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<div class="field field-name-field-resource-index field-type-entityreference field-label-hidden view-mode-fulltext"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><a href="/praxis/sullenfires/index.html">Sullen Fires Across the Atlantic: Essays in Transatlantic Romanticism</a></div></div></div><div class="field field-name-body field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden view-mode-fulltext"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even" property="content:encoded"><div id="title">
<div align="center">
<h2>Sullen Fires Across the
Atlantic:<br />
Essays in Transatlantic Romanticism</h2>
</div>
<h3 align="center">Love and Merit in the Maritime
Historical Novel: Cooper and Scott</h3>
<h4 align="center">James Crane, Loyola University
Chicago</h4>
</div>
<div id="content">
<ol>
<li>
<p>Because two of the earliest Anglophone maritime
historical novels feature seafaring characters whose
manliness proves their suitability to command, they
provide a useful field of inquiry for historians of
gender and genre-making. In the 1820s, James Fenimore
Cooper and Walter Scott invented manly heroes who
exercise authority through a personal charisma that
operates ineffably upon other men. Both Scott&rsquo;s
<em>The Pirate</em> (1821) and Cooper&rsquo;s <em>The
Pilot</em> (1823) cast socially isolated men in lead
roles, but the various affectionate pairings of sailors
in <em>The Pilot</em> contrast sharply with an emphasis
on manly disinterestedness in <em>The
Pirate</em>.<a href=
"#1">[1]</a>
The American mariners in <em>The Pilot</em> are not
anti-social like they are in <em>The Pirate</em>,
because Cooper&rsquo;s concern with the republican
possibilities of historical romance led him to
represent the pleasurable camaraderie among American
gentlemen as a social symptom of the representative
government being constructed by hardy colonials.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Cooper portrays legitimate political authority by
highlighting the manly characteristics of the
Revolutionary-era naval officers, and contrasting their
plucky heroics to the fruitless efforts of loyalists to
preserve traditional notions of fealty. His tale
promotes the view that a republican government creates
social conditions that naturally engineer meritocracy,
ensuring the cultivation of subjects who will form an
elite governing class. For Cooper, meritocracy bridges
the historical and social rupture between traditional
and republican governments&mdash;a gap in which
conservative thinkers from Hobbes to Cobbett envisioned
destructive social leveling, violent anarchy, and the
eventual dissolution of the protective authority of the
state. In contrast, Scott&rsquo;s 1821 novel <em>The
Pirate</em> celebrates paternal government, and
conflates democracy with piracy. Cooper&rsquo;s
strategic fictional response to the association of
virtue with traditional monarchical authority
attributes improved values to the exemplary democratic
citizens that serve in the Revolutionary-era Navy. To
dramatize the way these improved values develop, Cooper
treats friendships between men as productive sites for
collective social activity. The emotions produced in
these relationships bring out the best in men, and
ensure that the group selects the most able for
positions of leadership.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>By focusing on how men among men faithfully
recognize the merit of one another because&mdash;as
good citizens&mdash;they feel love, Cooper challenges
disparaging views of early US culture and institutions.
His depiction of meritocracy, manliness, and intimate
friendship in <em>The Pilot</em> affirms a republic
that did not become less civilized by breaking with the
British Empire. The romantic story of naval adventure
Cooper tells in his inaugural sea-novel stages the
innate capability of exceptional individuals, who are
recognized and rewarded by a well-organized republican
society. According to this theory, meritocracy
guarantees stable strata within the social hierarchy by
ensuring the continued primacy of cultivated white
males. Therefore love and merit take the place of
traditionally exercised authority in Cooper&rsquo;s
idealized democratic republic.<a href=
"#2">[2]</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p>This essay compares the patriots in <em>The
Pilot</em> to the adventurers of <em>The Pirate</em>,
examining in particular the ways that experiences of
emotion do or do not enable the social construction of
legitimate authority. For both writers, political
authority inheres in the body of the genteel white
male; however, in the process of transforming the
American Revolution into the subject of romance, Cooper
revises Scott&rsquo;s attitude toward the emotionally
autonomous hero. In Cooper&rsquo;s response, caring
friendships provide charismatic military heroes with
emotionally charged, institutionally interpolated sites
to socialize subordinates, to make good collective
decisions, and to romance women.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Scott sets <em>The Pirate</em> at "the end of the
17<sup>th</sup> century" in the environs of a remote,
dilapidated "earl&rsquo;s mansion" situated on a "neck
of land" in the archipelagos stretching northeast of
Scotland (Scott 6). High-minded buccaneer captain
Clement Cleveland wrecks near this mansion, the adopted
residence of his estranged father. Of course, Cleveland
does not find out that the wealthy recluse and reformed
pirate is his father until the climactic final
chapters. After he is rescued by his half-brother, the
dashing but amoral seafarer takes up residence with
local aristocrat Magnus Troil and his two beautiful
daughters. Munificent Troil holds his land according to
the pre-colonial traditions of the island&rsquo;s
Scandinavian population. Though Troil and other ethnic
Scandinavians resist outside influence, Scott makes it
clear that by the end of the seventeenth century more
than two centuries of occupation has nearly succeeded
in securing the cultural ascendancy of nearby
Scotland.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>In the 1849 "Preface" to <em>The Pilot</em>, Cooper
narrates how his dissatisfaction with the
representation of technical knowledge, nautical
language, and seafaring life in <em>The Pirate</em> by
Walter Scott prompted a literary response that
dramatizes the patriotic exploits of mariners led by
John Paul Jones in a raid off the coast of Britain
during the Revolutionary War. But in addition to
nautical verisimilitude, the nature of legitimate
political authority is at stake in both works, and so
in <em>The Pilot</em> Cooper adapts a scene from
<em>The Pirate</em> that enacts a central problem of
democracy&mdash;in popular governments factions form,
and sap a state&rsquo;s ability to function as a
collective unit. Eighteenth- and nineteenth-century
critics of democratic ideas often argued that without
clear standards set by an exemplary aristocratic class,
civil society must inevitably fracture into cliques
motivated by regional prejudice and special interests.
Factions, according to this line of reasoning, obviate
the communal good that was the desideratum of much
eighteenth- and nineteenth-century republican
thought.<a href=
"#3">[3]</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p>To reckon with this critique of representative
government, in <em>The Pilot</em> Cooper imagines that
republican meritocracy can keep participative politics
from degenerating into a chaotic, drunken brouhaha.
Concentrating on representations of manhood, affect,
and status, I show how the council scenes in these
maritime romances comprise a transatlantic dialogue on
issues of individual autonomy and political
authority.<a href=
"#4">[4]</a>
Different representations of manliness in these works
demonstrate that the history of British and American
republicanism is a history of efforts to manage ideas
about manhood as well as race, class, nation, and
commerce. In critiquing the reverence for a centralized
political authority that Scott encourages, Cooper uses
the manly sailor to legitimize his romantic version of
republican meritocracy.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The Pirate council scene in <em>The Pirate</em>
equates democracy with disorder. After the enigmatic
buccaneer captain Clement Cleveland returns to his
cronies after a long stay with Troil and his daughters,
the leadership of this group of brigands is hashed out
by two competing captains. The men&rsquo;s bodies
narrate the difference between their characters and
styles of command, and between the different sources of
authority to which each can lay claim:</p>
<blockquote>
Black-haired, bull-necked, and beetle-browed, his
[Goffe&rsquo;s] clumsy strength and ferocious
countenance contrasted strongly with the manly figure
and open countenance of Cleveland, in which even the
practice of his atrocious profession had not been
able to eradicate a natural grace of motion and
generosity of expression. (403)
</blockquote>
<p>As the contending commanders face off, the crew
naturally divides into two factions according to
partisan lines. In this drama of democratic feeling,
the young men are attracted to the manly vigor
exhibited by genteel Cleveland, while their more
experienced peers favor the older Goffe&rsquo;s
seniority. Operating outside the prescriptive
procedures of an established civic order, the buccaneer
crew cannot establish a clear order of merit; the
captains therefore advance their respective claims of
precedence before the entire crew in a democratic
fashion.<a href=
"#5">[5]</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The hallmark of socio-political chaos in <em>The
Pirate</em> is this unsavory, unregulated contact among
members of discrete social classes. Unlike commanders
in the Royal Navy, buccaneers in <em>The Pirate</em>
must exercise their authority without the protective
veneer of esteem that legitimate state power affords to
those with elevated status:</p>
<blockquote>
When Cleveland . . . found himself once more on board
the pirate vessel, his arrival was hailed with hearty
cheers by a considerable part of the crew, who rushed
to shake hands with him and offer their
congratulations on his return; for the situation of a
buccanier captain raised him very little above the
level of the lowest of his crew, who, in all social
intercourse, claimed the privilege of being his
equal. (402)
</blockquote>
<p>Here Scott stages the vulgarizing effects of social
leveling, for the disintegration of hierarchy wreaks
havoc upon the orderly functioning of the collective.
Instead of giving authority to the truly meritorious,
an egalitarian society distributes a little ineffectual
bit of power to every man, and as Cleveland takes the
hand of each of "the lowest" men in his grasp
republican social relations transgress the genteel
boundaries that protect privileged bodies from the
invidious touch of a "clumsy and ferocious" class of
men&mdash;in other words, those without manly merit
(402).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Eventually the boatswain motions for "a general
council in the great cabin" to decide the contest of
authority; meanwhile the drunken revels of the greater
part of the crew demonstrate that the formal structures
of majority rule elicit base behavior (405). During the
proceedings that will determine the fate of the pirate
vessel, most of the ordinary outlaws take advantage of
the "unlimited quantity of liquor" ostensibly provided
in order to facilitate free expression. Lacking both
the education and character necessary for
self-government, they soon grow too intoxicated to
participate and the consultation of the interested
players takes place without any real public discussion.
The narrator describes how the election process
degenerates into mayhem and oligarchy:</p>
<blockquote>
But a few amongst the adventurers, who united some
degree of judgement [sic] with the daring and
profligate character of their profession, were wont,
at such periods, to limit themselves within the
bounds of comparative sobriety, and by these, under
the apparent form of a vote of general council, all
things of moment relating to the voyage and
undertakings of the pirates were in fact determined.
(405)
</blockquote>
<p>Despite the customary provisions for a general vote,
on Scott&rsquo;s pirate vessel the actual
decision-making is confined to the work of a select
"senate" formed of the most interested or privileged
individuals (405).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Meanwhile "inebriation in all its most brutal and
disgraceful shapes" takes its moral toll upon the
masses in the form of vile oaths, imprecations, naughty
songs, and pervasive "ribaldry"; thus procedures that
are intended to facilitate public participation
actually create an "earthly hell" on the deck of the
outlaw vessel (405). Since some few of the crew realize
that only the appealing Cleveland can persuade local
merchants into provisioning their ship, they make him
acting captain. Later, gentlemanly generosity leads
Cleveland to insist that the crew reinstate boorish
Goffe as commander.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>In <em>The Pirate</em>, the democratic form is
merely nominal, because the individuals who comprise
the public are unsuited to&mdash;and uninterested
in&mdash;political participation. Because these men are
not fit to govern themselves, on the buccaneer vessel
power becomes concentrated in the hands of a few
uncouth men who achieve positions of authority through
brute force rather than true manly merit. The group
subordinates the claims of cultivated individuals to
partisan feeling and self-interest, while the
historical absence of statutory hierarchy leads
inexorably to frighteningly chaotic political
conditions. Scott&rsquo;s depiction of a rough pirate
council confirms the social degeneration effected by
majority rule, and empties political authority of
meaning outside the structural mandates of the
traditional monarchical state.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>In contrast, in <em>The Pilot</em> the doctrine of
charismatic manliness allows Cooper to locate political
authority in deserving individuals, instead of
attributing legitimacy solely to inherited
institutions. The novel chronicles how youthful naval
officers Ned Griffith and Dick Barnstable sail to the
coasts of England during the Revolutionary War and
discover their patriotic paramours housed in a
crumbling Abbey with an aging uncle, a Carolina Tory,
who represents an earlier age&rsquo;s devotion to
England and to the defense of British imperial power.
The adventure plot of <em>The Pilot</em> hinges upon
the relationships these young naval
officers&mdash;thoughtful Griffith and hotheaded
Barnstable&mdash;form with the mysterious Pilot, John
Paul Jones in disguise, who conducts a daring
prisoner-taking expedition in order to bring the
conflict in the North American colonies home to
Britain&rsquo;s shores.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Cooper enacts the administrative logic of republican
meritocracy most vividly in the council of war that
follows the entrance of an enigmatic pilot into the
shipboard community. Captain Munson gathers together
the officers and warrant-officers of the frigate for a
conference in the republican style; as suggested by the
frontispiece to the chapter (drawn from Addison&rsquo;s
Roman drama <em>Cato</em> "Sempronius, speak"), the
council scene accentuates the policy-making procedures
unique to republican hierarchy. Positing a hierarchy
based upon individual merit at work on the frigate,
Cooper intends to demonstrate how republican government
cultivates personal worth, creating qualified leaders
and a just social hierarchy to effectively manage the
free exchange of ideas.<a href=
"#6">[6]</a>
On the American frigate, the officers gather around the
conference table in descending order of rank. Some
legible personal quality accounts for the position each
man holds in the scheme. Commencing with the
pen-chewing, plebian sailing-master&mdash;aptly named
Boltrope&mdash;the captain gives each officer an
opportunity to speak in an institutionally prescribed
order that indicates the seamless correspondence of
manner and skill with rank in each participant.
Beautiful young Ned Griffith is, by reason of his many
virtues, near the top of the chain of command aboard
the frigate, and eventually the officers acknowledge
the tactical superiority of the plan he proposes.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Therefore the war-conference on board the American
frigate models how republican political procedure
engenders meritocracy, not anarchy; with careful
attention to prominence the mariners and soldiers act
out civic exchange of ideas, culminating in the
selection of the best plan of action by those officers
with the most expertise. Because of the irresistible
draw of meritorious individuals with institutionally
validated authority, republicanism regulates the social
and occupational worlds on the ship so well that the
palpably genteel character and measurable professional
skills of each man are directly proportional to his
social and economic status. Democratically, Captain
Munson proposes that "by comparing opinions, we may
decide on the most prudent course"; and, in fact, the
thoughtful first lieutenant suggests a course of action
somewhere between the two tactical extremes recommended
by Barnstable and Manual (Cooper, 77).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>After the lower-ranked warrant-officers offer their
views, "The opinions of the others grew gradually more
explicit and clear, as they ascended in the scale of
rank" (75). Meritocracy and mutual respect make the
correspondence of rank with ability entirely seamless.
This council scene reveals the ways that republican
ideals engineer the novel&rsquo;s fantasy of just
statehood, of community formation, and of privileged
male power by demonstrating how, in a republic, the
system allows every man a voice. Moreover, in the
institutional processes wherein constituents freely
express their ideas, the group can readily single out
for recognition those men with the best ideas. In
<em>The Pilot</em>, Cooper imagines a system in which
authority and merit coincide smoothly, so that society
automatically recognizes and rewards manly
merit.<a href=
"#7">[7]</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Manly affect holds the corporate group together
securely, because each man perceives the worthiness of
a leader like Griffith. As a result, charismatic
leadership energizes the hierarchy engendered by the
unique features of republicanism.<a href=
"#8">[8]</a>
After the meeting, Griffith feels compelled to question
Captain Munson&rsquo;s unwavering trust in the
pilot&mdash;a stranger they have plucked from an
isolated stretch of coast. The aging commander responds
by recurring to his professional seniority, saying "I
have not your pretensions, sir, by birth or education,
and yet Congress have not seen proper to overlook my
years and services" (82). At this point the pilot
intervenes, acknowledging Griffith&rsquo;s doubts and
then dramatically relieving them by producing "a
parchment, decorated with ribbands and bearing a
massive seal, which he opened, and laid on the table
before the youth" (82). Once Griffith realizes that the
seemingly innocuous stranger is in fact the infamous
tactical genius John Paul Jones," a glow of fiery
courage flitted across his countenance" and he
instantly swears allegiance to the legendary warrior,
pledging "Lead on! I&rsquo;ll follow you to death!"
(82). The pilot and his prot&eacute;g&eacute; exit arm
in arm, leaving "Old Moderate" to his private musings,
the very picture of disinterested liberal
authority.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The scenario whereby the pilot wins the allegiance
of the young lieutenant is reproduced along the chain
of hierarchy, linking superiors, peers, and
subordinates in a series of institutionally proscribed
partnerships validated by experiences of intensely
personal emotion. The pilot&rsquo;s virtuoso technical
knowledge signals one form of merit, but due to the
programmatic niceties of institutional conduct Griffith
may require additional credentials as proof of the
worth and status of the mysterious interloper. The
token the pilot produces&mdash;it seems to be the
endorsement of the French crown&mdash;alleviates the
anxieties about power, position, and hierarchy that
prompt challenges from Griffith. Manly merit,
therefore, is irreducible to professional talent.
Meritocracy depends upon charismatic qualities and the
resultant legitimacy afforded to those who exercise
power. Charisma engenders sympathy; since affection
makes authority more palatable, the most approved
leaders are those whose charismatic leadership cements
the community of individuals into one feeling
whole.<a href=
"#10">[10]</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p>In <em>The Pilot</em> professional ability provides
one obvious signifier of manly merit, but in addition
to his technical skills, a bosun or coxswain in
Cooper&rsquo;s revolutionary navy must possess those
manly qualities that catalyze group affect within the
unique conditions provided by maritime life, and
according to genteel thinking the hard-working, moral,
rustic characteristics of the regional type make such
individuals well-suited to providing a unifying focus
for social relations. The physical imagery Cooper
employs in vivid descriptions of Long-Tom and David
Boltrope, the sailing master, indicate that this
charismatic capacity is another prerequisite for
authority. Nevertheless, they lack an inherent quality
of charismatic commanders&mdash;an ability to bodily
convey an authority that other men will recognize and
experience as legitimate.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>In <em>The Pilot</em>, men learn to sympathize by
emulating those they admire. When Long-Tom Coffin goes
down with his ship, the entire crew mourns the loss of
their beloved cockswain, but none with more feeling
than his commander. As tears overcome poor Barnstable,
Merry "sat respectfully watching the display of feeling
that his officer, in vain, endeavored to suppress"
(293). The lieutenant&rsquo;s tears elicit
sympathy:</p>
<blockquote>
Merry felt his own form quiver with sympathy at the
shuddering which passed through Barnstable&rsquo;s
frame; and the relief experienced by the lieutenant
himself, was not greater than that which the
midshipman felt, as the latter beheld large tears
forcing their way through the other&rsquo;s fingers,
and falling on the sands at his feet. (293)
</blockquote>
<p>Republican manliness is not at odds with such
unguarded displays of affect, for the "loftiness" and
"pride" of genteel manhood are linked to virtuous
performance of emotion.<a href=
"#11">[11]</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Most importantly, the didactic exchange enacted
through expressions of shared feeling cements the
already strong relationship the midshipman shares with
his commander:</p>
<blockquote>
Merry had often beheld the commanding severity of the
lieutenant&rsquo;s manner, in moments of danger, with
deep respect; he had been drawn towards him by
kindness and affection, in time of gayety and
recklessness; but he now sate [sic], for many
minutes, profoundly silent, regarding his officer
with sensations that were nearly allied to awe. The
struggle with himself was long and severe in the
bosom of Barnstable; but, at length, the calm of
relieved passions succeeded to his emotion. (293)
</blockquote>
<p>The attraction Merry already feels toward
Barnstable&mdash;who not coincidentally is engaged to
Merry&rsquo;s cousin Katherine&mdash;increases to
something near "awe" through the throbbing pulse of
sympathy. Silently the midshipman gives himself up to
the "sensations" provoked by a combination of his
admiration for and desire to emulate his superior
officer. In this fashion, <em>The Pilot</em> depicts
how love among men shores up hierarchy. This scene
enacts the principle whereby men learn to negotiate
rank and status by managing their emotions in
accordance with institutionally prescribed standards;
needless to say, if an institution enforces standard
practices for the experience and expression of
feelings, it likewise manifests a code of manliness
that uses emotional behaviors to index the social and
institutional values of behavior associated with sex
and gender.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>In <em>The Pilot</em>, bodies stimulate recognition
of merit, whereas intimate friendship verifies its
presence. Griffith and Barnstable are fast friends from
early childhood, and the twists and turns in their
affectionate but occasionally competitive relationship
provides the work with several of its
characteristically melodramatic plot movements. Both
men carry a mercantile culture&rsquo;s version of
pedigree. Additionally, Griffith is "gifted with an
experience beyond his years" (18) and endowed with a
natural authority that operates "like a charm" (338);
he also appears "haughty" and exults in a fervent
"native pride" (72). Barnstable, likewise, radiates
that "calm authority, that seamen find it most
necessary to exert, in the moments of extremest danger"
and readily exhibits "that collectedness of manner, and
intonation of voice, that were best adapted to enforce
a ready and animated obedience" on the part of a
trusting crew (273). <em>The Pilot</em>, however, is
the penultimate manly authority in the novel; combining
consummate professional skill and a "muscular form"
with commanding mien to which others respond
"involuntarily" (338), Mr. Gray successfully asserts
himself as "One who has a right to order, and who will
be obeyed!" (345).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>No single or central source of authority confers
power and status in <em>The Pilot</em>. Instead, social
relationships each produce unique conditions in which
authority plays all kinds of constitutive roles. Like
Mr. Gray or Griffith in <em>The Pilot</em>, Magnus
Troil and Clement Cleveland in <em>The Pirate</em> are
charismatic centers of authority; however, the brusque
yet "honest Udaller" eschews most displays of emotion,
while circumstances force the pirate captain to
suppress his finer feelings and cultivate an appearance
of ferocity. Despite very different political
perspectives, manliness is the common ground for power
and authority in both maritime romances. Cooper and
Scott treat the charismatic male as the catalyst
through which both collective identity and social
hierarchy take form. And in both novels, affection may
sustain hierarchy; intimate attachments to worthy
representatives of power solidify allegiance to the
abstract principles embodied in leaders. Yet for Scott,
only avaricious self-interest provides incentive for
<em>The Pirate</em> crew to follow their dashing,
fearless commander. Troil holds the fealty of his
tenants through tradition as well as force of
personality; although his ample country feasts and
paternalistic administration do secure the devoted
adherence of his constituents, the power he exercises
arises from the legal and cultural conventions that
underpin his position in the local hierarchy.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>But in <em>The Pilot</em>, representations of the
complex network of relationships on board the frigate
and the Ariel contradict the Hobbesian doctrine of
natural competition among males in Scott&rsquo;s
narrative. Because this view of manly charisma
discounts intimate affiliations among men as binding
social forces, a character such as Cleveland cannot
stand being indebted to Mordaunt Mertoun, the youth who
has saved his life; "there is a natural dislike"
between them, he avers, "a something like a principle
of repugnance in our mutual nature, which makes us
odious to each other" (Scott, 209). Of course, it turns
out that the two men share a father, but they never
achieve any kind of friendly relation or brotherly
intimacy. For Cleveland, display of refined manly
emotion proves troublesome and exerts no improving
influence. While the picturesque work of the deep-sea
fishermen occupies the residents of Burgh Westra, the
elegant Cleveland reveals his history to his
impressionable paramour, Minna Troil. Though drawn
inexorably into the adventurous world of the
unregulated West Indies, young Cleveland assures Minna
that "my natural disposition has been controlled, but
not altered, by the untoward circumstances in which I
am placed" (217). While barely pubescent, undaunted
Cleveland becomes commander of a privateering crew of
"desperate fellows" bent on wreaking havoc on Spanish
vessels. But his refined moral sense inconveniences his
crew, so they maroon the principled buccaneer on an
uncharted Caribbean islet.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>In isolation Cleveland learns to adopt an "iron
mask" of manly imperturbability as a "chief security
against treason, or mutiny of my followers" (216). In
order to safeguard the innocent and restrain his
ignoble companions, he endeavors to appear even more
terrible and inhumane than his subordinates by showing
no emotion. Seclusion gives him time to acquire
thoughtful insight into the character of the vulgar
class of pirates:</p>
<blockquote>
I thought over my former story, and saw that seeming
more brave, skilful, and enterprizing than others,
had gained me command and respect, and that seeming
more gently nurtured, and more civilized than they,
had made them envy and hate me as a being of another
species. I agreed with myself, then, that since I
could not lay aside my superiority of intellect and
education, I would do my best to disguise, and to
sink in the rude seaman, all appearance of better
feeling and better accomplishment. (216)
</blockquote>
<p>This ruse permits Cleveland to more effectively
enforce his will:</p>
<blockquote>
I foresaw then what has since happened, that, under
the appearance of daring obduracy, I should acquire
such a habitual command over my followers, that I
might use it for the ensurance of discipline, and for
relieving the distresses of the wretches who fell
under our power. (216)
</blockquote>
<p>Cleveland disguises his superior "mind, morals, and
manners" because only the threat of savage reprisal can
contain the depredations of his savage crew. In <em>The
Pirate</em>, displaying "better feeling" will anger the
mass of men rather than producing any refining
influence.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>In contrast, Barnstable and Griffith are sensitive
to their crews. Exemplifying manly fortitude, they
enforce discipline by winning the devoted admiration of
their subordinates. No self-respecting seaman, hints
<em>The Pilot</em>, could be anything but brave faced
with the example of these worthy commanders; by this
means republican institutions improve upon Hobbesian
models of charismatic authority. In his writings on
civil government, Thomas Hobbes claims that a society
requires a single figurehead to organize individuals
into a community. But in <em>The Pilot</em>, manly
merit engenders intimate friendship, and affiliation
among citizens becomes the cornerstone of authority in
a republic. Therefore, Cooper treats the experience of
being commanded as pleasurable; the powers of the US
Navy to control and coerce are made legitimate by
representing authority as the product of intimacy.
Because it relies on love among good citizens,
republican meritocracy readily provides ethical
justification for democratic revolution. In the world
of <em>The Pirate</em>, on the other hand, demonstrated
worth might just get you stranded on a deserted island
by jealous plebeians.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>The Pirate</em> portrays the provincial
political structure of the seventeenth-century Orkney
and Shetland islands nostalgically. It depicts the slow
mainstreaming of the Norwegian ethnic majority, while
<em>The Pilot</em> evokes the revolutionary
transformation of a British colony into an independent
state. In <em>The Pilot</em>, expressions of affect
indicate the revisions to political subjectivity that
accompany republican revolution because conditioned
emotional response on the part of the citizen is a
requirement for political participation. Sympathy and
sentiment have political uses, not least because they
allow men to explain the ties binding citizens to one
another without exclusively locating those ties in the
realm of economic expedience. For Cooper, the very
reasons for communal identification and collective
action reside in the affective drives and physical
needs of politically empowered subjects.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The staging of sympathy in <em>The Pilot</em> may
seem familiar to readers of Adam Smith.<a href=
"#12">[12]</a>
Unlike earlier thinkers, such as Shaftesbury, Smith
does not treat sympathy and sociality as innate human
faculties; for him, "fellow-feeling" arises through
"excited" "fancy" and is therefore a product of the
imaginative mind of the civilized subject (Smith, 48).
It is also social, because "sympathy" is shared
experience not of feelings, but "of the situation which
excites" feelings (51). Potentially, "mutual sympathy"
confers both pleasure and the power to perform
concerted action since a man who seeks the aid of
others "rejoices when he observes that they adopt his
own passions, because he is then assured of that
assistance" (54). The virtuous man with "proper
motives" for his actions automatically</p>
<blockquote>
Is in friendship and harmony with all mankind, and
looks upon his fellow-creatures with confidence, and
benevolent satisfaction, secure that he has rendered
himself worthy of their most favorable regards. In
the combination of all these sentiments, consists the
consciousness of merit, or of deserved reward. (165)
</blockquote>
<p>Merit, therefore, is present in the individual who
inspires the regard of others. This is why Cooper ties
merit to the love engendered by manly sympathy.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Smith sees recognition of individual worth arising
in the social configurations that sympathetic
situations create: "our sense of . . . merit arises
from . . . an indirect sympathy with the gratitude of
the person who is . . . acted upon" (148). Meritocracy,
then, is about the emotions charismatic individuals
elicit in other subjects. For this reason the "Grateful
affection" of others is the best evidence of manly
merit (148). Because mutual regard is the hallmark of
fellow feeling, friendship both indexes personal merit
and images the bonds that organize men into societies.
In fact, according to Smith sympathy makes meritocracy
possible: "Our whole sense, in short of the merit and
good desert of such actions [those of Scipio, Camillus,
Timoleon, and Aristides], of the propriety and fitness
of recompensing them . . . arises from the sympathetic
emotions of gratitude and love, with which, when we
bring home to our own breast the situation of those
principles concerned, we feel ourselves. . ." (149).
Conversely, according to Smith patriotism originates
from self-interest: "The state or sovereignty in which
have been born and educated" naturally includes the
self and also "comprehends" family, friends, and other
attachments to loved ones (372).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Applying many of the same ideas, in <em>The
Pilot</em> Cooper shows how republican meritocracy
cultivates patriotism. The proof, the novel suggests,
is in the heroes. Unlike the typical man Smith
describes, the mariners of <em>The Pilot</em> revere
"wisdom and virtue" and not "wealth and greatness";
therefore Cooper&rsquo;s Americans bestow their
"respectful attentions" according to merit and not
display of affluence or status (Cooper, 126). Like
friendship and other virtues, love of country proves
merit by exemplifying the virtuous exercise of human
capacities for emotional attachment. When authority
figures exhibit affect in <em>The Pilot</em>, their
subordinates learn virtuous practice of emotion. In a
culture wherein "male" and "female" designate different
regimes of feeling, these displays teach proper
practices of gender because they also teach proper
practices of emotion. As scholars of US literature have
argued in the context of the American family, love
turns out to be an especially effective mechanism for
socialization and for the reproduction of hierarchical
power relations. Manly friendship in <em>The Pilot</em>
illustrates how the disciplinary powers of love and
affection can fashion subjects in institutional
confines as well as in the domestic sphere.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Thus admiration becomes the means for reproducing
the system of rule among Cooper&rsquo;s republican
mariners, and the loyalty individuals feel for their
leaders guarantees good discipline.<a href=
"#13">[13]</a>
Through an admixture of love and submission that
locates discipline and patriotism within personal
experiences of emotion as well as in the institutional
and cultural state apparatus, American men in <em>The
Pilot</em> come to passionately follow authority
figures. Genteel republican love for meritorious
soldiers and seamen ensures the just administration of
discipline on the part of the powerful, and secures for
the elite the gratefully devoted service of their
subordinates.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Throughout <em>The Pilot</em> Cooper is especially
skillful at scripting the affective basis for
authority. Intimate friendships demonstrate how a
combination of attachments both to individuals and to
principles solidifies and legitimates power in its
patriarchal, institutional forms. Central to his view
of the affect of authority is the charismatic male
figure&mdash;physically arresting, knowledgeable in his
field, and thereby in a position to secure the devoted
admiration of others, Cooper&rsquo;s powerfully
attractive hero can use his body as a focus for the
emotions of a lot of people, whose attachments to one
another are solidified by shared devotion to the hero
and his principles. The mutual emotional attachments
the charismatic man produces can thereby signal
membership in a community of shared values and
reciprocal affinities. From the isolated Pilot to the
garrulous Barnstable, each hero exercises his authority
largely because of the devoted love he engenders in the
tenderly receptive bosoms of both comrades and
subordinates.<a href=
"#14">[14]</a></p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Because of the way that manliness grounds power for
both Cooper and Scott, manly friendship provides a
metaphor for US/British relations in <em>The
Pilot</em>. The best example of Cooper&rsquo;s view of
the relation of the US to Britain is the domestic
pairing of an American and a British soldier who lead
opposing armies during the period of border disputes
with British-held Canada in the late eighteenth
century. <em>The Pilot</em> ends with an epilogue
describing the camaraderie of two characters, the
marine captain Manual and British infantry commander
Borroughcliffe, who eventually shack up together in a
makeshift hut on an island in the St. Lawrence River.
In England, the two men wound each other in a pointless
duel that ends not with rancor, but with friendly
feelings and vows of shared regard instead.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Years later, as their respective nations duke it
out, the two men meet again and revive a military
friendship based upon institutional values,
affectionate respect, and a shared taste for Madeira
wine. The comic parody of heterosexual domesticity
represented by these two codgers implies the
simultaneously contiguous and divergent nature of
American and British institutions. The romance of
maritime power in <em>The Pilot</em> works though the
implicit suggestion that development of improved manly
virtues among Americans signals the eventual doom of
gendered principles of allegiance articulated according
to inherited British models. However, while it stages
the superiority of American manhood, <em>The Pilot</em>
also points to the debt the young republic owed to
metropolitan culture for acquired models of manliness.
The politics of manliness in these maritime historical
novels indicates that attitudes toward gender and
sexuality permitted early architects of transatlantic
white culture to represent the relations of the US with
Britain dialectically. Ideas about gender and emotion
that were widely shared allowed Anglophone writers
paths into debates about more factious issues, like
individual rights or the nature of political
authority.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Recent studies of the interdependent concepts of
race and nation in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century
fiction illustrate how narratives of racial difference
helped writers to invent a symbolic cultural and
political heritage for the new nation. For instance,
Jared Gardner has described how, in the
<em>Leatherstocking</em> novels, Cooper reconciles the
republic with the culture and institutions of Britain
by staging the disappearance of natives and
African-Americans into an imagined past. However, in
his maritime novels of the 1820s, Cooper uses manhood
to depict the traditions and truisms of Old World
politics succumbing to the irresistible force of
republican pluck. Cooper&rsquo;s representation of the
relationship between Old and New worlds hinges upon
notions of masculinity as well as of race because
enterprise and vigor are portrayed as key features of
republican manliness. Cooper self-consciously presents
a revised version of manhood and gender relations in
order to justify the claims of his Revolutionary heroes
not only to integrity, but to some degree of superior
manliness over their British foes, who may be valiant
but whose dedication to tradition prevents the public
recognition of merit in enterprising individuals like
John Paul Jones. In <em>The Pilot</em>, when men
recognize worthiness in other men, the loving
friendships that arise supposedly create a stronger,
more stable state.</p>
</li>
</ol>
</div>
<div id="notes_content">
<h4 align="center">Notes</h4>
<p class="indent"><sup><a name="1"></a>1</sup> <em>The
Pirate</em> was published in Edinburgh and London November,
1821; authorized editions of <em>The Pilot</em> were
published in New York and London in January, 1824.</p>
<p class="indent"><sup><a name="2"></a>2</sup> The variety
of republican attitudes at work in the 1820s suggest that
republicanism was a highly adaptable approach to theorizing
the relationship of persons and communities to the
state&mdash;one signaled by certain recurring themes rather
than a system or set of beliefs. I use "republican" to
refer to political ideas that both value representative
government, elite or democratic, and emphasize a need for
communal identity. In early nineteenth-century American
culture, republican ideologues tended to understand
political power as embodied in representative males who are
endowed with authority by a constituency comprised of elite
white property-owners, who in turn represent the aggregate
body of society. For example, in no. 39 of <em>The
Federalist</em> Madison sums up the "republican complexion"
of government (242) as that endowed with authority "from
the great body of the society" it governs (Rossiter,
241).</p>
<p class="indent"><sup><a name="3"></a>3</sup> In a recent
study informed by the history of the book and by the
history of ideas, Mark G. Spencer has described how
Hume&rsquo;s ideas about factionalism influenced James
Madison&rsquo;s <em>Federalist</em> No. 10.</p>
<p class="indent"><sup><a name="4"></a>4</sup> The careers
of individual maritime workers in the ages of sail
exemplify the contingent nature of "the Atlantic world,"
for many served or sought profit in both Pacific and
Atlantic spheres, and many more employed their skills in
smaller local communities. The narratives of eighteenth-
and nineteenth-century seafarers suggest that Atlantic rim
culture is as constructed as local and national
geo-political terms for cultural contiguity. Since maritime
workers were a historical locus of transatlantic cultural
exchange, then narratives about sailors provide an
especially useful archive for excavating embedded concerns
with the shifting configurations of citizenship and
international relations. For foundational research on
seamen of African descent and the spread of political
ideas, see Julius Scott, "The Common Wind: Currents of
Afro-American Communication in the Era of the Haitian
Revolution," diss., Duke U, 1986.</p>
<p class="indent"><sup><a name="5"></a>5</sup> By the
nineteenth century, the British popular imagination had
long associated piracy with democracy; both could be seen
as unruly systems without any established moral foundation.
Christopher Hill notes that in the seventeenth century
pirate "Captains were often elected, and were answerable to
their crews; decisions on policy and disciplinary
punishments were democratically taken. This contrasted very
sharply with the despotism of naval captains, the rule of
the lash, the ultimate possibility of a death sentence for
mutiny" (Hill, 117).</p>
<p class="indent"><sup><a name="6"></a>6</sup> Notably,
Cooper&rsquo;s fantasy of revolutionary adventure imagines
a maritime power the republic did not possess in the
Revolutionary era or in the 1820s, although the US would
achieve considerable sea power by the end of the
century.</p>
<p class="indent"><sup><a name="7"></a>7</sup> Anthony
Rotundo&rsquo;s <em>American Manhood: Transformations in
Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era</em> is a
useful overview of changing ideas about manhood in the
United States. Rotundo shows that in the later eighteenth
century, intimate friendship between men was the norm in
genteel circles. Recent studies of manhood and US print
culture have applied the insights of Rotundo&rsquo;s work
to more specific textual sites for the construction of
masculinity. Most notably, in <em>American Sympathy</em>,
Caleb Crain examines the relationship of sympathy to
manhood in the early republic, and in the process shows how
critics might productively view friendship among men as a
site of possibility and complex negotiations of affect,
rather than a reflection of the competitive relations of
the market. My purpose here is to show how, for writers
like Cooper, the dialectical emotional exchanges between
friends also suggested one way to re-imagine the
relationship of Britain to the US.</p>
<p class="indent"><sup><a name="8"></a>8</sup> Regarding
the early republican fascination with charismatic males,
Mark Kann writes that "Ultimately, the founders&rsquo;
faith in the Heroic Man completed their grammar of manhood
by promoting a patriarchal discourse that lifted up a few
great men over the democratic masses and played down
women&rsquo;s political potential as citizens and leaders"
(Kann, 130-1). In <em>A Republic of Men</em> political
scientist Kann analyzes the ways in which cultural concepts
of gender, and especially white manhood, were deployed in
federalist print of the early national era. Positing a
cultural "grammar of manhood"&mdash;comprised of "the
hegemonic norms, language, and rules they employed to
promote public quiescence and justify leadership"
(3)&mdash;Kann assesses the effect of cultural notions of
threatening (non-heterosexual) manly disorder, family
stability, civic virtue and heroic individuality on the
development of citizenship and doctrines of political
authority.</p>
<p class="indent"><sup><a name="9"></a>9</sup> In this
manner, my argument differs from Margaret Cohen&rsquo;s
examination of "know-how" in <em>The Pilot</em>.</p>
<p class="indent"><sup><a name="10"></a>10</sup> My
analysis of the feelings of the hero draws from the theory
of charisma and institutional bureaucracy articulated by
Max Weber. According to his sociology of the individual as
political fetish, the modern state routinizes gender
inequalities through a "workaday" bureaucracy located in
the mundane structural demands of economic activity; in the
civic arena created by official bureaucracy, patriarchal
social patterns formalize commercial relations and enforce
the domination of a perceived "natural leader" in the home,
the marketplace, and the sphere of civic activity.
Weber&rsquo;s description of patriarchal authority
emphasizes the historical connections of patriarchal
authority to economic forces and statutory bureaucracy. In
the Western political scenarios that Weber describes, a
social group recognizes the quality of "charisma" in a man;
this act of ascription legitimizes the privileged positions
of charismatic individuals within the prescribed hierarchy
of the "social strata" (Weber, 39). Weber claims that under
the conditions of modern capitalism, most social
institutions in the West authorize these forms of
individual&mdash;almost always a male
individual&mdash;empowerment by managing the system of
social status and access to capital.</p>
<p class="indent"><sup><a name="11"></a>11</sup> Showing
how later eighteenth-century poets used the "imaginative
domain" of the "Atlantic theater" to represent "the
connection between emotion and history," Julie Ellison
argues that "the Age of Sensibility can by defined by its
focus on the moments when consciousness dilates to
historical horizons and when history is compressed into
consciousness" (Ellison; 124, 141, 142). In a similar
manner, maritime historical novels such as <em>The
Pirate</em> and <em>The Pilot</em> relate individual
consciousness to grand historical narratives through shared
experience. In the romantic worlds imagined by Cooper and
Scott, each man&rsquo;s affective capacities engineer his
position within social and political hierarchies, and his
intimate attachments to peers, subalterns, and authority
figures become the basic components of manly historical
enterprise.</p>
<p class="indent"><sup><a name="12"></a>12</sup> It may
also be recognizable to scholars of nineteenth century US
sentimental fiction. For literary scholars like Elizabeth
Barnes, Julia Stern, and Lori Merish, in the eighteenth
century philosophies of sympathy set the precedent for
sentimental forms and rhetoric&mdash;a nineteenth century
middle class phenomena with a unique incarnation in the US.
In her examination of the ways that familial love
intersects with seduction plots, Elizabeth Barnes
illustrates how doctrines of sympathy could collapse a
variety of emotional relations into the same forms in
nineteenth-century novels. Stern uses her readings to
describe the psychological underpinnings of connections
between emotion, gender, and national violence in US
writing, while Merish emphasizes attitudes toward the
political and national subject status of middle-class women
that make commodity consumption into a gendered practice.
Following Nancy Armstrong, most feminists examining
literary form in the early US emphasize the acculturation
of British forms associated with the white middle class;
for many of these scholars the literary relations of the US
with Britain illustrate the relevance of British culture
and especially print culture to gendered, political, and
material practices in later nineteenth-century
America.</p>
<p class="indent"><sup><a name="13"></a>13</sup> According
to Enlightenment thinkers, this process of empowerment
requires properly socialized national subjects, because the
public must willingly recognize charisma in the men who
exercise power.</p>
<p class="indent"><sup><a name="14"></a>14</sup>
Interrogating the literary-critical tendency to idealize
narratives of interracial male pairing, Robyn Wiegman has
shown how these popular bonding narratives operate by
"transmuting the narrative of racial difference into a
scenario of the mutuality of gender" (Wiegman, 172).
Despite the prevalence of this narrative convention in
popular fiction and film, "critical discussions of the
American [canonical] tradition have nonetheless debated,
for almost half a century, the meaning, centrality, and
utopian possibilities inherent in the image of closely
bonded men" (172). Wiegman&rsquo;s thesis on the obsession
of twentieth-century narrative with "symbolic marriage
among men" is relevant to my study because her close
readings highlight the ongoing relevance of theses about
manliness, affinity, and sympathy in Enlightenment-era
political thought. My point is that the cultural work
assigned to same-sex friendship in eighteenth- and early
nineteenth-century historical fictions eventually produced
the discourse of sexual correspondence that allowed
twentieth-century critics like Leslie Fiedler to theorize
"democracy" in US fiction by pointing to scenarios that
displace women and heterosexuality, and that use same-sex
bonds to dissolve the historical and political problem of
racial difference (149).</p>
</div>
<div id="wc_content">
<h4 align="center">Works Cited</h4>
<p class="hang" align="left">Barnes, Elizabeth. <em>States
of Sympathy: Seduction and Democracy in the American
Novel</em>. New York: Columbia UP, 1997.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Burke, Edmund. <em>Reflections
on the Revolution in France</em>. New York: Penguin
Classics, 1969.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Cohen, Margaret. "Traveling
Genres," <em>New Literary History</em> 34.3 (2003):
481-99.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Crain, Caleb. <em>American
Sympathy: Men, Friendship, and Literature in the New
Nation</em>. New Haven: Yale UP, 2001.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Ellison, Julie.
<em>Cato&rsquo;s Tears and The Making of Anglo-American
Emotion</em>. University of Chicago Press, 1999.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Fiedler, Leslie. <em>Love and
Death in the American Novel</em>. New York: Criterion
Books, 1960.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Gardner, Jared. <em>Master
Plots: Race and the Founding of an American Literature,
1787-1845</em>. Baltimore: The John Hopkins University
Press, 1998.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Hill, Christopher. <em>Liberty
Against the Law: Some Seventeenth-Century
Controversies</em>. London: Penguin Press, 1996.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Hobbes, Thomas. <em>De
Cive</em>. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Hutcheson, Francis. <em>A
System of Moral Philosophy</em>, vol. 4 in <em>Collected
Works</em>, ed. Bernhard Fabian. Hildesheim, G.: Olms
Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1969.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Kann, Mark. <em>A Republic of
Men: The American Founders, Gendered Language, and
Patriarchal Politics</em>. New York: New York University
Press, 1998.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Land, Isaac. "Domesticating
the Maritime: Culture, Masculinity, and Empire in Britain,
1770-1820." Diss. U of Michigan, 1999.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Merish, Lori. <em>Sentimental
Materialism: Gender, Commodity Culture, and
Nineteenth-Century American Literature</em>. Durham: Duke
University Press, 2000.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Pocock, J. G. A. <em>The
Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the
Atlantic Republican Tradition</em>. Princeton: The
Princeton University Press, 1975.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Rossiter, Clinton, ed. <em>The
Federalist Papers</em>. New York: Mentor Books, 1961.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Rotundo, Anthony. <em>American
Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution
to the Modern Era.</em> New York: Basic Books, 1993.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Sedgwick, Eve. <em>Between
Men: English Literature and Male Homosocial Desire.</em>
New York: Columbia University Press, 1986.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Scott, Julius. "The Common
Wind: Currents of Afro-American Communication in the Era of
the Haitian Revolution." Diss. Duke U, 1986.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Scott, Sir Walter. <em>The
Pirate</em>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press,
1995.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Smith, Adam. <em>The Theory of
Moral Sentiments</em>. Indianapolis: Liberty Classics,
1976.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Spencer, Mark G. <em>David
Hume and Eighteenth-Century America</em>. Rochester:
University of Rochester Press, 2005.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Stern, Julia. <em>Plights of
Feeling: Sympathy and Dissent in the Early American
Novel</em>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Weber, Max. <em>On Charisma
and Institution Building</em>, edited by S. N. Eisenstadt.
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1968.</p>
<p class="hang" align="left">Wiegman, Robyn. <em>American
Anatomies: Theorizing Race and Gender</em>. Durham: Duke
University Press, 1995.</p>
</div></div></div></div><section class="field field-name-field-authored-by-secondary- field-type-entityreference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Authored by (Secondary):&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even" rel="role:AUT"><a href="/person/crane-james">Crane, James</a></div></div></section><section class="field field-name-field-parent-section field-type-entityreference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Parent Section:&nbsp;</h2><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><a href="/node/31532">Praxis Series</a></div></div></section><section class="field field-name-taxonomy-vocabulary-3 field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Tags:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even" rel="dc:subject"><a href="/taxonomy/term/1612" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">masculinity</a></li><li class="field-item odd" rel="dc:subject"><a href="/taxonomy/term/1907" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">affect</a></li><li class="field-item even" rel="dc:subject"><a href="/taxonomy/term/2133" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">manhood</a></li><li class="field-item odd" rel="dc:subject"><a href="/taxonomy/term/2134" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">James Fenimore Cooper</a></li><li class="field-item even" rel="dc:subject"><a href="/taxonomy/term/2135" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Walter Scott</a></li><li class="field-item odd" rel="dc:subject"><a href="/taxonomy/term/2136" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">historical novel</a></li><li class="field-item even" rel="dc:subject"><a href="/taxonomy/term/2137" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">maritime novel</a></li><li class="field-item odd" rel="dc:subject"><a href="/taxonomy/term/2138" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Adam Smith</a></li><li class="field-item even" rel="dc:subject"><a href="/taxonomy/term/2139" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">friendship</a></li><li class="field-item odd" rel="dc:subject"><a href="/taxonomy/term/2140" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">democracy</a></li><li class="field-item even" rel="dc:subject"><a href="/taxonomy/term/2141" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">transatlantic</a></li></ul></section><section class="field field-name-opencalais-person-tags field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Person:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/ned-griffith" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Ned Griffith</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/clement-cleveland" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Clement Cleveland</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/dick-barnstable" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Dick Barnstable</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/james-fenimore-cooper" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">James Fenimore Cooper</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/thomas-hobbes" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Thomas Hobbes</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/magnus-troil" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Magnus Troil</a></li><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/person/walter-scott" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Walter Scott</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/person/james-crane" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">James Crane</a></li></ul></section><section class="field field-name-opencalais-country-tags field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">Country:&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/country/united-states" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">United States</a></li><li class="field-item odd"><a href="/category/country/scotland" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Scotland</a></li></ul></section><section class="field field-name-field-nines-discipline-s- field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">NINES Discipline(s):&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/nines-discipline/literature" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Literature</a></li></ul></section><section class="field field-name-field-nines-type-s- field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above view-mode-fulltext"><h2 class="field-label">NINES Type(s):&nbsp;</h2><ul class="field-items"><li class="field-item even"><a href="/category/nines-type/typescript" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Typescript</a></li></ul></section>Thu, 18 Aug 2011 05:24:16 +0000rc-admin14861 at http://www.rc.umd.edu