3.
Table of Contents
Vocabulary Essentials ............................................................................................ 4
Developing Effective Practices ............................................................................. 5
STAR ....................................................................................................................... 6
Discussion Starter Web .......................................................................................... 7
Frontloading ............................................................................................................ 8
Semantic Feature Analysis .................................................................................. 10
Ask a Question? Jeopardy................................................................................... 12
Talk Fast – Talk a Mile a Minute ....................................................................... 14
Draw It – Pictionary ............................................................................................. 16
After Reading Card Game ................................................................................... 17
Name that Category – The Pyramid Game ........................................................ 18
Crossword Puzzles ............................................................................................... 20
Synectic Comparison ........................................................................................... 21
Word Sorts ............................................................................................................ 22
Vocabulary Notebooks/Journals ......................................................................... 24
Magic Squares ...................................................................................................... 26
Connections to Previous On Target Books ........................................................ 28
Websites to Explore ............................................................................................. 29
For Further Reading ............................................................................................. 30
Introduction to On Target: Strategies to Build Student Vocabularies
R
esearch in educational psychology has led to substantial improvements in our knowledge
about teaching and learning. Researchers have identified strategies that can be taught by
teachers and used by students to significantly improve the quality of student learning.
On Target: Strategies to Build Student Vocabularies does an exceptional job of synthesizing the
research regarding the vocabulary development of adolescents. Experts in the field believe that
vocabulary learning should not be left to chance. Vocabulary-building techniques benefit all
learners, but have been shown to be critical for learners with limited personal experience.
The strategies in this booklet get right to the point in applying research to practice. Based upon
research and best practice for middle school and high school teachers, they present a practical
chart which outlines the teacher behaviors to increase and the teacher behaviors to decrease.
Rarely do you find resources which guide you in what to stop doing in addition to giving you
new suggestions.
Students who receive good strategy training in vocabulary development can apply these strategies
in a wide variety of life-long situations including job-related training, acquiring knowledge associated with their interests and hobbies, and in preparing for post-secondary education. This
resource makes a valuable contribution to a needed, but frequently neglected area.
Nancy Hall
Dean of the College of Education
Black Hills State University
3

4.
Vocabulary Essentials
Barb Rowenhorst, SD Reads
Vocabulary knowledge is the single most important factor contributing to reading comprehension.
– Laflamme, 1997
V
ocabulary instruction was identified in 2000 by the National Reading Panel (NRP) as an
essential skill students need to improve reading achievement. The NRP identified four
types of vocabulary – listening vocabulary, speaking vocabulary, reading vocabulary, and
writing vocabulary. Vocabulary, or word meaning, is one of the keys to comprehension. A
student reading a list of unconnected words on a page is similar to a struggling student trying to
read a narrative text without a general understanding of the words being read. No connections.
No meaning. No comprehension.
One way students develop vocabulary is indirectly through reading, listening, and speaking.
A student’s background knowledge and prior experiences play a large role in vocabulary
development. As students build connections between known words and unknown words, they
develop a deeper understanding of their reading. Thus, the more experiences children have
with reading or being read to before they enter school, the more background knowledge they
have to support the understanding of their reading.
Students develop vocabulary when teachers provide direct instruction on the use of effective
word-building strategies. Unfortunately, Durkin (1979) found that upper-elementary teachers
spent less than 1% of classroom instruction on vocabulary development. Later research studies
support those earlier findings with only 6% of time devoted to vocabulary (Scott and Nagy,
1997). Marzano lists eight research-based guidelines for teachers implementing direct
vocabulary instruction in his books Building Background Knowledge and Building Academic
Vocabulary: Teachers Manual.
1. Effective vocabulary instruction does not rely on definitions alone. Words should be written in a
conversational manner rather than in the more formal dictionary format. If prior exposures to or
experiences with a word are lacking, teachers can build the background knowledge through field
trips, videos, guest speakers, stories, or current events.
2. Students must represent their knowledge of words in linguistic and/or nonlinguistic ways. Students
can draw a picture, create a symbol, or dramatize the word.
3. Effective vocabulary instruction involves the gradual shaping of word meanings through multiple
exposures. These include comparing and contrasting, classifying, and creating metaphors and
analogies.
4. Teaching word parts (prefixes, root words, suffixes) enhances student understanding of the word.
5. Different types of words require different types of instruction.
6. Students should discuss the terms they are learning through cooperative learning activities.
7. Students should play with words using challenging and engaging vocabulary games.
4

5.
Vocabulary Essentials (cont.)
8. Instruction should focus on terms that have a high probability of enhancing academic success.
Level 1 words are concrete and easy to identify with little or no instruction. Level 2 words
appear in text so infrequently that the possibility of learning them in context is slim. Level 3
words are specific to a particular content area. Marzano recommends teaching words in
Level 3 (content-related words) rather than those that are seldom encountered during reading.
Students must use a word between six and fourteen times before they are capable of using it
independently (Billmeyer, 2001), so they need multiple opportunities to interact with words.
Providing direct vocabulary instruction does not have to be boring. That is why this booklet provides
several opportunities for teachers to engage students in developing vocabulary knowledge in fun and
interactive ways. Once students understand how words work and build a cache of known words, they
develop a desire to learn more words and fluency and comprehension improves. Strategies that focus
on vocabulary building result in student readers who have greater comprehension.
Developing Effective Practices in Vocabulary Instruction
Teachers Should Increase
Teachers Should Decrease
• Time for reading
• Looking up definitions as a single source of
• Use of varied, rich text
word knowledge
• Opportunities for students to hear or use words
• Asking students to write sentences for new
in natural sentence contexts
words before they’ve studied the word in
• Use of concrete contexts when possible
depth
(pictures, artifacts)
• Notion that all words in a text need to be
• Opportunities for students to use words in
defined for comprehension
meaningful ways
• Using context as a highly reliable tool for
• Opportunities for students to connect new
increasing comprehension
words/concepts to those already known
• Assessments that ask students for single
• Study of concepts rather than single, unrelated
definitions
words
• Explicit instruction of concepts and incidental
encounters with words
• Teaching strategies leading to independent word
learning
• Study of words or concepts that will have the
Janet Allen
biggest impact on comprehension rather than
Words, Words, Words: Teaching
“covering” many words superficially
Vocabulary in Grades 4-12.
• Opportunities for making or drawing inferences
Portland, ME: Stenhouse, 1999, 107.
Sources:
Billmeyer, Rachel. Capturing ALL of the Reader Through the Reading Assessment System. Omaha:
Dayspring, 2001, 117.
Feldman, Kevin, and Kate Kinsella. Narrowing the Language Gap: The Case for Explicit Vocabulary
Instruction – A Scholastic Professional Paper. New York: Scholastic, 2005, 1.
Marzano, Robert J. Building Background Knowledge for Academic Achievement: Research On What
Works In Schools. Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2004.
Marzano, Robert J., and Debra J. Pickering. Building Academic Vocabulary: A Teacher’s Manual.
Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2005.
5

6.
STAR
P
roviding explicit and direct instruction is one sure way to help
students increase their vocabularies. The STAR model of Select,
Teach, Activate, and Revisit provides a framework for teachers as they
plan vocabulary instruction.
SELECT
• Choose appropriate content words.
• Focus on words essential to understanding of the text.
• Draw a story or text map. Using the map as the basis, select four to six words fundamental
to retelling or summarizing the text.
• Look for other important words that students are likely to encounter in additional readings,
even though these words may not be essential to this particular text.
TEACH
• Consider the processes you will use before, during, and after reading.
• Before assigning the reading, make sure you access prior knowledge and bring to the
forefront concepts that will not be clearly explained in the text.
• Use definitional, contextual, and usage information when teaching vocabulary. For example,
present the word in context, discuss possible meanings, ask for a definition (provide one if
students are unable to provide an accurate definition), ask students to use the words in a
personal way.
ACTIVATE
• This step focuses on the work you want students to do in order to gain understanding.
• Use writing assignments and other activities to make sure students repeatedly hear, read,
write, and use the targeted words.
• Give students the opportunity to connect new words with other words they already know
(word maps or synonym webs).
• Have students act out words or demonstrate meaning.
REVISIT
• Use additional activities to revisit important words. Possible activities include unit reviews,
games, writing assignments, vocabulary journals, and word books.
Sources:
Blachowicz, Camille L. Z., and Peter Fisher. “Vocabulary Lessons.” Educational Leadership (March 2004):
66-69.
Blachowicz, Camille L.Z., Peter Fisher, and Susan Watts-Taffe. Integrated Vocabulary Instruction: Meeting
the Needs of Diverse Learners in Grades K-5. Naperville, IL: Learning Point Associates, 2005.
6

7.
Discussion Starter Web
D
iscussion Starter stimulates class discussions about vocabulary that relate to a unit, topic, or
theme. The discussion web also gives students the opportunity to consider their prior
knowledge of the vocabulary terms and concepts.
If student discussions reveal a basic knowledge about the vocabulary term, then quickly review
and go to the next word. If students exhibit an indepth understanding of the vocabulary, the
teachers may choose to quickly review the topic and then move on to the next topic. If their
discussion reveals little or no knowledge of the words, take time to build students’ foundational
knowledge and vocabulary before instruction. Comprehension is difficult without word knowledge
and background information.
Steps:
1. Observe individual student’s depth of knowledge as the terms are discussed.
2. Write the topic or unit to be studied in the center of the chart paper or transparency. Words
are written on chart paper to create an “anchor” chart that is displayed as a resource
throughout the unit of study.
3. Create a web by writing five to six key concepts around the center word.
4. Conceal the words with sticky notes or index cards.
5. Uncover one word and read it aloud. As you reveal the word, comment on connections
your mind is making to create understandings and meanings. (See “During Reading:
Think-Alouds,” On Target: Reading Strategies to Guide Learning, 12.)
6. Uncover the remaining cards one at a time. Ask students to think aloud about the word
reflecting the process you modeled. Students continue word discussions.
Democracy
Tyranny
Monarchy
Government
Dictatorship
Royalty
Source:
Robb, Laura. Teaching Reading in Social Studies, Science, and Math: Practical Ways to Weave
Comprehension Strategies into Your Content Area Teaching. New York: Scholastic, 2003, 204-206.
7

8.
Frontloading
F
rontloading provides rich dialogue and experiences that allow students to develop vocabulary
by accessing their prior knowledge before reading content. When students have the opportunity
to use their prior knowledge, they exhibit an increase in vocabulary and content knowledge. In
addition, students show their understanding as they interact with difficult content material.
Steps:
1. Introduce content to students. Ask students to describe experiences or ideas they have
regarding the content. Ask students to list words they associate with the content to be
studied. For example, if you are beginning a unit of study on the Vietnam Era, ask
`
students to list words they associate with that time.
2. Create a list of content words based on student suggestions and ideas. (Consider using an
ABC Alphabet Chart as described in On Target: Reading Strategies to Guide Learning,
Before Reading: Brainstorming Prior Knowledge, 6-7.)
3. Add to and revise the list of content words as you study the material.
Adaptations:
• When appropriate, include real experiences, videos, field trips, or guest speakers to build
prior knowledge of a topic or unit to be studied.
• Modified KWL: Use a template for students to list words they think may occur in the
reading selection. Have them list why this word might be important and should be included.
After reading, have them list what they now think the word means.
Word List for Midwest
Dairy Belt
Badlands
Black Hills
South Dakota
Wisconsin
Kansas
Missouri
Minnesota
Michigan
Mississippi River
Chicago
Illinois
Grant
Wood
Agriculture
Crazy Horse
Plains
National Parks
African Americans
Hispanics
Export
Import
Mount Rushmore
8
Culture
Corn
Caves
Canals
Cahokia
Mounds
Iron
Soo Canals
Sears Tower
Model–T Ford
Missouri River
Indiana

9.
Frontloading (cont.)
Modified KWL Chart
Important Words or Phrases *
Why the word is important
or related to the topic
Now I think the
word means . . .
* Either provide students with a list of the vocabulary words or
ask students to create a list of words they consider important.
Sources:
Hoyt, Linda. Make It Real: Strategies for Success with Informational Texts. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann,
2002, 104-109.
Preszler, June, ed. On Target: Reading Strategies to Guide Learning, Grades 4-12. Rapid City, SD:
Black Hills Special Services Cooperative, 2005, 6-7.
9

10.
Semantic Feature Analysis
S
emantic Feature Analysis (Baldwin, Ford, and Readance, 1981; Johnson and Pearson, 1984) is
a strategy to help students understand the meaning of words.
Steps:
1. On the left side of the matrix, list the words that pertain to a certain category or topic.
2. Ask students to choose features of the words to be listed across the top of the matrix or
also choose them prior to the lesson.
3. Tell students to complete the matrix by using a plus sign (+) for features that apply
to each word and leaving the space blank if the features do not apply. If unsure, a
question mark (?) is used.
4. Facilitate a discussion around the words and features to challenge students’ thinking.
Adaptations:
• Use mathematic symbols, formulas, and properties.
Classification
Shark
Elephant
Whale
Sidewinder
Frog
Salamander
Grizzly Bear
Alligator
10
Where
Animal
Lives
Disposition

12.
Ask a Question? Jeopardy
P
laying games is an innovative way to engage students in learning vocabulary words. Ask a
Question is similar to the popular television game show Jeopardy.
Steps:
1. Develop a matrix with six columns and six rows. Title the matrix with the unit of study. The
top row’s cells are labeled with categories that relate to the unit of study. Related content
terms are listed below each category. Each cell contains a vocabulary word that correlates
with the column’s category. (See Weather example on the following page.) The game can be
played by using an overhead, blackboard, PowerPoint, or an online resource.
2. Cover cells with a sticky note or other method to hide terms from students. Each cell is
labeled with a point amount. (See Weather example below.)
3. Divide students into pairs or teams. Tell each team to designate a speaker. Have the
speaker select a category and point amount. Under each point amount is a vocabulary word.
Explain that the speaker is to create a definition for the word. The definition must be stated
as a question.
Example:
• Word: barometer
• Question: What instrument measures air pressure?
4. Decide whether a student’s question represents an adequate understanding of the term.
5. Award points if the team speaker answers correctly in the form of a question. At the end of
the game, the team with the most points wins.
Weather
TROPICAL STORMS
INSTRUMENTS
LOOK IN THE SKY!
LET’S GET WET
BRR!
WINTER STORMS
IN A WORD
10 Points
10 Points
10 Points
10 Points
10 Points
10 Points
20 Points
20 Points
20 Points
20 Points
20 Points
20 Points
30 Points
30 Points
30 Points
30 Points
30 Points
30 Points
40 Points
40 Points
40 Points
40 Points
40 Points
40 Points
50 Points
50 Points
50 Points
50 Points
50 Points
50 Points
Sources:
Jeopardy! Wikipedia. 05 May 2006 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeopardy!>.
Marzano, Robert J., and Debra J. Pickering. Building Academic Vocabulary: Teacher’s Manual.
Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2005, 54-56.
12

14.
Talk Fast – Talk a Mile a Minute
E
ffective vocabulary instruction includes exposing students to words
multiple times using various methods. Talk Fast is a game that
increases vocabulary knowledge through word play.
Steps:
1. Give all students all of the categories being used in each round.
Example: things that are blue, things that you eat, things you wear,
and things used at a construction site.
2. Assign (or have the group select) a “talker” to begin the game. Give the talker one category
with a list of words fitting that category. (See example below.) The talker role rotates after
each category is completed. The other student(s) in the group are the “guessers.”
3. Make sure you give each group category sets equal to the number of students in the group.
In other words, if there are four students per group, four category sets are given to each
group.
Game Play:
• Round One: The talker tries to have his/her team members say each word listed under the
category by describing the word in the list “talking a mile a minute.” Descriptions can be
words, phrases, or sentences. Students should also avoid using any word that is part of the
category title.
Example: A talker giving clues for recycle might call out the following clues:
– “This is what you do when you salvage something so you can reuse it.”
– “We often do this to plastic.”
– “Instead of throwing a pop can away, we might do this instead.”
• As soon as the first word is guessed, the talker can move to the next word on the list until
the set is completed.
• Time is called after a specified time period (usually one minute), and teams are awarded
points for each word guessed.
• Round Two: The talker role is passed to the next team member, and Round Two begins with
another category and list of words.
Words Associated with Environmental Protection
Greenhouse
Ozone
Pesticides
Pollution
Recycle
Compost
Conservation
Irrigation
14

15.
Talk Fast – Talk a Mile a Minute (cont.)
Adaptations:
• OUTBURST – A game to purchase or make with categories and lists of words under each
category. The game has similar rules as the “Fast Talker.”
• SCATTERGORIES – A game to purchase or make which has one category and a letter of
the alphabet given to all players (or roll an alphabet die). In teams of three to four,
members of a team list as many words as possible that start with the letter that matches
the category.
Example:
– Category: Words Associated with the Body
– Letter Given or Rolled: “B”
– Words that might be guessed: blood, brain, bile, bladder
– When time is called, teams report out their brainstormed words.
– Points are given to each team for every word not identified by other teams.
• TABOO – A game to purchase or make where players name a category based on a
description of the “clue giver” but the clue giver can’t say any of the TABOO words in the
description! Students are placed in teams with one “clue giver” and the others in the group
are “guessers.” The clue giver role rotates after each round. A vocabulary word is given with
a list of 4-5 words that cannot be used when describing the vocabulary word. The guessers
try to guess the word being explained.
Example:
– Vocabulary word to be guessed: Cliff
– Words that cannot be said in the description: hang glide, mountain, steep, climbing
Sources:
Marzano, Robert J., and Debra J. Pickering. Building Academic Vocabulary: Teacher’s Manual.
Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2005, 64-66.
OUTBURST. Hersch and Company. Los Angeles, CA: Western Publishing Company, Inc., 1988.
SCATTERGORIES. Milton Bradley. East Longmeadow, MA: Milton Bradley Company, 1988.
TABOO. Milton Bradley. East Longmeadow, MA: Milton Bradley Company, 1989.
15

16.
Draw It – Pictionary
S
tudents draw pictures as clues to the vocabulary word for team members to correctly identify
the term. Draw It is similar to the popular game Pictionary where drawings represent ideas
or terms.
Steps:
1. Divide the class into teams with three or four students per team. Explain that each team’s
goal is to be the first in a round to correctly identify vocabulary terms.
2. Designate one student on each team as the artist. This student is the only one able to see the
list of words written on the board or overhead.
3. Identify the time limit for the first round of words.
4. Explain that the artist looks at the word to be illustrated and draws a rough sketch of what
the word represents. When the word is identified by the group, the artist continues to the
next word.
5. Explain that after identifying all of the terms, team members raise their hands indicating the
end of the first round.
6. Rotate the artist role around the team until all have participated as an artist.
7. Place students in pairs rather than small groups if time is limited.
Adaptations:
• Students view everyone’s drawings following the game to see the different artist renditions
of the vocabulary terms.
• Pre-teach the students how to “quick draw” so time isn’t spent on detailed drawings.
• Cards with a list of words are given to each student to use when it is his/her turn to be the
artist.
Sources:
Marzano, Robert J., and Debra J. Pickering. Building Academic Vocabulary: Teacher’s Manual.
Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2005, 62-63.
“Literacy Graffiti.” Read, Write, Think. 05 May 2006
< http://www.readwritethink.org/student_mat/student_material.asp?id=23>.
Pictionary. Milton Bradley. East Longmeadow, MA: Milton Bradley Company, 1993.
16

17.
After Reading Card Game
T
he After Reading Card Game is a fun and engaging way to review vocabulary words of a
previously read text, chapter, unit, or topic. The fifteen minutes to prepare the deck of cards
is time well spent as the students enjoy the game, and the cards can be used in any spare minutes
left in a class.
Steps for preparing the deck of cards:
1. Use 12 cards per deck to play the game in about five minutes.
2. Write a vocabulary term on one side of 10 of the cards.
3. On the other side of each card, write a definition that does not define the word on the
front side. In other words, the word on one side does not match the definition on the other
side but does define a vocabulary term on one of the other cards.
4. Write a vocabulary term on one side of the 11th card but leave the other side blank.
5. Place a definition on one side of the 12th card and place a star on the other side.
Steps for playing the game:
1. Randomly distribute the first 11 cards or have students volunteer to choose a card.
2. Keep the 12th card (definition and star) so a student can begin the game with it.
3. Read the definition on the card, and the student with the word that fits that definition comes
to the front of the room and reads his term.
4. Ask the student to turn the card over and read the definition on the reverse side. The
student with the term that matches the definition then comes to the front of the room and
reads the term.
5. Continue the process until all words and their definitions have been read.
Adaptations:
• Have students call out the word that matches the definitions rather than going to the front of
the room.
• Keep track of the time that it takes to complete the game and see if the class can beat the
previous time.
• Use names of states and capitals or any other terms that require matching pairs.
Source:
Topping, Donna and Roberta McManus. Real Reading, Real Writing: Content-Area Strategies. Portsmouth,
NH: Heinemann, 2002, 73-74.
17

18.
Name That Category – The Pyramid Game
N
ame That Category resembles the TV game show $100,000 Pyramid. The game helps
students determine the common attributes of a list of vocabulary words so they can name the
category describing the terms.
Steps:
1. Divide a triangular template into six sections. Assign points to each section.
2. Identify pairs of students and select one student in each pair to begin as the clue giver.
Explain that the clue giver is the only one able to see the pyramid template with the
categories listed.
3. Cover categories at the beginning of the game. Uncover categories, one at a time, as they
are guessed.
4. Explain that as the clue giver gives clues associated with the category listed on the pyramid,
the guesser attempts to correctly identify the category. When the guesser is correct, the clue
giver moves on to another section of the triangle and repeats the procedure. A time frame of
30 seconds is given to guess each category.
5. Award the guesser the number of points labeled on each section. Award bonus points if
all categories are correctly identified.
6. Switch clue giver and guesser roles for each round played.
Adaptations:
• The pyramid template is placed on an overhead and sticky notes are used to cover
the category name. Once a team identifies the category and notifies you, remove
the sticky note for the next category and award points to the team with the correct answer.
Once all the categories have been correctly identified, the winning team yells “Pyramid!”
and the game stops. Teams are awarded the points they received during each category and
another round is started. The clue giver role rotates for every round.
• Other shapes are used instead of the pyramid which may reflect a season, holiday, unit,
or theme.
• Teams can beat their previous time in identifying the categories rather than competing
against each other for points.
Civil War
200 Points
Titles of Great
Literature
Things Found
in the Body
100 Points
100 Points
National Parks
Chemistry Terms
Liquids
50 Points
50 Points
50 Points
Sources:
Grant, Richard. “A Lively Vocabulary Game.” Language Teacher Online. 15 Jan. 1998. 05 May 2006
<http://web.archive.org/web/20040216162031/http:/langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/98/jan/
sh_grant.html>.
Marzano, Robert J., and Debra J. Pickering. Building Academic Vocabulary: Teacher’s Manual.
Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2005, 59-61.
18

20.
Crossword Puzzles
M
ost students enjoy word puzzles. The process of using word puzzles in
the classroom has been simplified thanks to a variety of web sites that
help teachers construct puzzles. Generally, the internet program constructs
the crossword puzzle after the teacher enters the vocabulary words and their
definitions.
Steps:
1. Construct puzzles using graph paper and writing the terms across and down then drawing
boxes around each of the letters.
2. Number the boxes at the beginning of each word in numerical order – both across and
down.
3. List definitions alongside the grid according to the across words, then the down words are
listed.
Adaptations:
• Reverse Crossword Puzzles – For a change of pace, try reverse crosswords. The answers
for the words going across and down are given and the students write the definition or clues.
This can be done in pairs or small groups which enables the students to have rich conversations about the vocabulary words and definitions as they develop clues.
Internet Puzzle Builders:
• Discovery School (Puzzle Maker)
<http://puzzlemaker.school.discovery.com/>
• Education World (Vocabulary Puzzles, Activities, and Lesson Plans)
<http://www.educationworld.com/a_lesson/lesson/lesson241.shtml >
P
U
Z
Z
L
E
Sources:
Richardson, Judy S., and Raymond F. Morgan. Reading to Learn in the Content Areas. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1999, 375-377.
Topping, Donna, and Roberta McManus. Real Reading, Real Writing: Content-Area Strategies.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2002, 75.
20

21.
Synectic Comparisons
S
ynectics is a strategy for comparing content to an unrelated object. It causes students to think
about vocabulary words in creative ways. In a synectic comparison, the brain has to compare
two things that aren’t usually compared. In addition, the strategy requires the brain to create
pictures as it searches for comparisons. As a result, students are more likely to retain the
information.
Steps:
1. Identify vocabulary words or content terms.
2. Provide students with words not related to the content. Students may use these words to
create their comparisons.
For example, if the science content term is comet, you might provide students with the
following options:
Toaster
Speed boat
Ice cream cone
Stallion
3. Create an example to model the synectic.
A comet is like a _______________ because ___________.
A comet is like a toaster because it burns very hot.
4. Share your example with the class. Explain your logic or thinking for the comparison. Give
students the opportunity to list additional ways that a comet might be like a toaster.
5. Ask students to create their own comparisons. Students may work in teams or pairs. Allow
students to select from the comparison options you’ve provided or to select their own
objects for comparison.
6. Direct students to create a graphic illustration to accompany their synectics.
A comet is like a toaster because it burns
very hot.
7. Direct small groups to share their creations with the class.
Adaptations:
• Assign different vocabulary words or terms to student teams. Each team is responsible for
“teaching” the assigned term to the rest of the class.
• Ask students to write a paragraph to accompany the graphic. The paragraph should explain
in more detail “how” the two items are related with specific examples.
Sources:
Billmeyer, Rachel. Strategies to Engage the Mind of the Learner: Building Strategic Learners. Omaha:
Dayspring Printing, 2003, 186.
Gordon, William J.J. Synectics. New York: Harper & Row, 1961.
Synectics: A Brainstorming Tool. 05 May 2006
<http://edweb.sdsu.edu/Courses/ET650_OnLine/MAPPS/Synectics.html>.
Wellman, Bruce, and Laura Lipton. Data-Driven Dialogue: A Faciliator’s Guide to Collaborative Inquiry.
Sherman, CT: MiraVia, 2004, 112-113.
21

22.
Word Sorts
W
ord Sorts help students analyze words by looking for patterns. Grouping words according to
similar attributes is an effective Before Reading strategy that activates prior knowledge of
vocabulary words or phrases. It is especially useful for nonfiction material.
The classifying or sorting can be done as an open or closed sort. In a closed sort students
organize vocabulary words into predetermined categories developed by the teacher. In an open
sort, students determine the categories. Robert J. Marzano lists classifying as one way to provide
students with multiple exposures to words to help shape word meanings.
Steps:
1. Select words that are important to a unit or topic of study.
2. Prepare cards with identified words. Older students can make their own cards and
write the words given from a list.
3. Direct students to sort or classify the words according to the closed sort determined by the
teacher or an open sort where students sort the words into categories that make sense to
them.
4. Allow students to work in small groups or pairs.
Adaptations:
• Words can be categorized into story elements: character, setting, problem solution, etc.
• See “Talk Fast” for turning the categorizing into game formats similar to popular parlor
games of TABOO, OUTBURST, and SCATTERGORIES.
• Wordstorming – brainstorming words to sort related to a topic.
• Categorize words into “I know,” I sort of know,” and “I don’t have a clue.” Students assist
each other if they know the definition of some of the words team members place in their
last two columns.
• Select a list of words and/or phrases that are important to understand. Include some familiar
words to ensure success. Make cards with a word or phrase on each one. In pairs, students
pair the cards that seem to go together and then write a sentence using the vocabulary pair.
As students become comfortable with the process, sorting can increase to a three-card
match. As students read the selection, they have some background knowledge of the
vocabulary they will encounter.
• Prior to reading, ask students to predict what the selection is going to be about and write a
prediction statement or write questions they have about the topic based on the list of words.
• Ask students to rearrange words following the reading as their understanding of the meaning
of the word(s) may have changed.
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24.
Vocabulary Notebooks/Journals
I
ndividual vocabulary notebooks invite students to strengthen their word
knowledge and internalize meaning for use throughout their lives. Robert J.
Marzano, in his book Building Academic Vocabulary: Teacher’s Manual,
suggests using tabs in the booklets to note different subjects or topics. Having
a dictionary definition is insufficient according to Marzano. He explains that
dictionary definitions are not written in conversational language. As a result, students are unable
to internalize meaning.
Dictionary definitions may be more helpful after a basic understanding of the word’s meaning is
established. Marzano recommends that words be defined using “student friendly” language. He
suggests including a nonlinguistic representation of the word or its meaning whenever possible.
Steps:
1. Direct students to identify unknown words, confusing words, or interesting words while
they read and discuss a unit or topic. As students identify words, they write them in their
vocabulary notebook.
2. Require students to list the exact sentence in which the word appears in the text.
3. After students have written the text definition, ask them to create definitions using their own
words (not a dictionary definition).
Adaptations:
• Consider assigning students to include a list of antonyms or synonyms.
• Assign students to include a picture, drawing, or symbol, if appropriate.
• Words in the News: Assign students to make a list of vocabulary words from a newspaper,
magazine, or other current event resource. Then students choose one or more of the words
that are of interest to them to include in their journal and why they chose it.
• Refer to On Target: Strategies to Guide Student Learning, During Reading: Concept
Definition Map, Pages 14-15.
• Word Dictionary: To help students develop a deeper understanding of a topic or unit, assign
them to make a list of words that may relate to the broad topic or unit. The students place
the words in alphabetical order and then define the words. A picture or guide words may
also be included.
Vocabulary Notebooks
Word & Page Number:
labyrinth. pg. 11
Resource:
Name of a Text
Sentence in which the word was used in the text:
Behind the castle was a labyrinth of hedges in which to hide from suspicious eyes.
Student Friendly Definition:
A maze – like a maze of bushes or plants or like a maze in design.
Antonyms
Synonyms
Maze
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Picture/Drawing/Symbol

26.
Magic Squares
V
ocabulary comes alive when using Magic Squares. The Magic Squares strategy can be applied
at every grade level K-12. The strategy makes matching more interesting and interactive for
students. Magic Squares began in China several thousands of years ago. Squares are assigned
numbers which, when added across, down, or diagonally always equal the same sum.
Steps:
1. Direct students to match a lettered column of words to a numbered column of definitions.
2. Make sure letters on each square of the grid match the lettered words.
3. Explain that students find the magic number by matching the correct word and definition
and entering the number in the appropriate square on the grid.
4. Use any number of squares for the puzzle.
Magic Square
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28.
Connections to Previous On Target Books
G
ood readers tend to have a strong command of words. They break words down, apply them
differently depending on context, and recognize shades of meaning. As a result, several of the
strategies addressed in previous On Target booklets provided instructors with ideas and tools to
increase student vocabulary skills.
On Target: Strategies to Guide Student Learning
Before Reading: Word Splash, Page 9
Word Splash helps students access prior knowledge of words, build meaning for the words related
to the concept, and find repetition of key ideas important to the new unit of study.
During Reading: Concept Definition Map, Pages 14-15
Students use the Concept Definition or Word Map strategy to read unfamiliar words and build
vocabulary.
During Reading: Word Sorts, Pages 20-21.
Word Sorts are simple small group activities. They help students understand key words from a
reading selection. Students identify meaning and properties of words before sorting the list into
defined groups.
On Target: Strategies to Improve Student Test Scores
Vocabulary and Test Scores, Page 18.
Standardized tests have as much to do with vocabulary as they do with content understanding.
According to Kendra Wagner, Seattle Pacific University, vocabulary makes up 75 percent of
comprehension. Wagner says if a student doesn’t understand three to five words on a text page,
comprehension is inhibited.
On Target: Strategies to Help Struggling Readers
During Reading Bookmarks, Pages 15-16.
Students use a bookmark to note important or interesting information or words. Two of the listed
options in using bookmarks for vocabulary words are “Mark My Words” and “Mark the Bold/Talk
the Bold.”
On Target: Strategies to Help Readers Make Meaning through Inferences
Traditional Cloze Techniques, Page 5
Based upon the psychological theory of closure (Taylor, W.L. 1953), the cloze procedure was
subsequently developed as a tool for many aspects of reading. The cloze theory suggests that a
person attempts to complete any pattern that is not complete.
Making Inferences with Figurative Language, Page 18.
While generally associated with literature, figurative language is not exclusive to that genre.
Authors often use similes, metaphors, or personifications to describe something by comparing it to
an experience common to most people.
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