By an authentic
personal identity I mean an identity that flows from ones nature. At
its core, this is an identity formed in early childhood, projected and nurtured
by parental influences, by siblings, and childhood friends. There is a connection
with ones genetic endowment. Beyond this are experiences in life related
to a persons situation in the world. Some are authentic, but others
are aimed at changing or improving a person for sometimes exploitative
ends.

The influences
exerted by religion and education are of this sort. Identities flowing from
such influences tend to be less authentic than the other kind. Individuals
are encouraged, or forced, to accept them to serve the purposes of others
in power. Indeed, civilization as a whole tends to subvert personal identity
in its more authentic, resonant, and natural forms. Our discussion will look
at this process from an historical perspective.

The history
of civilization here follows the scheme of Five Epochs of Civilization
whereby five successive civilizations have appeared on earth to characterize
societies.

The first
civilization, appearing first with the rise of Sumerian and Egyptian city-states
five to six thousand years ago, was dominated by the institution of government.
The various kingdoms fought each other to form territorially enlarged political
empires.

The second civilization, arising from
philosophical revolutions in the first millennium B.C., culminated in world
religion. Spiritual kingdoms associated with Buddhism, Christianity,
and Islam were dominant in human culture until the middle of the second
millennium A.D.

Then, with the Renaissance changing European
culture, a third civilization based upon the twin institutions of commerce
and secular education arose. Its period of dominance was between the 14th
and early 20th centuries, A.D.

The fourth civilization, originating
in technological advances of the mid 19th century, came into its own after
World War I. This was an age of mass entertainment delivered through phonographs,
motion pictures, radio, and television.

Finally, in the late 20th century, computer-based
culture has established its first institution in the Internet. Once it is
more fully developed, this culture will become the fifth civilization.

Of interest
here is the effect that each civilization has on personal identity. It is
my contention that civilization implies a superior culture. It
is culture as seen by outsiders. In the classic case, the uncultured barbarian
on horseback encounters the rich cities of civilized societies. The barbarians
are nomadic peoples who lack the art of writing and therefore the capacity
to organize an urban society which can manage irrigation projects and develop
an economic surplus. The rude, ignorant barbarians covet the wealth of civilized
societies, desiring to plunder them and rape the finely adorned women.

So often this
happened in the early histories of Asia and Europe. But each of the other
civilizations show a similar pattern. In most cases, civilization
appears in the form of a spectacle of a culturally superior society which
the masses are encouraged to emulate and join. (See Civilization
and the Envious Outsider.)

The
better culture of the third civilization

Lets
start with the third civilization, which even today most people associate
with civilization itself. This is a culture which reached its peak in Victorian
England. While the British monarchy would seem emblematic of this society,
its dominant institutions were those of commerce and education. Its civilization
consisted of an industrialized but highly literate society and culture associated
with such things as London banks, social clubs, universities and public schools,
and newspaper reading. Civilized gentlemen and ladies were associated
with such enterprises and pursuits; and the common people were encouraged
to aspire to that way of life.

Going back
in history, one sees that the dominant institutions were formed in northern
Italy during the Renaissance. The Christian Crusades to recover the Holy Lands
from Muslim rule succeeded not in altering the political boundaries of the
Middle East but in stimulating European commerce and scholarship. City states
such as Venice, Florence, Genoa, and Amalfi grew wealthy from trade with the
Orient. Greek manuscripts brought by refugees from Turkey when the Byzantine
empire fell in the mid 15th century stimulated a renew interest in classical
literature and philosophy.

Even before
that, humanist scholars had rediscovered the classical texts of Roman society.
Rich merchants hired these scholars to teach their children. The business
class became sponsors of music and art.

The humanist
scholar and poet Francesco Petrarca (Petrarch), who lived in northern
Italy during the 14th century A.D., is a pivotal figure in the formation of
secular education. Fluent in Latin, Petrarch read the classical texts of Roman
society with an appreciation of their superior intellectual and aesthetic
qualities. To him, this ancient culture seemed preferable to the culture of
his own times.

Petrarch lived
and breathed the classical culture. In his own writings and dreams, he communicated
with long-dead Roman authors as if they were his personal friends. It was
he who pioneered techniques of textual criticism that became a staple of university
courses in literature. His posture toward classical culture set a pattern
for modern scholars studying excellent expressions in literature, music, and
the arts.

The Renaissance
stimulated study of the Greek and Roman classics. Secular education later
turned to writers such as Dante, Shakespeare, and Cervantes, who had perfected
expression in contemporary languages. This, in turn, became the core of a
good education in the liberal arts. The sons of upwardly mobile, middle-class
families were encouraged to immerse themselves in good literature, art, science,
and history to acquire the skills and sensibilities of the upper class as
a preparation for joining that class.

Well-educated
gentlemen versed in what Matthew Arnold called the best that has been
thought and said in the societys culture were its obvious leaders.
And social advancement was the main occupation of that society - advancement
through education followed by a successful career. From another perspective,
though, this was a turn away from ones native upbringing to a culture
deemed superior. For many, it was an assault upon authentic personal identity.

How
the first civilization established superior and inferior relationships between
peoples

Briefly, let
us see if the same principle applies to other civilizations. We start with
humanity organized in wandering tribes or in small, loosely organized communities
subsisting on agriculture. This was living close to a state of nature - the
Garden of Eden, if you will. Some tribes formed primitive city-states. Those
states with a more developed military capability were able to conquer neighboring
kingdoms and incorporate those kingdoms in their own empires.

Here is where
some people are subjected to the domination of alien cultures. Peoples defeated
in battle are either killed or enslaved. The wealth of their cities is plundered.
In Assyria, it was the policy to disperse conquered peoples to remote places
in the empire. Even if they are lucky and survive, their communities live
under the political and cultural yoke of the militarily stronger people.

The history
of that epoch is characterized both by the struggle between civilized society
and barbarian tribes and wars among kingdoms within civilized society. Eventually
the settled people won. Large empires such as the Roman empire and the Chinese
empire in the Han dynasty were formed. This was the culmination of the first
civilization. Successful empires managed to integrate conquered peoples smoothly
into the political order. Rome granted them a measure of political autonomy,
including dual citizenship. More ruthless models of subjugation often failed.

Religion
reflects political realities

Along with
the political process came a realignment of religion. At the time of the first
civilization, city states and other small kingdoms generally had their own
god, who was a god of the community and of the people inhabiting the city.
The goddess Palas Athena represented the city of Athens, for example. Statues
of such gods or goddesses were placed in the center of temples as objects
of worship.

When one people
conquered another, not only the governments of the defeated peoples but also
their gods were made subordinate to those of the conquering people. The Roman
empire established a pantheon of gods in which the god of Rome was in the
highest position and the others were placed in an inferior position. The non-Roman
people had to accept an inferior identity in the imperial scheme. So with
other empires of this era. The exercise of imperial power required both political
and religious craftsmanship.

The
special case of Jewish religion

The famous
exception is that the people of Judaea would not accept foreign religious
rule. Their ancestral spirit, Jehovah, was the only God whom they would acknowledge.
The Greek Seleucid dynasty gained political control of this nation in the
aftermath of Alexanders conquest of the Persian empire. When emperor
Antiochus Epiphanes IV tried to erect a statue of Zeus Ouranios in place of
the altar at the Jerusalem temple in 167 B.C., it offended the religious sensibility
of pious Jews and sparked the Maccabean revolt. Jews regained political and
religious control of their homeland for the following century.

Then, in 63
B.C., dynastic turmoil led to an invitation to the Roman general Pompey to
intervene. Judaea effectively became a Roman possession. In 70 A.D., the city
of Jerusalem was destroyed and the remaining Jews were dispersed to other
parts of the empire. Politically, the Jewish nation was destroyed - at least,
for the better part of two millennia.

This might
have been the end of the story had it not been for the remarkable religious
culture developed during the time when Jews were subjected to foreign political
rule. It started during the Babylonian captivity in the 6th century
B.C. The conquest of Jerusalem by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar brought
the defeat of Judaea and extinction of the Jewish dynasty going back to David
and Solomon. Yet the religion of Moses promised the Jews everlasting prosperity
and glory if they remained faithful to their God. What had happened?

The writing
prophets, starting with Amos, explained that God was punishing the Jews for
their faithlessness and sin. Yet, this punishment was only temporary. After
a period of chastisement, God would restore the Jewish nation under the leadership
of a descendent of David, the Messiah. In Isaiah, it is explained that the
Jews exile to Babylon and their subsequent incorporation in the Persian
empire was meant to exhibit Gods glory and power to Gentile peoples.
When the Persian king Cyrus allowed Jewish leaders to return to Jerusalem
and rebuild the temple, this was thought to be confirmation of that power.
The Jewish tribal god, Jehovah, was a god whom even Gentile kings had to obey.

The story became
more complicated when the Persian empire was overthrown by Alexander the Great
and less tolerant Greek rulers seized control of Palestine; and when the Romans
later seized control. By this time, however, the prophetic literature of pious
Jews had developed to the point that political realities could not interfere
with the Jews hope of ultimate redemption when Gods kingdom would
arrive.

Building upon
the writings of earlier prophets such as Amos, Ezekiel, Isaiah, and Jeremiah,
others such as Daniel, Malachi, and Zechariah came along, placing attention
less on the restoration of a Jewish kingdom under Davids descendant
and more on a spiritual or supernatural Kingdom of God. The Messiah
as Son of Man came to replace the Messianic Son of David.

The focus was
now on the process by which Gods kingdom would come; certain conditions
had to be met first. These had to do with the prior arrival of Elijah and
a period of unprecedented tribulation rather than with the political situation.
Everyone was looking for signs that the Messiah would come soon to deliver
the Jewish people from their suffering under foreign rule.

Christianity
brings this religion to all peoples

The stage was
set for the preachings of John the Baptist and Jesus who said, The time
has come; the Kingdom of God is upon you; repent, and believe the Gospel.
(Mark 1: 15) In other words, after centuries of prophetic writing and countless
changes in political conditions, the long-promised Kingdom of God was about
to arrive.

The rest of
Jesus preaching had to do with the nature of the Kingdom and how believers
might prepare themselves for salvation. His life was about removing the remaining
obstacles so that the Kingdom might soon arrive. Ultimately, Jesus was betrayed,
arraigned before the High Priest, convicted of blasphemy, and crucified. He
arose from the dead two days later.

The early Christians
believed that Jesus resurrection showed both the favor and power of
God and put Jesus in a supernatural state consistent with that of the Messiah.
Jesus was, in fact, the Messiah who would come again in power and glory when
Gods kingdom would replace earthly kingdoms and history would end.

History did
not end, of course. The Christian community remained intact, and missionaries
were sent out to preach the Gospel of Christs resurrection and the coming
hope for the future.

So the Christian
religion took hold in various parts of the Roman empire. After several centuries,
this religion became the official religion of Rome. Then, when Rome fell,
it became a surrogate for Roman culture. The Roman church became a center
of power in the world, exercising spiritual authority in those lands, Europe
among them, which had once belonged to Rome. The spread of European culture
to the Americas and other parts of the world have brought Christianity to
all peoples.

What
did it mean for those peoples in terms of self-identity?

We today in
the West live in lands that have been under the influence of the Christian
religion for hundreds of years. Christianity is the heritage of our ancestors
and people. It is inextricably linked to our history as far back as scholarship
can reach. It is an important part of our culture. So does that make Christianity
an authentic basis for our personal self-identity? Those who embrace this
religion would consider it so. Otherwise, there is room for skepticism.

Many who embrace
Christianity today do so out of hope that they will go to Heaven after death,
and avoid Hell, if they remain faithful to Jesus and to the Christian religion.
They believe this promise because millions of other people believe and have
believed it and because the church encourages such belief.

But Jesus himself
did promise life after death; he promised that the Kingdom of God would come
soon. With the Kingdom of God, there was admittedly the expectation that the
living would be transformed into supernatural beings who would live, if not
eternally, for thousands of years. There was a promise that the righteous
dead - who were dead when the Kingdom came - would be resurrected to life
in the Kingdom when the Kingdom came. Jesus accepted that view. As for the
many believers who have died since Jesus day and before the Kingdom
of God arrived, there is little basis in the Gospels for believing that being
a Christian with purity of heart guarantees life after death. It all depends
on the Kingdom, and that Kingdom has not yet come.

Another school
of Christian thought accepts this precondition - that the Kingdom must come
- but insists that the fact it has not come yet does not mean it will never
come. The urgent expectation of the Kingdoms imminent arrival, so strong
among Jesus and his followers, remains strong today in hopes for Christs
Second Coming . Statements attributed to Jesus in the Gospels
hold out hope for this event despite its delay for nearly two thousand years.

If the early
Christian community expected it to occur soon, maybe it was because human
knowledge is imperfect. A day in Gods sight may be equivalent to a thousand
years; or there may be some other reason why the Kingdom has not yet come.
For the faithful, however, persistence in the faith despite immediate evidence
to the contrary could be considered a virtue: The believer has strong faith,
and that is what Jesus required. And so millions continue to believe, looking
for the end of earthly times and the Rapture that will take them straight
to Heaven.

Such considerations
cannot enter into an analysis of Christianity as a cultural influence. Undeniably,
a majority of our ancestors who were Christians lived under its strong influence,
but they also lived in anticipation of an event which failed to happen during
their lifetime; or they may have lived with an imperfect understanding of
what Jesus actually promised. If one assumes - as this discussion does - that
it is good to live a life in harmony with ones nature and the actual
circumstances, then the Christian religion has led them in the wrong direction.
It led to expectations of an afterlife rather than to a life in this world
fully lived.

An
Instrument of Jewish Cultural Imperialism

The history
of this religion shows that another peoples culture and world view have
been put on believers. The religion may actually represent the cultural and
spiritual domination of one people by another. Consider that in the 1st millennium
B.C., when the ideological foundation of Christianity was laid, God was not
commonly regarded as a universal spirit who created the world. God was a spirit
representative of a people or nation. Jehovah was the God of Abraham, Isaac,
and Jacob, and later of Moses; He was God of the Hebrew people alone.

But the Jewish
prophets developed the idea that their God was more than this: He was a God
who ruled the entire world. The monotheistic tendency in Jewish religion led
to the belief that other peoples gods were false gods. Only Jehovah
really existed, and so other peoples must worship him. it was an outrageous
claim for a people to make who were subjected to foreign political domination.
But the claim held.

Looking at
Christianity with a cold eye, one can regard it as an instrument of the Jews
cultural domination of other peoples. Jesus was a prophet in the Jewish tradition
who instructed his disciples: Do not take the road to gentile lands,
and do not enter any Samaritan town; but go rather to the lost sheep of the
house of Israel. (Matthew 10: 6) Luke 4: 16 makes clear that Jesus regularly
worshipped at the synagogue on the Sabbath. In John 4: 22, he says: You
Samaritans worship without knowing what you worship, while we worship what
we know. It is from the Jews that salvation comes.

But there are
other texts suggesting a broader view. Jesus sympathy for the Roman
centurion who had faith, his condoning good works on the Sabbath contrary
to the Mosaic Law, and his vitriolic condemnation of the Pharisees and other
righteous Jews show a departure from the strict Jewish tradition. Above all,
it was Jesus arraignment before the High Priest and the priestly retinue
who were instrumental in his death, and the anti-Semitic reaction
to this event, that divorced the Christian religion from the religion of the
Jews. It was Peters vision of God giving permission to eat profane
or unclean food as a sign to accept the Roman soldier Cornelius (Acts
10: 16) and the apostle Pauls successful mission to Gentile nations
that broke the link to this earlier religious tradition.

And so Christianity
became a universal religion claiming to transfer the blessing which God had
bestowed upon Jews to all people. This new religion maintained, however, the
Jewish intolerance of other gods. Indeed, it maintained that only through
Jesus could one find salvation and eternal life. At the same time, it transmitted
Gods promise to Abraham: Those that bless you (Abraham and his
descendants), I will bless; those who curse you, I will execrate. (Genesis
12: 3) Christians were thus advised to favor and help the Jews.

In the meanwhile,
Christianity has spread the culture of ancient Israel to other peoples. Through
the Gospel and other New Testament writings, as well as texts found in the
Old Testament, people in subsequent generations have absorbed this religious
culture. They have often been more attentive to its message and to the facts
of its world than to circumstances in their own lives. Like a parent speaking
from the distant past, it has insisted that the old ways must continue to
be observed even if present conditions are different from those existing back
then. This generation is prevented from exercising its own moral judgment.
Its identity is controlled by past experience.

And so, the
dominant institution of the second civilization - Christianity in the west
and other such religions elsewhere - forces people to look elsewhere for a
better world than the one in which they are living. Heaven, by
definition, is a place of perfection. Mans paramount hope should be
to gain entrance to it. The bright prospect dangled by religious organizations
argues against making much of what one might find in this world.

Back
to the third civilization

This western
civilization that derived from the Renaissance rejected the ideological framework
of religion, preferring to look at the physical world. This did not, however,
imply worldly contentment; for the culture promoted striving to improve ones
condition. Some searched for silver and gold in distant places such as Mexico
or Peru. Others traded for spices from the orient. Later, of course, the slave
trade brought African captives to the New World. It was all done in the spirit
of getting rich. By establishing colonies around the world, the European powers
could increase their wealth through captive trade.

Then came the
Industrial Revolution which increased the amount of production that was possible
from human labor. More exploitation took place. A working class was created
as traditional craftsmen were displaced. The competition among colonial powers
for resources and wealth escalated into a military competition leading to
world war and the mass destruction of people through advanced technologies.
All was done in the name of self-improvement, increasing comfort and wealth,
at least for those at the top.

As for education,
it took unfinished people from the hinterlands and taught them how to become
aristocrats, fit for high positions in society. A culture better than what
they received from their parents could be had in the space of four years.
The educated ones would rise to the top of society leaving others in a less
favorable position. In time, as education became universal, this advantage
was removed but the obligation continued. Increased education became a prerequisite
for obtaining any kind of decent job.

Instead of
being liberated or improved, young people were squeezed harder to compete
with their peers and at the end were left with student loans needing to be
repaid. Here, too, the culture led to a treadmill that left little time to
pursue dreams of an enhanced personal identity.

And
then, the fourth civilization

It may seem
odd to call the culture of having fun a civilization, but thats
what it is. After a certain level of material comfort is reached, our focus
turns to such ends. The trick is to hook peoples attention and then
sell them something. Frivolous though its offering may be, entertainment is
now a serious business. Network television sells commercial products as well
as political candidates. To a lesser extent, it spreads religion. The appealing
spectacle draws people in for other purposes.

Why would people
forfeit real experiences in life to spend hours staring at images on a silver
screen? Its because those images are so easy yet appealing. High-quality
entertainment is delivered at a low cost through the television set. The same
is true of recorded music. The most personally engaging voices can be heard
in this medium. The electronic media that deliver such spectacles and sounds
present an image of an aesthetically superior world.

Yes, the movie
stars are quite glamorous and beautiful. The singers are so sexy. The athletes
show great character when they win under pressure, with the whole world watching.
Ambitious young people in todays world want to be part of that action.
To become a superstar in the world of mass entertainment has become a part
of the American dream. Any good-looking woman or man, though presently a cocktail
waitress or truck driver, can reasonably aspire to that dream.

The sad truth,
of course, is that only a few succeed in becoming stars in this culture of
mass entertainment. The majority of aspirants fail. Therefore, like gambling,
the way of life is largely delusional. Moreover, the entertainment culture
is destructive of a sound personal identity. Normal women see themselves as
too fat; accountants and nerds, not sexy enough. Our own image falls short
of the glamor found in that realm.

Mass entertainment
delivered through the broadcast media is directed one way: from a single source
to the mass of listeners or viewers. Its a cookie-cutter culture with
a one-size-fits-all message. Of necessity, the viewers individual wants
and needs are largely disregarded. The expertly shaped images are unnatural
though appealing.

Prospects
for the Fifth Civilization

With computer-based
communication, there are signs that civilized culture may come full circle.
Unlike the broadcast media, computers permit communication both ways. The
viewer can both receive and send messages to those on the other side of the
screen. Individuals can search for messages that they want, located at particular
websites. They can participate in communities of interest. All this promotes
a better sense of self-definition and a more sharply focused personal identity.
The ultimate is to match computer content with who we truly are.

In the future,
it may not be possible to sustain economic activity at levels existing in
the past because of resource shortages. Either the society tolerates vast
and growing disparities of income or it will find a way to share income and
work through shortened work hours. If the latter course is pursued, it will
open up new opportunities for self-discovery in the hours of leisure time.
Assuming that our basic material needs are met, the ability to live life in
a mode reflecting our innate capacities and true interests will seem more
valuable than having more consumer products with little time to use them.
Flakes of gold may be found in ordinary life.

And so, with
the democratization of mass communication, individuals can express themselves
effectively, overcoming exploitation from the top. Individuals can then integrate
themselves into society in more satisfying ways. They can let their own spirit
follow new pathways to other people. The result may be something approaching
a return to nature.