C. Edmund Bosworth

Steven C. Anderson

Golden or Asiatic (Canis aureus, MPers. tōrag, NPers. tura, šaḡāl), a medium-size member of the dog family (Canidae) occurring throughout Afghanistan and Iran. Scavenging supplies a small percentage of the diet, especially in habitats away from humans; and carrion consists mainly of road kill and, around villages, garbage.

William W. Malandra

(1862-1937), pioneer of Iranian studies in America and prominent Iranist for half a century. The most important book of Jackson perhaps was Zoroaster, the Prophet of Ancient Iran (1898). He was not among those who belittled indigenous traditions. He had an abiding faith in the basic historicity of these sources.

Eden Naby

(1890-1971), Assyrian intellectual and publisher. In New York, he created fonts for Syriac typography, designed books for major literary publishers, and at his own press produced artistic and surprising limited-editions, most often of poetry. He is best remembered for his typography of E. E. Cummings’books of verse.

Manuel Keene

(nephrite; Pers. yašm, yašb, yašf, yaṣb). An extremely small range of pre-Islamic Iranian jades have thus far been published, despite the very ancient employment of jade in eastern Iran. The known material is often of extraordinary refinement, and testifies to an extensive influence on other jadecarving cultures, including the Chinese.

Manuel Keene

Manuel Keene

Extant scabbard slides of softer and more brittle stones (e.g., lapis lazuli, rock crystal), as well as wood, suggest that the toughness of jade was not an essential requirement for this function. Other types of jade fittings on the warrior and his horse would often accompany the weapon’s mounts.

M. Reza Fariborz Hamzeh’ee

Multiple Authors

ABU ʿABD-ALLĀH (ca. 702-765), the sixth imam of the Imami Shiʿites. He spent most of his life in Medina, where he built up a circle of followers primarily as a theologian, Ḥadith transmitter, and jurist (faqih).

Robert Gleave

Hamid Algar

all the Sufi orders claim initiatic descent from the Prophet exclusively through ʿAli b. Abi Ṭāleb, the first imam of the Ahl al-Bayt, and many speak also of a selselat al-ḏahab (golden chain), linking them with all of the first eight of the Twelve Imams.

Daniel De Smet

a major figure in Shiʿite esotericism, is purported to be the founder of occult science in Islam. According to Imami-Shiʿite tradition, his knowledge concerned “the exoteric (al-ẓāher), the esoteric (al-bāṭen), and the esoteric of the esoteric (bāṭen al-bāṭen).”

Ahmad Kazemi Moussavi

work on medicine (Ṭebb al-Emām al-Ṣādeq) belongs to a genre of traditional herbal medicine attributed to the Shiʿite imams and known as the Medicine of the imams (ṭebb al-aʾemma), whose salient figure is Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādeq.

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Gernot Windfuhr

a term of uncertain etymology used to designate the major divinatory art in Islamic mysticism and gnosis—the art of discovering the predestined fate of nations, dynasties, religions, and individuals by a variety of methods.

SHIVA JA’FARI

Catherine B. Asher

city in northwestern India, founded in 1727 by the Kachhwaha prince (raja) and Mughal officer Sawai Jai Singh Kachhwaha (1688-1743). He built an observatory in Jaipur with enormous instruments for observing and calculating celestial phenomena

Anna Livia Beelaert

Bernard Hourcade

a major river of the southern slopes of the central Alborz in the Central Plateau (140 km. long, basin of 1,890 km²), running from the mountains of Šami-rānāt at Rudbār-e Qaṣrān to the plain of Varāmin and eventually joins the salt lake of Qom (Daryāča-ye Qom), at about 89 km to the northwest of the city.

Farhan Nizami

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FARHAD DAFTARY

(b. 1166-67; d. 1221), Nezāri Ismaʿili imam and the sixth lord of Alamut. He succeeded to the leadership of the Nezāridaʿwa (‘propaganda’ or ‘mission,’ see DĀʿI) and state on the death of his father, Nur-al-Din Moḥammad II b. Ḥasan II.

C. Edmund Bosworth

Abbas Amanat and Farzin Vejdani

Qajar historian and freethinker (1827-1872), son of Fatḥ-ʿAli Shah (r. 1797-1834). Besides European influences, the intellectual sources of his freethinking are not entirely known. He associated with Mirzā Malkom Khan (1833-1908) and his secret society, the Farāmuš-ḵāna (‘house of oblivion’), which labored to recruit members.

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Shah Mahmoud Hanifi

a city, a valley, and an administrative unit of fluctuating scope within the Afghan state structure. The city is located in eastern Afghanistan at 1,885 feet above sea level in the north-central portion of an elongated oval valley that stretches approximately 80 miles east to west.

Tahsın Yazici

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Manouchehr Broomand

a prominent painter of the Qajar era, during the reign of Nāṣer-al-Din Shah (r. 1848-96). He was noted for his work in the genres of irāni-sāzi (Iranian subjects, relatively unaffected by European influences) and ṭabiʿat-sāzi (fauna and flora in a European naturalistic mode).

Peter Jackson

(sometimes called the Ilakāni by Persian historians), a dynasty of Mongol origin which ruled over Iraq, and for several decades also over north-western Persia, from the collapse of the Il-khanate in the late 1330s until the early 15th century.

Pending

F. B. Flood

pre-eminent 12th-century monument of the Šansabāni sultans of Ḡur in central Afghanistan. The minaret stands 65 meters high near the confluence of the Harirud and Jāmrud rivers in a remote mountain valley once protected by a series of defensive towers.

Multiple Authors

Nahid Mozaffari

(b. Isfahan, 1892; d. Geneva, 1997) Mohammad-Ali, was a writer, researcher, and translator. Influenced by his father as a defender of freedom and social justice, Jamalzadeh was among the youngest members of the opposition group against the British and Russian interference in Iran. He established the Persian journal Kāveh.

JAMSHEED K. CHOKSY

NIKOLAUS SCHINDEL

No gold coins are attested so far for Jāmāsp. Apart from the silver drachms, sixths of a drachm, or obols, are known from the mints DA and LD. All the DA specimens are dated to regnal year one, and perhaps are connected with the king’s coronation, which thus may have taken place in Dārābḡerd.

W. W. Malandra

Ramiyar P. Karanjia and Michael Stausberg

(1830-1898), Parsi priest and Iranologist. As a high priest he guided and supervised the consecration of several fire temples. He possessed a collection of important Zoroastrian manuscripts, and his publication Pahlavi texts (1897-1913) made these available to a larger audience.

Ali Rahnema

(Society of Islamic Coalition), a religious-political organization founded in 1963 to propagate Ayatollah Khomeini’s vision of an Islamic-Iranian state and society and to mobilize the population to implement that vision.

Ali Rahnema

After the 1979 Revolution, the “Coalition of Islamic Mourning Groups” changed its expressive and meaningful name to the rather awkward appellation of Jamʿiyat-e moʾtalefa-ye eslāmi (the Society of Islamic Coalition).

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Jean Calmard

village near Qom, located 6 km south of it on the Qom-Kashan highway. It includes the mazraʿas of Gorgābi (Hādi-Mehdi) and Zangābād, the ruins of Gabri castle, and the Jamkarān or Ṣāḥeb-al-Zamān mosque.

Multiple Authors

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PRODS OKTOR SKJÆRVØ

In the Avesta, he ruled the world in a golden age; he saved living beings from a natural catastrophe by preserving specimens in his var- (fortress); he possessed the most Fortune among mortals, but lost it and his kingship as a consequence of lying.

Multiple Authors

C. J. Brunner

Direct contact and observation of each other by Persians and Japanese would wait for the establishment of Japan’s relations with the world by the modernizing administration of the Meiji period (1868-1912).

Nobuaki Kondo

Iranian diplomatic contact with Japan is believed to date from 1873, when Nāṣer-al-Din Shah, on his first trip to Europe, met Naonobu Sameshima of Satsuma, who was the then Japanese ambassador to Paris, France.

Tadahiko Ohtsu and Hashem Rajabzadeh

It was only in 1854 that relations with foreign countries were resumed. This process gathered pace with the advent of the Meiji period (1868-1912), when the Japanese were allowed to go on official visits abroad.

Habib Borjian

Habib Borjian

The dialect of Jarquya, together with those of Rudašt and Kuhpāya to its north, belongs to the Isfahani subgroup of the Central Dialects. Only about half of the villages of the district have retained their idioms, namely Ganjābād, Siān, Yangābād, Peykān, Mazraʿa-ʿArab, and Ḥaydarābād in Lower Jarquya, and Dastgerd, Kamālābād, Ḥasanābād, Ḵārā, and Yaḵčāl in Upper Jarquya.

Orkhan Mir-Kasimov

Nassereddin Parvin

Following his passion for Persian literature, Jāvid enrolled at the Faculty of Literature at Tehran University and studied alongside a number of students who would later rise to prominence. After compiling the preliminary work for his dissertation, he returned to Kabul with B.A. degrees in literature and law and began to teach and conduct research.

Daniel T. Potts

Stephan Schmuck

(1529-1611), merchant and traveler. On 2 November 1562, he arrived in Qazvin, the seat of Shah Ṭahmāsp (r. 1524-76). But the shah did not wish to jeopardize his recently concluded peace with the Ottoman empire, so that Jenkinson was neither well received at court nor did he obtain the desired documents. In his writings, Jenkinson succinctly described his journeys to regions never before visited by English travelers.

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Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam

During his five year residence in Persia, Jéquier sent home to his family many letters and accounts of his daily life in Persia and these were compiled and published posthumously as a volume entitled En Perse 1897-1902 by his son Michel Jéquier.

Mojan Membrado

Vera B. Moreen

the poll or capitation tax levied on members of non-Muslim monotheistic faith communities (Jews, Christians, and, eventually, Zoroastrians), who fell under the protection (ḏemma) of Muslim Arab conquerors.

Eric Fouache

Jiroft is the regional capital of the middle section of the Halil Rud valley, southern Kerman Province. The valley, oriented northwest to southeast, 400 km long, takes its source in the Zagros mountain range north of Jiroft and ends in the endorheic Jaz-murian basin.

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P. Oberling

Kurt Rudolph

In 1958 Jonas published The Gnostic Religion, which is a revised English version of his German study of gnosticism. He was a prolific author who wrote many books, essays, and articles on the philosophical problems of nature, organism, and technology.

Michael J. Franklin

David J. Roxburgh

literary miscellany of Persian prose and poetry, and album of pictures and illustrations. Inventiveness in the production of jongs peaked in Persia in the 1400s and continued into the 1500s, when techniques such as découpage, gold-sprinkled, stenciled, and/or painted borders, and colored inks or outline for calligraphy were introduced.

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Michael Zirinsky

In Jordan’s time, Iran was beset by Russian and British imperial aspirations, and many Iranians sought to buttress their country’s independence by drawing a third power into the balance. These Iranians saw the US as well-suited for this role because it then had no obvious imperial designs in the region.

Annabel Keeler

Chad Kia

The most appealing subject from the Joseph story has been the episode involving Potiphar’s wife, called Zolayḵā in Islamic lore. The popularity of the stories as a subject for lyrical and narrative poetry dates back to the Ghaznavid period.

Habib Borjian

Habib Borjian

Jowšaqāni, spoken in the township of Jowšaqān, is a variety of the local dialects of Kāšān, a subgroup of the Central Dialects. Published materials on the dialect include Ann Lambton’s brief grammar and texts and glossary, and R. Zargari’s verb forms, glossary, and idioms.

R. D. McChesney

Bruno Overlaet

an archeological site in the Eyvān plain, Ilām province (Poštkuh, Lorestān). A total of sixty-six tombs of a partially plundered graveyard were excavated in 1977 by the Belgian Archeological Mission in Iran, directed by Louis Vanden Berghe.

Ali Hakemi

excavation site in Gilan Province, 54 km south of Rasht, 4 km south of Kalvarz, and 12 km from Rudbār. In 1966, after three months of excavations (mid-spring to mid-summer), the archeological association of Rudbār discovered here the remains of a civilization dating from the beginning to the middle of the first millennium BCE.

Vera Basch Moreen

From ancient times Iranian Jews formed communities in most of the major towns, villages, and regions of the Persianate world. Between the 8th and 10th centuries, Iraq and Iran contained very large and prosperous Jewish populations.

Daniel Tsadik

The socio-economic and legal status of the Jews of Iran in early Qajar times was, to an extent, a continuation of the legacy of Safavid times. With the passage of time, however, certain changes started to be seen.

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Mayer I. Gruber

The most significant chapter in the story of Jews and Judaism in Persia began 15 March 597 BCE, when King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylonia conquered Jerusalem and carried away as captives 10,000 Jews from Jerusalem and Judah.

Amnon Netzer

Most of the inscriptions and documents written in Judeo-Persian at the beginning of the Islamic period were discovered in the 19th century. They are important for the study of the development of early New Persian, and their existence proves that Jews lived and were active in all areas within and beyond the borders of historical Persia.

Orly R. Rahimiyan

Zionist institutions in London and the Iranian Foreign Ministry engaged in heated arguments over the total ban on emigration to Palestine and on the use of Iranian soil by Russian Jews as a transit station on their way to Palestine.

Houman Sarshar

Houman Sarshar

This section is divided into: moṭrebs (hired popular musicians), Persian classical music, instrument makers, and popular music. Existing scholarship and historical documents suggest that Jews were the most prevalent minority engaged as moṭrebs.

F. Rachel Magdalene

This article will address principally the sources of our knowledge of the judicial and legal system in the Achaemenid period, as well as the nature of the court system, which persons had standing to sue, and legal procedure.

Willem Floor

From the beginning of Islamic rule in Persia, a secular and a religious judiciary co-existed: the ʿorficourt applying the common law, the tribunal of religious judge (qāẓi) applying the sacred law (šariʿa).

Multiple Authors

Vazken S. Ghougassian

The original Julfa is a very old village in the province of Nakhijevan (Naḵjavān), in historical Armenia. In early summer of 1605, the Julfa deportees to Iran were given temporary shelter in Isfahan, and they began with the building of New Julfa on the right bank of the Zāyandarud. For the first decades after its foundation, New Julfa was exclusively populated by Armenians from Old Julfa.

Vazken S. Ghougassian

The Afghan occupation of Isfahan between 1722 and 1729 struck a most devastating blow to the Armenians of New Julfa, although the city was spared total destruction and massive killings of its population.Nāder Shah Afšār (d. 1747) was even more brutal. Karim Khan Zand (d. 1779) treated the Armenian community fairly well and tried to encourage the return of expatriate Julfan merchants.

Armen Haghnazarian

Sebouh Aslanian

In the 17th century, Julfan merchants expanded their trade network in South Asia, and at the beginning of the 18th century the Primate of New Julfa had jurisdiction over the Armenian congregations in India and Java.

A. Shapur Shahbazi

Werner Sundermann

Junker chose as the subject of his thesis one of the most difficult and linguistically important Pahlavi texts, the Middle Persian dictionary of heterograms (a most appropriate term applied by Junker to Middle Iranian Aramaic spellings) and their eteographic explanations.

Rüdiger Schmitt

Erich Kettenhofen

(Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus), Eastern Roman emperor, 527-65; his rule was marked by several military conflicts with the Sasanian empire under Kawād I and Chosroes (Ḵosrow) I. When Justinian assumed autarchy on 1 August 527, Byzantium and the Sasanian empire were already at war.