ‘graffiti walls’ and community noticeboards ■ consider having a range of designated spaces for different age groups (e. sports equipment. and ensure they are emptied regularly ■ have a rapid response system to clear up dumping. in order to achieve the best possible spaces: Do: ■ design the open spaces at the same time as you design or redesign the buildings and other structures. rather than regarding the space as what’s left over after the buildings have gone up ■ design with safety and security in mind ■ consider the effect of the space on all the senses (and not just visually) ■ consult residents or potential users (all age groups). benches and picnic or barbeque facilities).

by respecting the experience of history. Brussels
. dark green leafy shrubs (they’re depressing) ■ plant clusters of shrubs or plants that trap litter and make litter difficult to remove ■ plant trees with a mature height of less than 10m.
Figure 171 Grande Place.g. We have much to learn from the successful places of the past.Conclusion:The Constituents of Conviviality
143
■ use low-cost or high-maintenance materials ■ add features (such as public art) that will rapidly deteriorate or break down ■ install hardware that invites vandalism (e. the size and location of the space along with the way it is managed and animated are equally important factors. It is important to remember that although design is important. but many of the above dos and don’ts will help. which is then a nightmare to remove) ■ plant protruding pebbles or stones into horizontal concrete surfaces (what’s the point? – yet you find them in many urban locations as a cheap way to discourage foot passage) ■ use single-leaf brickwork or blockwork for walls and external divisions (they will eventually get pulled down) ■ put public benches too close to occupied buildings (they will provoke noise complaints from residents) or in locations where they are exposed from behind
There is no standard formula for creating convivial spaces. the basic human need for conviviality has endured. 155 and 171. yet not slavishly imitating what has gone before.g. Although we have many new technologies and the world has changed spectacularly in the last 100 years. It is no coincidence that most of the world’s most popular public spaces have been there for hundreds of years (with some adaptation over time) – see. where casual surveillance is required ■ plant flimsy trees (e. Figures 5. flimsy street furniture or light fittings and any kind of slatted or plank timber fencing) ■ use raised planters for shrubs or trees (they tend to get damaged and don’t collect enough surface rainwater) ■ use mass planting of grey or dull. as well as improving those which haven’t quite worked. for example. With our current knowledge it should be possible to create new convivial urban spaces for our expanding cities. mountain ash or small cherries) – they either won’t survive or won’t thrive ■ apply textured pebble-dash-type finishes to walls and accessible vertical surfaces (people can still spray graffiti on to them.

org –The Project for Public Spaces (PPS) is an independent American advisory and campaigning organization. in Marlow M and Pitts J (eds) Planning Safer Communities. Open University Press. Buckingham Worpole K and Greenhalgh L (1996) The Freedom of the City. modelled loosely on PPS (see below). York Yi-Fu Tuan (1977) Space and Place: The perspective of experience. Russell House Publishing. primarily through advice and guidance.pps. ■ www.spaceforpublic. Architectural Press. ■ www.org – The European Centre on Public Space. the third American): ■ www.150
Convivial Urban Spaces
L (eds) Environmental Criminology.cabespace.org. London Worpole K (1992) Towns for People. Waveland Press. Spon Press.uk –the Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE) is a British quango charged with the task of improving the quality of design. Joseph Rowntree Foundation. the second European.
. that argues for the improved quality of life that accrues from good quality public spaces. London
Internet Resources
Three websites relating to this topic (the first British. in Ward C (ed. Demos. University of Minnesota Press Young J (1998) ‘Zero Tolerance: Back to the future’. IL Woolley H (2003) Urban Open Spaces. London Worpole K and Knox K (2007) The Social Value of Public Spaces.) Vandalism. Lyme Regis Zimbardo P (1973) ‘A Field Experiment in AutoShaping’.