Sweden is a constitutional monarchy. The constitution, dating from 1809 and revised in 1975, is based on the following four fundamental laws: the Instrument of Government, the Act of Succession, the Freedom of the Press Act, and the Riksdag (Parliament) Act. All the laws have been subject to amendment. The constitution is based on the principles of popular sovereignty, representative democracy, and parliamentarism.

The reigning monarch is the head of state but exerts no political power; the responsibilities of the monarch are ceremonial only. Succession is accorded to the firstborn child regardless of sex. The prime minister is nominated by the speaker of the Riksdag after consultations with party leaders and must be approved for office through a vote of the Riksdag. The prime minister appoints the other cabinet members. The cabinet is responsible for all government decisions.

The ministries are small, and they are not concerned with details of administration or implementation of legislation. This is handled by central administrative agencies, whose senior officials are appointed by the cabinet.

In the preparation of important measures to be considered by the government, the responsible minister normally calls upon a commission of inquiry to appraise the measure. The commission may often include politicians from opposition parties, representatives of labour, and scientists and civil servants. They produce a printed report that is sent to various agencies and organizations for official comments before it is presented as background material to government legislation.

The Riksdag, a unicameral parliament elected by the people for four-year terms, is the foundation for the democratic exercise of power through the cabinet. The Riksdag appoints its speaker, deputy speakers, and standing committees, in which parties are represented in proportion to their strength. All bills are referred to committees; the results of their deliberations are reported in printed form to the Riksdag in plenary session.

The Riksdag may call for a consultative (nonbinding) referendum on various issues; decisive (binding) referenda may be held on amendments to the constitution if demanded by one-third of the Riksdag.

Local government

Local government is allocated to the kommuner (municipalities), each with an elected assembly and the right to levy income taxes and to charge fees for various services. Municipalities have a strong independent position. Streets, sewerage, water supply, schools, public assistance, child welfare, housing, and care for elderly people are among their responsibilities. Elections coincide with parliamentary elections.

Between the national and municipal government is a regional tier of 21 län (counties) headed by a county governor, appointed by the national government. Each county also has an elected council that has the right to levy income tax and that administers health care, certain educational and vocational training, and regional transport.

Justice

The National Law Code of 1734 is still in force, although almost none of its original text remains. In modern times, moreover, a mass of special legislation has grown outside the code to cover new needs. Roman law has had less influence in Sweden than in most European countries. Since the end of the 19th century, much civil law has been prepared in collaboration with the other Nordic countries.

Primary responsibility for the enforcement of law devolves upon the courts and the administrative authorities. Sweden has a three-tiered hierarchy of courts: the district courts (tingsrätter), the intermediate courts of appeal (hovrätter), and the Supreme Court (högsta domstolen). District courts play the dominant role. A peculiar feature of these courts is a panel of lay assessors (nämndemän), who take part in the main hearings, primarily on more serious criminal and family cases. In such cases, the bench consists of a legally trained judge as chairman and three lay assessors. These panels are not to be confused with an Anglo-American or continental type of jury.

In the six courts of appeal (the oldest one established in 1614), cases are decided by three or four judges. Appeals against their decisions can be carried to the Supreme Court only if the case is deemed important to the interpretation of law. In the Supreme Court the bench consists of five justices (justitieråd).

Legal aid is provided for anyone who wants it. The general penalties for convictions are fines and imprisonment. Fines are set in proportion to the person’s daily income. Offenders under 18 years of age are sentenced to prison only in exceptional cases.

The decisions of administrative authorities, which cannot be appealed to an ordinary court of justice, can be appealed to higher administrative authorities and ultimately to the government or to administrative courts, such as county administrative courts (länsrätter) in matters of taxation. Higher administrative courts of appeal are called kammarrätter. The highest administrative tribunal is the Supreme Administrative Court (regeringsrätten), which tries cases involving such issues as taxation, insanity, alcoholism, and juvenile delinquency.

The Labour Court (Arbetsdomstolen) is a special body that deals with controversies in the interpretation and application of collective bargaining agreements. Of its seven members, two represent labour and two represent management.

The Office of the Parliamentary Ombudsman (Justitieombudsman) is an original Swedish institution, established in 1809; it has become a model for similar offices in other countries. The ombudsman’s chief duty is to see that the courts and civil service enforce the laws properly, especially those laws that safeguard the freedom, security, and property of citizens. They have the power to institute prosecutions in court and, in particular, to act against officials who abuse their powers or act illegally. Other ombudsmen are not appointed by the Riksdag but have similar duties of surveillance in other areas. Thus, there are an antitrust ombudsman, a consumer ombudsman, an equal-opportunities ombudsman, and an ethnic-discrimination ombudsman.

The chancellor of justice (justitiekansler) is a government appointee who supervises courts and administrative organs with particular concern for safeguarding the state’s interests.

Political process

All citizens of Sweden who are 18 years of age or older may vote in elections. Members of the parliament must be Swedish citizens and of voting age. Representation by party is in strict proportion to the national vote. A quota rule excludes parties with less than 4 percent of the national vote or 12 percent of the votes in at least one electoral district. Only in 1919, after decades of work by Elin Wägner and other dedicated suffragettes, were women in Sweden first able to vote in general elections, and not until 1921 could women vote in all elections. Five women entered the Swedish parliament as a result of that election; at the beginning of the 21st century, nearly half of the members of the parliament were women.

Historically, the political party system in Sweden has been relatively stable. Prominent parties include three nonsocialist parties—the Moderate Party (formerly the Conservative Party), the Centre Party, and the Liberal Party—and two socialist parties—the Swedish Social Democratic Workers’ Party (SAP; commonly called the Social Democratic Labour Party) and the Left Party (former Communist Party). The SAP is closely allied with the trade unions and was in power for a considerable part of the 20th century (1932–76 [except briefly in 1936] and 1982–91). At the end of the century and into the 21st century, power alternated between the Social Democrats and the Moderates.

Security

Sweden has not been under military occupation since the 16th century or been at war since 1814. Until joining the European Union (EU) in 1995, Sweden actively avoided all military alliances through a policy of detachment or neutrality. As a member of the EU, Sweden fully participates in the organization’s foreign and security policy.

To safeguard its neutrality and to protect its territory, Sweden maintains a strong military consisting of an army, a navy, and an air force. Conscription is compulsory for all males age 19 and over. Depending on the branch and role assigned, conscription time lasts from 7 to 17 months. After this initial service, men up to age 47 have a commitment to serve in the reserves.In 2010 the country ended conscription.

Sweden actively supports international organizations such as the United Nations (UN) and takes an energetic role in resolving security issues through this organ. Together with the other Nordic countries, Sweden has worked to develop and reinforce UN peacekeeping operations. Since multilateral disarmament negotiations began in Switzerland in 1962, Sweden also has been key player in international efforts to control and restrict transfers of conventional arms, to enforce the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons, chemical and biological weapons, and missile technology, and to achieve a total ban on antipersonnel mines.

Sweden’s national police service is responsible to the Ministry of Justice and includes the National Police Board, the National Security Service, the National Criminal Investigation Department, the National Laboratory of Forensic Science, and the county police authorities. Women make up one-third of all police employees and about one-fifth of police officers.

Health and welfare

In return for high taxes, Swedes are provided with a broad spectrum of public services and social welfare benefits that guarantee a minimum living standard, provide aid in emergencies, and narrow the gap between income groups. All residents are covered by national health insurance administered by the counties.

Health conditions in Sweden are among the best in the world. Infant mortality is low, and the average life expectancy at birth is high. Sweden has one of the world’s oldest populations, with a significant slice of the population age 65 or over. The ratio of doctors to population is also relatively high. Primary health care centres are available in every community. For highly specialized health care, Sweden has several major hospitals, which generally have affiliated medical schools. The county councils (and the local authority in the case of Gotland) are responsibility for providing health services.

Extremely liberal benefits are available to parents. They are entitled to 13 months of paid family leave from work, which can be shared between them before a child is age 8. They also receive tax-free child allowances, equal for everyone, until a child’s 16th birthday. Students who continue their education are entitled to study allowances. At the university level the majority of student funding consists of repayable loans. Municipalities provide an increasing number of day-care and youth activities.

National accident insurance pays all medical costs for on-the-job injuries. Many working people in Sweden have unemployment insurance through their trade unions, while the unemployed without such coverage can receive a smaller cash benefit from the state. There are extensive government programs for job retraining and sheltered employment (jobs reserved for disabled workers), as well as relocation grants to help the unemployed find work. A basic old-age pension is available to everyone starting at age 65. The state also pays an income-related supplementary pension financed through a payroll plan.

Housing

Today, Swedish cities are generally noted for their efficient planning and lack of slums. Up until the 1930s, however, Sweden’s housing standards were low compared with those of other European countries. Many dwellings lacked basic sanitation and were overcrowded. In the 1940s the central government addressed these concerns through housing policy by subsidizing rents and instituting rent control. In the post-World War II period, the Swedish government oversaw a new focus on the general improvement of housing standards. Housing subsidies were introduced for the poor and elderly pensioners. From the late 1940s through the 1950s, most municipalities founded their own housing companies. Low-interest loans and interest subsides were provided by the state to these nonprofit companies.

In the 1950s and ’60s, as the baby boom began, the ‘‘Million Home Program’’ was instituted to provide a higher standard of housing throughout the country. The goal was to build one million new dwellings, to be occupied by no more than two people per room, not counting the kitchen and living room. This began a policy of state responsibility for the legislation and funding of housing construction, with the municipalities charged with planning and implementation. In the 1970s the construction of single-family houses increased and rent control ended. The housing improvement schemes of the 1980s modernized much of the housing stock, and new projects mushroomed through 1990, a year in which nearly 70,000 units were built.

The economic crisis of the 1990s and the systematic dismantling of many of the iconic features of the welfare state led to a dramatic change in Sweden’s housing policy. Construction dwindled at this time as subsidized housing schemes were eliminated in favour of housing allowances or supplements. As the effects of the 1990s depression subsided, the government attempted to address housing problems in the first decade of the 21st century by investing in projects meant to stimulate the construction of new housing, particularly that of smaller apartments. The government also worked with private builders and municipal housing authorities to ensure a sustainable stock of high-quality housing that was both environmentally sensitive and affordable.

In the early 21st century, more than half of Swedish households lived in apartments, while the remainder lived in houses. At the turn of the century, the average Swedish household spent about one-fourth of its disposable income on rent. Housing stock is not evenly distributed throughout the country. In some regions, such as the greater Stockholm area, housing is at a premium, while in other smaller and medium-sized communities, there is a surplus of housing stock.

On average, just over two Swedes live in each dwelling. Approximately two-fifths of the housing stock is owner-occupied; nearly half is rental; and the remainder is owned by cooperative tenant owners. Sweden is the only country where the predominant colour of houses is red.

Education

The education system is, with few exceptions, public and open to all without fees. Primary schools are run by the municipalities, as are the secondary schools. Universities and colleges are administered by the state, but they have been given far-reaching autonomy in the use of resources. Academic freedom is carefully guarded by faculty and students alike.

All municipalities must provide preschool classes. Parents may choose whether or not to send their children, and the great majority does participate. Parents and pupils have the choice of free municipal schools as well as independent schools, which may charge tuition. Only a very small percentage of all Swedish children attend private or independent schools. The comprehensive school (grundskola) is compulsory for nine years. Children are required to attend school between the ages of 7 and 16. Compulsory education is free, and no charge is made for school lunches, transportation, or educational materials. The comprehensive school is divided into three-year stages: lower, middle, and upper. Each school may decide when English and other foreign languages are introduced, but all must meet the same standards by grade 5. About one-third of all schools begin English instruction in grade 1. From the seventh year the curriculum is divided into different lines chosen by the pupils themselves. Special education is given to all pupils suffering from physical or mental handicaps.

Nearly all of the pupils continue from comprehensive school to the upper secondary school. The curriculum in this school (gymnasieskola) is divided between several theoretical programs, which are university-oriented, and a variety of vocationally oriented programs. Certain core subjects are common to all programs.

Marks, or grades, are given in comprehensive school starting in the eighth year. In the upper secondary school grades are given each term. About half of all young people in Sweden go on to higher studies within five years of completing upper secondary school.

Sweden has about a dozen major universities and some 20 university-colleges. The oldest is the Uppsala University, founded in 1477. Other universities are located in Lund, Stockholm, Gothenburg, Umeå, Linköping, Karlstad and Växjö. Sweden is also home to other world-renowned institutions, including the Karolinska Institute (medicine) in Stockholm and the Chalmers University of Technology. Education is free of charge; students pay no tuition. Courses are typically taught in Swedish, but course literature is often in English. An increasing number of courses are also offered in English.

Continuing and adult education are important features of the Swedish education system. Adult education outside the public school system is offered at the many Folk High Schools, a uniquely Scandinavian educational institution. Also characteristic are the nationwide voluntary education associations. About half of Sweden’s adult population pursues studies in one form or another. Since 1968 municipalities have offered courses for adults covering the three upper grades of comprehensive school and upper secondary school. University courses also are open to all age groups. Distance learning—including radio and television courses, as well as Internet and correspondence courses—is popular and especially useful for persons who reside far from educational centres.

The 18th century

Charles XII had no successor. In 1718 his sister Ulrika Eleonora had to convene the Diet in order to be elected. In 1720 she abdicated in favour of her husband, Frederick of Hessen (ruled 1720–51).

The Age of Freedom (1718–72)

This period saw a transition from absolutism to a parliamentary form of government. The real reason for the change was the complete failure of the policy of “greatness” connected with the Carolingian absolutism. According to the constitutional laws of 1720–23, the power now rested with the estates. The estates met regularly in the Diet, which designated the council. There the king was accorded a double vote but had no right to make decisions. In the Diet, decision making took place in the “Secret Committee,” from which the peasants, or the fourth estate, were excluded. The public sessions of the estates in the Diet were reserved for speeches and debates. The three upper estates consisted mainly of state servants. Thus, the so-called Age of Freedom, which lasted until 1772, was also an age of bureaucracy.

During this period a dual-party system evolved; the parties were known by the nicknames “Nightcaps” (or “Caps”) and “Hats.” Both parties were mercantilist, but the Nightcaps were the more prudent. Up to 1738 the Nightcaps were in power. They led a most careful foreign policy so as not to provoke Russia. From 1738 to 1765 power passed to the Hats, who made treaties with France in order to obtain subsidies and support against Russia. War with Russia in 1741–43 led to a temporary Russian occupation of Finland and to a further loss of Finnish provinces northwest of St. Petersburg. A war with Prussia in 1757–62 was very expensive. The Hats attempted to make Sweden a great economic power, but their economic policy and the war costs led to inflation and financial collapse, and their regime came to an end in 1765.

For some years political confusion reigned in Sweden. The Nightcaps received subsidies from Russia, and their negotiations with Prussia and Denmark intensified party struggles in Sweden. Economic chaos, territorial losses, foreign infiltration, and famine in the countryside undermined the parliamentary system. Historians have sometimes stressed these failures too strongly, however, in glorifying the past Carolingian age and the future Gustavian epoch. It has become increasingly clear that during the period the Swedish heritage of freedom was significantly shaped. A true parliamentary system gradually developed, which, although hampered by cumbersome procedures, is a notable parallel to the contemporary English system. The political changes that marked the period are especially significant because of their influence on the Swedish constitution. Despite the turmoil that prevailed, the period was notable for its social and cultural advancements. Ideas about land reform were formulated; progress in science was encouraged; and the Swedish press was initiated. Noteworthy individual achievements include the thermometer scale of Anders Celsius, the botanical classification system of Carolus Linnaeus (Carl von Linné), and the religious philosophical postulations of Emanuel Swedenborg. During the Age of Freedom, Sweden reached a level of scholarly and cultural attainment equal to that of the most advanced nations of western Europe. By the last years of this period, however, numerous problems beset the country, and Sweden was ripe for a change of government.

The era of Gustav III

When Frederick of Hessen died in 1751, he was succeeded by Adolf Frederick, who ruled until his death in 1771. While visiting Paris, Gustav III (ruled 1771–92) acceded to the throne. Before returning, he concluded another treaty with France. In 1772 he used the royal guard and officers of the Finnish army to seize control of the government from the parliament in a bloodless coup d’état. Gustav tried to exploit the Vasa and Carolingian traditions of personal royal power. He could rely on no class of the Swedish society nor on the political institutions of the 18th century, so he had to make the most of royal propaganda to the public. In this he was not without success; the traditional picture of Gustav is that of “King Charming,” the promoter of the arts and sciences.

But Gustav’s politics were unstable. Until 1786 he put into effect social reforms that belonged to enlightened despotism, thus enmeshing himself in its traditional dilemma: alienating the “haves” without satisfying the “have nots.” Even his solution to the dilemma was a traditional one—war. After Turkey attacked Russia in 1787, Gustav went to war against Russia in 1788 to recapture the Finnish provinces. The Swedish attack failed, partly because of a conspiracy by noble Swedish officers—the Anjala League—who, during the war, sent a letter to Catherine II (the Great) of Russia, proposing negotiations. Gustav used the treason of the Anjala League to provoke an outburst of genuine patriotism in Sweden, hoping to channel popular opinion through the Diet, which he convened in 1789. At this Diet the king called the four estates to a joint meeting, where he, with the support of the members of the three lower estates, overruled the nobility and stripped the council of all its authority, giving the king absolute power. At the same time, however, the three lower estates, against Gustav’s will, abolished practically all the privileges of the nobility (e.g., the nobility no longer had special rights to any posts in the administration or to any category of Swedish land). On March 16, 1792, the king was mortally wounded by a nobleman and former officer of the royal guards. The last years of the king and especially the days between the shooting and his death (March 29) made him a martyr in the minds of his people, perhaps undeservedly.

Viewed in its entirety, the 18th century in Sweden was a golden age of trade and commerce. In 1731 the Swedish East India Company was founded, which was extremely successful until it was forced out of business during the Napoleonic Wars. The capital produced by the East India Company and other commercial enterprises formed the basis for a rapid growth of manufacturing enterprises, such as shipbuilding and textile production. But the most important manufacturing industry in Sweden was ironworking, which expanded rapidly during the 18th century. Iron was also the most important export commodity, and the production of pig iron in Sweden increased to more than one-third of world production by 1750.

The 18th century was also characterized by great social changes. Farmers obtained the right to purchase clear title to crown lands, and so most of the peasants came to own their farms. At the same time, the prices of their products were increased and profits grew. This development coincided with the growth of a large rural proletariat. The burghers’ wealth and influence grew rapidly, as did trade and industry. A consequence of the social changes was that commoners were allowed to own exempt land and were admitted to high government posts previously held only by nobles. The nobility became less exclusive, and social mobility increased.

The Napoleonic Wars and the 19th century

Royalist reaction

A fear of the influence of revolutionary France dominated the Swedish government during the last decade of the 18th century and the first of the 19th. These fears were reflected in major economies in public finances, the legislation of land reforms, and the censoring of French literature. Gustav IV (ruled 1792–1809), unlike his father, Gustav III, was pious and superstitious. He considered events in France to be insults to moral order. A deep aversion toward the revolutionaries and toward Napoleon characterized his foreign policy. Of decisive importance was his resolution in 1805 to join the coalition against France. When France and Russia signed the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807, Gustav stubbornly accepted war, even with Russia. Denmark, which had sided with France in October 1807, declared war against Sweden in 1808. England, at the moment busy in Spain, could offer little help. Sweden thus became politically isolated, with enemies in the east, south, and west. The Swedish army defended Finland poorly, with that defense reaching its nadir when the strong fortress of Sveaborg near Helsingfors was handed over to the Russians by treason. The Russians advanced as far as Umeå in Sweden.

In March 1809 Gustav IV was deposed by a group of high officials and officers. More than anything else, a widespread longing for a quick and cheap peace brought the men of 1809 to power, but they were unable to save Finland. In September 1809 a bitter peace was made at Fredrikshamn, in which Sweden surrendered Finland and the Åland Islands (northeast of Stockholm) to Russia. A new constitution was promulgated, embodying the principle of separation of powers. The division of the Diet into four estates remained. Charles XIII (ruled 1809–18), the uncle of Gustav IV, was elected king. The fact that he was senile and childless opened the question of succession to the throne.

With the consent of Denmark, the commander in chief of the Norwegian army, Christian August (at the moment waging war against Sweden), was elected crown prince and took the name Charles August. Behind this decision were thoughts of a Scandinavian confederation. This solution was cherished by Denmark and even by Napoleon.

In 1810 Charles August died, and the question of the succession to the throne was reopened. The old king, Charles XIII, and the majority of the council wanted to elect the brother of the deceased, the Danish prince Frederick Christian of Augustenborg. However, the younger officers and civil servants, who were great admirers of Napoleon and wanted Sweden to join France, worked for another solution. A Swedish lieutenant, Baron Carl Otto Mörner, was sent to Paris as their envoy to offer one of Napoleon’s marshals the throne of Sweden. The choice fell on the prince of Pontecorvo, the marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte. This choice pleased Napoleon, though he may have preferred the Swedish throne to be taken over by his ally King Frederick VI of Denmark-Norway. Meanwhile, the French consul in Gothenburg and the Francophile Swedish foreign minister, Lars Engeström, managed to persuade the Diet to set aside the Danish alternative and to name Bernadotte as crown prince of Sweden in August 1810.

Bernadotte

From his arrival in Sweden in October 1810, Bernadotte, who took the name Charles John, became the real leader of Swedish politics. In designating him for the crown, the Swedes hoped that he would somehow reconquer Finland and the Åland Islands. Charles John, however, who was well aware of the weakness of the Napoleonic empire, initiated a completely different policy. Rather than fight for Finland, he sought alliances with Napoleon’s enemies that would permit Sweden to take Norway from Denmark. He approached Tsar Alexander I of Russia, and in April 1812 Sweden entered a treaty by which it promised to support Russia against Napoleon. According to the treaty, Finland would remain a Russian possession, but in compensation Sweden would be allowed to acquire Norway. When Napoleon began his Russian campaign shortly thereafter, Charles John sided with Tsar Alexander. A meeting between Charles John and Alexander in August 1812 further strengthened the alliance, and the tsar apparently promised to support Charles John’s plan to play a major political role in France after the fall of Napoleon.

Charles John then turned to the West. In March 1813 he negotiated a treaty with England by which, for participating in the final offensive against Napoleon, England also agreed to let Charles John take Norway. Thus, Charles John became commander in chief of the northern allied army, consisting of Prussian, Russian, and Swedish soldiers. He used this army sparingly, especially the Swedish contingent, even at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, because he cherished a hope of succeeding Napoleon and also because he needed troops to attack Denmark. After Leipzig, Charles John refused to cross the Rhine; instead he led the northern army against Denmark. The result was the Treaty of Kiel, whereby Norway was surrendered.

By accepting a constitution in Norway, Charles John became heir, peacefully, to his second throne in four years and consequently gained a more independent position in Sweden. He hoped, moreover, to impress liberal circles in France favourably. The cession of Finland to Russia was a bitter loss for Sweden; but, in the words of the Swedish historian Sten Carlsson in 1969, “The loss of Finland was the price of the long and still unbroken period of peace that was to begin in 1814.”

Society and politics (1815–1900)

Population and the economy

The population of Sweden, which in 1815 was barely 2,500,000, reached 3,500,000 by 1850 and 5,100,000 by 1900. During the period 1815 to 1900, therefore, the country’s population had more than doubled, despite a loss of 850,000 emigrants (mainly to North America) during the period 1840 to 1900.

Until the last quarter of the 19th century, Sweden was a predominantly agricultural country. In 1850, 90 percent of the population lived off the land. By 1900 the figure was still as high as 75 percent. At the beginning of the 19th century, rural dwellings were clustered together in the villages, and the fields were cultivated under an old open-field system. The basis for an agricultural modernization was laid down by a statute of 1827 on enclosures (laga skifte), which stated that, when possible, the fields of the individual farm should be assembled together in a compact area. Enclosures of lands, which took place throughout the 19th century, changed the face of the countryside. Villages were split up, and scattered farms became the predominant type of dwelling in Sweden. The move away from the village system brought about a widespread reclamation of wasteland and the modernization of agriculture, which accounted in part for the increase in population.

During the first half of the 19th century, trade and industry were still restricted by regulations and guild rules. The middle of the 19th century witnessed the beginning of industrial organization, primarily in the timber trade, and in the last quarter of the 19th century the industrial revolution began in earnest with the advent of new methods in iron and steel production and the birth of a number of specialized industries, such as those of machines and machine tools. During the greater part of the 19th century, however, Sweden was a poor and overpopulated country.

The conservative era (1815–40)

At the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars, Sweden was hard hit by an economic slump that lasted until 1830, characterized by abortive attempts to reestablish the value of the currency. After devaluation in 1834, the currency was finally stabilized. Charles John, who became king under the name of Charles XIV John (ruled 1818–44), pursued a strictly conservative policy. The king’s power, invested in him by the constitution, was exploited to the limit; and the ministers were recruited from his henchmen without regard to the wishes of parliament. In the 1820s the liberal opposition steadily increased its demands for reforms, and 1830 was the year in which liberal opinion made a breakthrough. In Sweden this was indicated by the establishing of a newspaper, Aftonbladet, which, with Lars Johan Hierta as editor, became the leading journal of the liberal opposition. Simultaneously, the king’s one-man rule, which was exercised through his powerful favourite Magnus Brahe, became even more emphatic. The struggle against the growing liberal opposition, which reached its climax at the end of the 1830s, was characterized by actions against the freedom of the press and indictments of high treason and countered by the liberals with sharp criticism, demonstrations, and street riots.

The liberal reform period

The pressure of the opposition, however, at last forced the king to yield, and the 1840 parliament, in which the liberal opposition had attained a majority, forced through the “departmental reform,” which meant that the ministers actually became the heads of their own ministries. Another reform of great significance was the introduction in 1842 of compulsory school education. When Charles XIV John died in 1844 and was succeeded by his son Oscar I (ruled 1844–59), the liberal reform period had already gained momentum.

Principal reforms

Among the most important of the reforms was the introduction of free enterprise in 1846, which meant the abolition of the guilds. They were now replaced by free industrial and trade associations. Simultaneously, the monopoly of trade that the towns had held since the Middle Ages was also abolished. Finally, by the introduction of a statute in 1864, complete freedom of enterprise became a reality. The lifting of almost all bans on exports and imports in 1847, together with a reduction in customs duties, was the first step toward free trade. A number of other liberal reforms were introduced: equal rights of inheritance for men and women (1845), unmarried women’s rights (1858), a more humane penal code through a number of reforms (1855–64), religious freedom (1860), and local self-government (1862). Another significant step was the decision in 1854 that the state should be responsible for the building and management of main-line railroads.

Parliamentary reform

Oscar I, who took the initiative himself in many of these reforms, became more conservative after the disturbances in Stockholm in 1848. When he was succeeded by his son, Charles XV (ruled 1859–72), the power had in reality gradually passed into the hands of the privy council, which, under the leadership of the minister of finance, Baron Johan August Gripenstedt, and the minister of justice, Baron Louis De Geer, completed the reforms. From the beginning of the 19th century, the most important of the liberal demands had been for a reform of the system of representation. It was not until 1865–66 that agreement was reached to replace the old Riksdag—with its four estates of nobility, clergy, burghers, and peasantry—with a parliament consisting of two chambers with equal rights. The members of the first were chosen by indirect vote and with such a high eligibility qualification that it bore the stamp of an upper chamber representing great landowners and commercial and industrial entrepreneurs. The members of the second were chosen by direct popular vote, which was limited, however, by a property qualification and therefore gave the farmers an advantage.

Political stagnation (1866–1900)

The reform of the representative system marked the end of the liberal reform period. During the following 20 years, Swedish politics were dominated by two issues: the demand for an abolition of ground tax, which had been levied from ancient times, and the defense question, where the demand was for an abolition of the military system of indelningsverket—i.e., an army organization in which the soldiers were given small holdings to live on. The defense system was to be modernized by an increase in conscription. The first chamber’s demand for rearmament, however, was impossible in view of the second chamber’s demand for the abolition of the ground tax. As these issues had been linked together in the 1873 compromise, they were not resolved until 1892, when it was decided to abolish the ground tax and to replace the old army organization with a larger and better-trained conscripted army. The latter was completed through the defense reform of 1901, which introduced a conscripted army with a 240-day period of service.

The falling prices of wheat on the world market in the 1880s gave rise to a serious agricultural crisis. In 1888 a moderate tariff was introduced that was gradually raised in the following years. The second chamber, which since the electoral reform had been dominated by the Farmers’ Party, was at this time split into a protectionist faction and a free-trade faction. In this era the parties that still dominate Swedish politics today came into being: the Swedish Social Democratic Workers’ Party (SAP; commonly called the Swedish Social Democratic Party) was founded in 1889; liberal factions in the Riksdag merged into the Liberal Union in 1900; and conservatives united under the banner of the Conservative (later Moderate) Party in 1904.

Foreign policy

Until the end of the 19th century, foreign policy was still regarded as the monarch’s personal province. Already, as crown prince, Charles John had concluded an alliance with Russia against almost unanimous opposition and by so doing initiated the Russia-oriented policy that characterized the whole of his reign. The succession of Oscar I to the throne in 1844 brought no immediate alteration. The only deviation was in his somewhat carefully demonstrated sympathy for the growing Pan-Scandinavian movement. When the German nationals rebelled against the Danish king in 1848, Oscar I aligned himself with Frederick VII and contributed, together with the tsar, to a cease-fire and armistice.

Change in alliance policy

During the negotiations on Schleswig-Holstein, Oscar I was still on the side of Tsar Nicholas I of Russia, aligned more or less against the radical nationalism in Germany. But in reality he endeavoured to extricate Sweden from the conservative Russia-oriented policy that Charles John had initiated in 1812. The opportunity came during the Crimean War (1853–56), when Oscar I adopted a friendly attitude to the Western powers and, among other things, opened Swedish harbours to English and French warships and tried to induce the Western powers, with the help of Swedish troops, to attack St. Petersburg. With this intention, he signed the November Treaty with the Western powers in 1855. The peace treaty that was concluded in Paris shortly afterward, however, ended the hopes cherished in Sweden of winning Finland, or at least Åland, back again. All that was gained was the Åland Convention, which forbade Russia to build fortifications or to have other military installations on Åland.

Pan-Scandinavianism

During the 1840s and ’50s the idea of a united Scandinavia had won great support among students and intellectuals. Crown Prince Charles had spoken out enthusiastically in favour of this ideal, and, after his succession to the throne in 1859, he assured the Danish king of Sweden’s solidarity, promising Swedish support to defend the frontier at the Eider—the southern boundary of Schleswig. Encouraged by these promises, Denmark embarked upon the policy that led to the Danish-Prussian War of 1864. The Swedish government, however, reluctantly refused to honour the king’s pledge. Scandinavian unity subsequently suffered a decisive defeat and ceased to be the guiding light of Swedish foreign policy.

Neutrality and friendship with Germany

In the wars between Prussia and Austria in 1866 and between Germany and France in 1870–71, Sweden was officially neutral, even if in the latter the king’s personal sympathies were with France. Oscar II (ruled 1872–1907) reoriented the country’s foreign policy. The new German Empire, under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck, excited his admiration. At the same time, connections with Germany became much closer, and from the mid-1870s Swedish politics were influenced by a close friendship with Germany, which was emphasized during the last years of the 19th century by the growing fear of Russia.

The Swedish-Norwegian union

From the Swedish viewpoint, the union with Norway was a disappointment. Instead of an alliance of the two countries, the incompatibilities grew, and the union was actually confined to a joint monarchy and foreign policy. One of the few positive results of the union was an 1825 statute that abolished or greatly reduced tariffs between the countries. The union also had an important influence on Sweden’s domestic affairs, and Norway served as a model for Swedish radicals who demanded parliamentary democracy.

As crown prince in the 1850s, Charles XV had promised the Norwegians that on his succession to the throne he would abolish the post of governor-general, which in Norway was regarded as a sign of the country’s subordinate position in the union. In reality, the post of governor-general had not been occupied by a Swede since 1829 and had been vacant since 1855. When Charles XV succeeded to the throne, however, and tried to honour his pledge to abolish the post, the Swedish parliament and the government headed by the powerful minister of finance, Baron J.A. Gripenstedt, opposed the resolution. Charles XV was forced to give way. The government, with support from parliament, had thus strengthened its position over the king. The governor-general question marked the beginning of the struggle for power between king and parliament that characterized Sweden’s internal politics for the rest of the 19th century. With the dissolution of the union in 1905, the king’s power was again usurped, and a government chosen by the majority parties in parliament and headed by the right-wing leader Christian Lundeberg was appointed to negotiate with Norway. Thus, the dissolution of the union led to the first real parliamentary government in Sweden.

The 20th century

The economic expansion that started in the early 19th century laid the foundations for internal developments in Sweden during the 20th century. The turning point came during and immediately after World War I. There was suddenly a worldwide demand for Swedish products such as steel and pulp, matches and ball bearings, telephones and vacuum cleaners. The composition of the population underwent a decisive change, and Sweden was transformed from an agricultural to a modern industrial country.

Political reform

Politically, the economic development meant that a universal and equal franchise was more and more vociferously demanded. The issue was solved in 1907 by a compromise submitted by a Conservative government under the leadership of Arvid Lindman. The motion granted a universal and equal franchise for the second chamber, a certain democratization of the first chamber, and proportional representation for elections to both chambers of the Riksdag. The elections to the second chamber in 1911 produced a landslide victory for the Liberal Party, which had grown out of the Liberal Union of 1902, and Gustav V (ruled 1907–50) was forced to ask Karl Staaff to form a Liberal government.

Defense policy

One of the most important points of Liberal policy in 1911 was a decrease in military expenditure. The realization of this demand led to sharp conflicts between Gustav V and Staaff. As the tension between the Great Powers grew, a farmers’ rally was organized, and 30,000 farmers from all over the country sought out the king and demanded that the country’s defenses be strengthened. In his reply (Borggårdstalet, the Courtyard Speech) the king promised to reinforce the military defenses. As he had given this pledge without having consulted the government, it resigned, and the king appointed a civil-servant government with Hjalmar Hammarskjöld as prime minister.

Policy during World War I

During World War I, Sweden attempted to remain neutral and to assert its right to trade with the belligerent countries. For Great Britain, the blockade was an important weapon, and Sweden’s demand to import freely favoured Germany exclusively. As a result, the Allies stopped a large percentage of Sweden’s trade. This, however, not only affected Sweden’s exports to Germany but also from 1916 caused a severe shortage of food in Sweden. The situation was worsened by unrestricted submarine warfare and by the entry of the United States into the war in 1917. Hammarskjöld was forced to resign; he was followed by a Conservative government and shortly afterward by a Liberal one, both of which conducted a more-diplomatic trading policy with the Allies. In May 1918 an agreement was reached with Great Britain and the United States that allowed Sweden again to import produce from the West, on condition that exports to Germany be limited and that a large part of Sweden’s merchant fleet be put at the Allies’ disposal.

The Liberal–Social Democratic coalition

In the general election of 1917, the left-wing parties (the Social Democrats and Liberals) secured a further increase in their majority in the second chamber, and the king was obliged to choose a Liberal–Social Democratic government. Under Nils Edén, the new government, as one of its first measures, amended the constitution. The main issues were suffrage for women and the introduction of a universal and equal franchise for elections to the first chamber and for local elections.

Domestic policy (1918–45)

Party politics

From 1920 onward a line was drawn between the socialist parties on one side and the Liberals and Conservatives on the other. From 1920 to 1932 the parties held power alternately, but no government had any chance of gaining firm support for its policy in the Riksdag. From a political viewpoint the 1920s were a period of stagnation.

The economic climate

From an economic point of view, however, the picture was quite different. The 1920s were marked by steadily improving trade conditions, and in this boom period Sweden was one of the countries that prospered significantly.

Sweden suffered severely during the early years of the Great Depression. In the early 1930s unemployment rose, and reductions in wages caused a series of harsh labour conflicts. The election of 1932 brought a considerable advance to the Social Democratic Party, and to some extent to the Farmers’ Party as well, and led to a Social Democratic administration under the leadership of Per Albin Hansson. It offered a comprehensive policy to fight the crisis, including extensive public works and a number of moves in support of agriculture. This policy was subjected to scathing criticism by the right-wing parties, but an agreement reached with the Farmers’ Party in 1933 made it possible to implement the program. The economic crisis of the ’30s was overcome more rapidly in Sweden than in most other countries. As early as 1936, wages had reached their old level, and by the end of the decade unemployment had become insignificant.

From a political point of view, the ’30s were a time of preparation, when a series of bills for radical reforms were worked out. The whole program could be summarized in the term folkhemmet, in which society is viewed as a “home” for the people, taking care of their needs in unemployment, sickness, and old age; but, with the advent of World War II in 1939, reforms were postponed because of rising military expenditure and supply difficulties.

Foreign policy (1918–45)

When World War I ended, Russia and Germany were among the defeated nations, and Sweden thus found itself in an unusually good position regarding external security. In 1925 military expenditure was considerably reduced. Problems regarding foreign policy were confined to Sweden’s application for membership in the League of Nations, which was granted in 1920, and to its relationship with Finland.

When the Finnish Civil War ended in 1918, the problem of Åland reemerged. The inhabitants of the Åland Islands (Finnish: Ahvenanmaa) were purely Swedish-speaking, and a plebiscite revealed that almost all were in favour of affiliation with Sweden. The League of Nations, however, decided in 1921 to award Finland sovereignty over the islands, though with certain conditions pertaining to internal self-government and limiting the right to fortify or otherwise utilize the islands for military purposes.

Adolf Hitler’s rise to power in Germany resulted in a reexamination of Sweden’s defense policy, which in 1936 was amended to strengthen the country’s defenses. Sweden followed a strictly neutral course, in close collaboration with the other Scandinavian countries and The the Netherlands, Belgium, and Switzerland. As a consequence, Hitler’s proposal in the spring of 1939 for a nonaggression pact was rejected. Sweden’s attempt to form a Nordic defense union or, failing that, a Swedish-Finnish alliance led to nothing, primarily because the Soviet Union objected.

On the outbreak of war in 1939, Sweden declared itself neutral. When the Soviet Union shortly afterward launched an attack on Finland, Sweden gave Finland aid in the form of vast matériel and a volunteer corps. On the other hand, Sweden, in common with Norway, refused the Allies’ request to march through its territory in order to intervene in the war. After the German occupation of Denmark and Norway in 1940, however, Sweden was forced by German military superiority to allow the transit of German troops through Sweden to Norway. Many Norwegians and Danes sought refuge in Sweden, the majority of them with the intention of fleeing to England. When Germany attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941, transit facilities were demanded for a division of German troops from Norway to Finland, and Sweden acquiesced under threat of military reprisals. In 1943 the agreement concerning the transit of German troops was revoked. Toward the end of the war, Norwegian and Danish police were trained and equipped in Sweden. Immediately after the war, Sweden was granted membership in the United Nations, without having relinquished its principally neutral foreign policy.

The welfare state

The coalition government that was formed in 1939 was replaced shortly after the end of the war in 1945 by a Social Democratic government under the leadership of Per Albin Hansson. After his death in 1946, Tage Erlander became prime minister, a post that he held until his resignation in 1969. He was succeeded by Olof Palme, who took over the leadership of the government without any other changes being made in its composition.

The period of social reform

The period 1946 to 1950 may justly be called the great period of reform, during which new, comprehensive laws were adopted concerning old-age pensions, child allowances, health insurance, rent allowances, educational reforms, and the expansion of institutions of higher education and research. Those parts of the Social Democrats’ postwar program that aimed at nationalization of industry were not carried through. By tax reorganization the government tried, however, to achieve wider distribution of wealth.

Surprisingly, the years after World War II had been marked by stable trading conditions and a scarcity of labour. During the Korean War, the boom reached its climax, entailing large price increases and rapid inflation. A recession followed at the end of 1951. In Sweden this meant that the upward movement of prices and incomes was interrupted, and for the first time since World War II there was a rise in unemployment. Even though the crisis of 1951–52 was neither serious nor long, it drew attention to the problems of economic stability. The Social Democrats now became primarily preoccupied with securing the advances already achieved. They began to collaborate with the Farmers’ Party, and in the autumn of 1951 the Social Democratic government was replaced by a coalition government consisting of Social Democrats and Farmers, which lasted until 1957.

In the late 1950s the question of a compulsory pension for all employees became a principal political issue. The opposition fought it energetically, mainly because it was feared that control of the pension fund would create a latent risk of complete socialism; the government finally enacted the bill in 1959.

New constitution

In 1955 a committee to review the constitution of 1809 (the Instrument of Government) was appointed. On its recommendations, the old two-chamber Riksdag was replaced in 1971 by a one-chamber Riksdag composed of 350 members elected by proportional representation. The new Instrument of Government, which entered into force on Jan. 1, 1975, reduced the membership of the Riksdag to 349 (to minimize the risk of evenly divided votes) and the voting age to 18. It also further curtailed the powers and duties of the king to a point merely ceremonial. King Carl XVI Gustaf, who succeeded Gustav VI Adolf in 1973, was the first king to serve under the new constitution.

Foreign policy into the 1990s

Sweden’s foreign policy since 1945 has remained strictly neutral. When the international situation became tense in 1948 during the Berlin blockade and airlift, the Swedish government took the initiative in negotiations on a defense alliance between Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. Sweden insisted that the alliance should be truly independent of the Great Powers, while Norway wanted cooperation with the Western powers; as a result, negotiations came to nothing. In accordance with its policy of neutrality, Sweden did not apply for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), although it did pursue its policy of liberalizing trade by participating in the establishment of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1959. In addition, Scandinavian collaboration was intensified by the Nordic Council, which was formally inaugurated in 1952. Among the important results of the council’s work were the dropping of passport requirements between the Scandinavian countries, the creation of a free-labour market, and the establishment of a far-reaching coordination of economic and social legislation. On the other hand, plans for a Nordic customs union, which were discussed during the 1960s and which aimed at more extensive cooperation than already existed within the framework of EFTA, produced no result. The so-called Nordek plan, submitted in 1969, which also aimed at far-reaching economic cooperation between the Nordic countries, met with opposition, primarily from Finland, and was abandoned in 1970. During negotiations for entry into the European Communities (EC, later European Community; the successor of the EEC), in which Denmark and Norway took part in 1971, Sweden repeated its declaration that it did not intend to seek membership, on the grounds of neutrality. But the expansion of the EC and the plans for a closer integration of the EC nations made it more and more difficult for Sweden to carry out its policy. Finally, after the dissolution of the U.S.S.R. made the Swedish policy of neutrality obsolete, Sweden applied for membership in the EC in 1991, joining in 1995 after it had been reorganized and embedded in the newly formed European Union (EU).

Domestic affairs into the 21st century

In the election of 1970 the Social Democrats lost the absolute majority they had held since 1968. But in spite of this the Social Democratic government of Palme, with the support of the Communists, continued in office until the election of 1976, when the nonsocialist parties won a majority. Palme’s resignation brought an end to 44 years of Social Democratic domination.

Nonsocialists formed governments from 1976 to 1982, the first coalition being led by Thorbjörn Fälldin (Centre Party). His government felt repercussions of the international economic crisis of the 1970s, manifested in unemployment and adverse effects on the standard of living. Political discussion, however, focused above all on the question of nuclear power. Fälldin, who had campaigned for the cessation of building nuclear power plants, was forced to compromise on this issue. As a result, he resigned in October 1978. Ola Ullsten, leader of the People’s Party (widely known as the Liberal Party and officially the Liberal People’s Party from 1990), succeeded him as prime minister, forming a minority government in which one-third of the ministers were women. Following a general election in 1979, the nonsocialist coalition led by Fälldin was returned to office.

The development of nuclear power continued to be a hotly debated issue. A national referendum on the issue was held in 1980, with the government considering gradually discontinuing its nuclear power plants. Since then, public opinion generally has been supportive of the continued use of nuclear power, even though the government has decommissioned some plants.

Throughout the 1980s, political debate focused on economic problems, particularly those related to escalating inflation, an unfavourable international trade balance, and unemployment. These problems grew more severe as a result of worldwide changes in the methods of processing raw materials and in industrial production that developed from the beginning of the 1970s. Changes of this kind created economic difficulties throughout Sweden’s industrial complex, including such major sectors as textile manufacturing, iron- and steelmaking, shipbuilding, and mining. Escalating unemployment generated by the economic downturn was especially significant during 1980–83 and at the beginning of the 1990s.

Unemployment became a central issue of the 1982 parliamentary elections, along with the deficit and a proposal by the Social Democrats to establish a wage-earner investment fund. The Social Democrats won a resounding victory in the elections, and a new government was formed by Palme. The elections signaled a new polarization of Swedish politics, with the Moderate Party (as the Conservative Party had been known since 1969) gaining a significant number of new seats in the Riksdag, while the Liberals lost almost half of their representation.

The new government quickly took strong steps to alleviate the country’s economic stagnation, including an increase in the value-added tax (VAT) and a sharp decrease in the value of the national currency, the krona. Simultaneously, pressures were brought to bear on employers to resist workers’ demands for higher wages to offset the resulting price increases. Signs of recovery began to appear in response to the government’s measures and also as a result of the improving international economic scene in 1983–84. Taxation rose to a very high level, however, as a result of the large budget deficit and rapidly growing employment in the public sector. At the same time, a controversial issue developed over the legislation for the wage-earner investment fund that the Social Democrats and the Communists had managed to push through the Riksdag in late 1983, in spite of unified resistance from the nonsocialist parties and the business community. The opposing groups feared that the legislation would move Sweden too heavily in the direction of socialism. After their implementation the employee funds appeared not to affect the economic system in any appreciable way. Although they suffered some losses, the socialist parties continued to hold a majority of the seats in the Riksdag after the 1985 election. The most significant outcome of the election was a strong advance by the Liberal Party, which had come under new leadership.

On Feb. 28, 1986, Prime Minister Palme was assassinated, shocking a country unused to political violence (this was the first political assassination in modern Swedish history). He was replaced by Ingvar Carlsson, the deputy prime minister, who, although a less-dynamic figure, shared Palme’s political philosophy. Without Palme, however, Sweden’s role in the arena of international politics, where it had championed human rights and promoted peace and disarmament, diminished.

The 1988 election did not change the political picture greatly. Nonetheless, the Green Ecology Party garnered 5.5 percent of the vote, exceeding the 4 percent minimum required to enter the parliament. The domestic policy of the Social Democratic government was characterized by concessions to a more liberal program carried through with the support of the Liberal Party. For example, there was a considerable reduction in direct taxes on income, and a program for an energy policy for the future was developed.

The September 1991 election, on the other hand, resulted in a major change in Swedish politics. With the country mired in a recession, the Social Democrats were swept from office. The main victor in this election was the Moderate Party, under the leadership of Carl Bildt. The Moderates received 22.1 percent of the vote and took 80 seats in the Riksdag, while the Social Democrats lost 18 seats. As a result, the nonsocialist parties controlled 170 seats (not a majority) against only a combined 154 for the Social Democrats and the Left Party (the former Communist Party). Prime Minister Carlsson immediately resigned, and a nonsocialist coalition government was formed by Bildt. He had campaigned on a platform of directing Sweden’s economy away from socialism and toward a free-market system. His centre-right coalition immediately proposed privatizing state-owned companies, cutting taxes and government spending, and lifting restrictions on foreign ownership of Swedish companies.

With the recession continuing, the Social Democrats returned to office in September 1994 again under Carlsson’s leadership. He attempted to reduce both Sweden’s enormous budget deficit—which had reached 13 percent of gross domestic product—and its 13 percent unemployment rate. With the Soviet Union’s collapse having rendered Sweden’s traditional neutrality obsolete, Carlsson also pursued membership in the EU, despite opposition from within his own party and from environmentalists. On Nov. 13, 1994, 52 percent of voters backed EU membership, and Sweden officially joined in 1995. However, notwithstanding the favourable recommendation of a government commission, Prime Minister Göran Persson (who succeeded Carlsson in 1996 after his retirement) cited public opposition and rejected adoption of the euro, Europe’s single currency, when it went into effect in 1999.

By the end of 1999, Sweden had emerged from its economic crisis. A number of economic changes occurred in the late 1990s, reflecting a profound change in the concept of folkhemmet and shifting more economic responsibility from the central government to the provinces and municipalities and from the state to the individual. Although the Social Democratic Party’s share of the vote dropped from 45.3 percent in 1994 to 39.8 percent in 2002, Persson was able to continue as prime minister. While still Sweden’s largest political party, it was increasingly divided on such important issues as the September 2003 referendum on the replacement of the krona with the euro, which voters overwhelmingly rejected. That same month the public stabbing of Anna Lindh, the popular minister of foreign affairs, shocked Swedes and again raised questions about the price of an open and egalitarian society.

Despite a thriving economy, growing concerns about Sweden’s ability to maintain its strong social welfare programs while remaining competitive in the globalized economy contributed to the victory of the Moderate Party, under the leadership of Frederik Reinfeldt, in a tightly contested election in 2006.

Geography

General works

Axel Sømme (ed.), A Geography of Norden: Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, new rev. ed. (1968), is a broad survey written by local geographers. A wealth of information is found in National Atlas of Sweden (1990– ), a multivolume publication under the auspices of the Department of Geography of Stockholm University, integrating maps, figures, and text. Information specifically on Sweden is available from the Swedish Institute, the Swedish government’s official information portal, which offers Fact Sheets on Sweden, Sweden in Brief, Sweden in Fact.

Economy

The Swedish Economy: Facts and Figures (annual) is one of the Swedish Institute publications; as are Daniel Viklund, Sweden and the European Community: Trade, Cooperation, and Policy Issues, trans. from Swedish (1989); and Gunnar Sjöstedt, Sweden’s Free Trade Policy: Balancing Economic Growth and Security (1987). More comprehensive and detailed analyses include Barry P. Bosworth et al., The Swedish Economy (1987); and Staffan Marklund, Paradise Lost?: The Nordic Welfare States and the Recession, 1975–1985 (1988).

Government and social conditions

The government system is described and analyzed in Peter Esaiasson and Sören Holmberg, Representation from Above: Members of Parliament and Representative Democracy in Sweden, trans. from Swedish (1996); Eric Lindström, The Swedish Parliamentary System: How Responsibilities Are Divided and Decisions Are Made, 2nd ed. (1983; originally published in Swedish, 1981); Ibrahim Ismail Wahab, The Swedish Institution of Ombudsman: An Instrument of Human Rights (1979); and Agne Gustafsson, Local Government in Sweden, trans. from Swedish, new ed. (1988). The dynamics of political background are explored in Gunnar Boalt and Ulla Bergryd, Political Value Patterns and Parties in Sweden (1981); and Mona Rosendahl, Conflict and Compliance: Class Consciousness Among Swedish Workers (1985). Concise surveys of particular political and social issues include Krister Wahlbäck, The Roots of Swedish Neutrality (1986); Walter Korpi, The Development of the Swedish Welfare State in a Comparative Perspective (1990); Britta Stenholm, The Swedish School System (1984; originally published in Swedish, 1984); and National Board of Health and Welfare, The Swedish Health Services in the 1990s (1985). Books dealing with the law include Stig Strömholm, An Introduction to Swedish Law, 2nd ed. (1988); National Council for Crime Prevention, Crime and Criminal Policy in Sweden (1990); and Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Anders Bruzelius, Civil Procedure in Sweden (1965).

Interpretations of runic inscriptions provide a glimpse of the early periods of history in Sven B.F. Jansson, The Runes of Sweden, trans. from Swedish (1962). Also informative is Mats Widgren, Settlement and Farming Systems in the Early Iron Age: A Study of Fossil Agrarian Landscapes in Östergötland, Sweden (1983). Medieval times are studied in P.H. Sawyer, Kings and Vikings: Scandinavia and Europe, AD 700–1100 (1982); and Svend Gissel et al., Desertion and Land Colonization in the Nordic Countries c. 1300–1600 (1981).

Modern history

Other period histories are Michael Roberts, The Early Vasas: A History of Sweden, 1523–1611 (1968, reprinted 1986), and Gustavus Adolphus: A History of Sweden, 1611–1631, 2 vol. (1953–1958); Curt Weibull, Christina of Sweden, trans. from Swedish (1966); Michael Roberts (ed.), Sweden’s Age of Greatness, 1632–1718 (1973); and R.M. Hatton, Charles XII of Sweden (1968).

Focus on the 19th century is provided in Roger Miller and Torvald Gerger, Social Change in 19th-Century Swedish Agrarian Society (1985); and Raymond E. Lindgren, Norway-Sweden: Union, Disunion, and Scandinavian Integration (1959, reprinted 1979). Broad topical analyses provide views ranging into the 20th century: Steven Koblik (ed.), Sweden’s Development from Poverty to Affluence, 1750–1970 (1975; originally published in Swedish, 1973); Kurt Samuelsson, From Great Power to Welfare State: 300 Years of Swedish Social Development (1968; originally published in Swedish, 1968); Lennart Jörberg, Growth and Fluctuations of Swedish Industry, 1869–1912: Studies in the Process of Industrialisation, trans. from Swedish (1961); W.M. Carlgren, Swedish Foreign Policy During the Second World War (1977; originally published in Swedish, 1973); O. Fritiof Ander, The Building of Modern Sweden: The Reign of Gustav V, 1907–1950 (1958); Allan Pred, Even in Sweden: Racisms, Racialized Spaces, and the Popular Geographical Imagination (2000); Mauricio Rojas, Beyond the Welfare State: Sweden and the Quest for a Post-industrial Welfare Model (2001); and Lene Hansen & Ole Wæver (eds.), European Integration and National Identity: the Challenge of the Nordic States (2002).