Armistice

An armistice is a formal agreement of warring parties to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, since it may constitute only a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace. It is derived from the Latinarma, meaning "arms" (as in weapons) and -stitium, meaning "a stopping".[1]

The United Nations Security Council often imposes, or tries to impose, cease-fire resolutions on parties in modern conflicts. Armistices are always negotiated between the parties themselves and are thus generally seen as more binding than non-mandatory UN cease-fire resolutions in modern international law.

An armistice is a modus vivendi and is not the same as a peace treaty, which may take months or even years to agree on. The 1953 Korean War Armistice Agreement is a major example of an armistice which has not been followed by a peace treaty. Armistice is also different from a truce or ceasefire, which refer to a temporary cessation of hostilities for an agreed limited time or within a limited area. A truce may be needed in order to negotiate an armistice.

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Under international law an armistice is a legal agreement (often in a document) which ends fighting between the "belligerent parties" of a war or conflict.[2] The Hague II (1899) Treaty, says "If [the armistice's] duration is not fixed," the parties can resume fighting (Article 36) as they choose, but with proper notifications. This is in comparison to a "fixed duration" armistice, where the parties can renew fighting only at the end of the particular fixed duration. When the belligerent parties say (in effect), "this armistice completely ends the fighting" without any end date for the armistice, then duration of the armistice is fixed in the sense that no resumption of the fighting is allowed at any time. For example, the Korean Armistice Agreement calls for a "ceasefire and armistice" and has the "objective of establishing an armistice which will ensure a complete cessation of hostilities and of all acts of armed force in Korea until a final peaceful settlement is achieved.[3]

Most countries changed the name of the holiday after World War II, to honor veterans of that and subsequent conflicts. Most member states of the Commonwealth of Nations adopted the name Remembrance Day, while the United States chose All Veterans Day.

1.
War
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War is a state of armed conflict between societies. It is generally characterized by extreme aggression, destruction, and mortality, an absence of war is usually called peace. Warfare refers to the activities and characteristics of types of war. Total war is warfare that is not restricted to legitimate military targets. While some scholars see war as a universal and ancestral aspect of human nature, as concerns a belligerents losses in proportion to its prewar population, the most destructive war in modern history may have been the Paraguayan War. In 2013 war resulted in 31,000 deaths, down from 72,000 deaths in 1990, in 2003, Richard Smalley identified war as the sixth biggest problem facing humanity for the next fifty years. Another byproduct of some wars is the prevalence of propaganda by some or all parties in the conflict, the word is related to the Old Saxon werran, Old High German werran, and the German verwirren, meaning “to confuse”, “to perplex”, and “to bring into confusion”. In German, the equivalent is Krieg, the Spanish, Portuguese, the scholarly study of war is sometimes called polemology, from the Greek polemos, meaning war, and -logy, meaning the study of. Studies of war by military theorists throughout military history have sought to identify the philosophy of war, asymmetric warfare is a conflict between two populations of drastically different levels of military capability or size. Biological warfare, or germ warfare, is the use of weaponized biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, chemical warfare involves the use of weaponized chemicals in combat. Poison gas as a weapon was principally used during World War I. Civil war is a war between forces belonging to the nation or political entity. Conventional warfare is declared war between states in which nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons are not used or see limited deployment, cyberwarfare involves the actions by a nation-state or international organization to attack and attempt to damage another nations information systems. Information warfare is the application of force on a large scale against information assets and systems, against the computers. Nuclear warfare is warfare in which weapons are the primary, or a major. War of aggression is a war for conquest or gain rather than self-defense, the earliest recorded evidence of war belongs to the Mesolithic cemetery Site 117, which has been determined to be approximately 14,000 years old. About forty-five percent of the skeletons there displayed signs of violent death, since the rise of the state some 5,000 years ago, military activity has occurred over much of the globe. The advent of gunpowder and the acceleration of technological advances led to modern warfare

2.
Cessation of hostilities
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A ceasefire, also called cease fire, is a temporary stoppage of a war in which each side agrees with the other to suspend aggressive actions. Ceasefires may be declared as part of a treaty. A ceasefire is usually more limited than a broader armistice, which is an agreement to end fighting. Successful ceasefires may be followed by armistices, and finally by peace treaties, during World War I, on December 24,1914, there was an unofficial ceasefire on the Western Front as France, the United Kingdom, and Germany observed Christmas. No treaty was signed, and the war resumed after a few days, on November 29,1952, the newly U. S. president-elect Dwight D. Eisenhower, went to Korea to learn what might end the Korean War. Upon agreeing to the agreement, the belligerents established the Korean Demilitarized Zone, which has since been patrolled by the KPA and the joint ROKA, US. The Korean Demilitarized Zone runs northeast of the 38th parallel, to the south, the old Korean capital city of Kaesong, site of the armistice negotiations, originally lay in the pre-war ROK, but now is in the DPRK. The United Nations Command, the North Korean Korean Peoples Army, the Armistice also called upon the governments of South Korea, North Korea, China, and the United States to participate in continued peace talks. For his part, ROK President Syngman Rhee attacked the peace proceedings, the war is considered to have ended at this point, even though there was no peace treaty. On January 15,1973, President Richard Nixon of the USA ordered a ceasefire of the bombings in North Vietnam. The decision came after Dr. Henry Kissinger, the National Security Affairs advisor to the president, returned to Washington from Paris, combat missions continued in South Vietnam. By January 27,1973, all warring parties in the Vietnam War signed a ceasefire as a prelude to the Paris Peace Accord. After Iraq was driven by U. S. -led coalition forces out of Kuwait during Operation Desert Storm, Iraq, throughout the 1990s, the U. N. Security Council passed 16 Resolutions calling for Iraq to disarm the WMDs program unconditionally and immediately. The war remained in effect until 2003 when U. S. and United Kingdom forces invaded Iraq, a United Nations-mediated ceasefire was agreed between India and Pakistan on 1 January 1949, ending the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. The Security Council set up a dedicated United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan, the Security Council set up a United Nations Military Observer Group for India and Pakistan to monitor the ceasefire line. During World War I, Turkey, which was an ally of Germany, had its troops stationed both in the Balkan States in the west and at the Russian-Iranian border in the north and east. The Turkish government, who were angry at the Christians, had kept under pressure by the Russian Army. Simkos hope was that by annihilating the Assyrians he would get an autonomous rule for his people, who lived in both Turkey and Iran

3.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole

4.
United Nations Security Council
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The Security Council held its first session on 17 January 1946. Like the UN as a whole, the Security Council was created following World War II to address the failings of an international organization. The Security Council consists of fifteen members, the great powers that were the victors of World War II—the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, Republic of China, and the United States—serve as the bodys five permanent members. These permanent members can veto any substantive Security Council resolution, including those on the admission of new member states or candidates for Secretary-General, the Security Council also has 10 non-permanent members, elected on a regional basis to serve two-year terms. The bodys presidency rotates monthly among its members, Security Council resolutions are typically enforced by UN peacekeepers, military forces voluntarily provided by member states and funded independently of the main UN budget. As of 2016,103,510 peacekeeping soldiers and 16,471 civilians are deployed on 16 peacekeeping operations and 1 special political mission. Following the catastrophic loss of life in World War I, the Paris Peace Conference established the League of Nations to maintain harmony between the nations, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. The term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. The most contentious issue at Dumbarton and in successive talks proved to be the rights of permanent members. At the conference, H. V. Evatt of the Australian delegation pushed to further restrict the power of Security Council permanent members. Due to the fear that rejecting the strong veto would cause the conferences failure, the UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945 upon ratification of the Charter by the five then-permanent members of the Security Council and by a majority of the other 46 signatories. On 17 January 1946, the Security Council met for the first time at Church House, Westminster, in London, United Kingdom. The Security Council was largely paralysed in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and USSR and their allies, and the Council generally was only able to intervene in unrelated conflicts. Cold War divisions also paralysed the Security Councils Military Staff Committee, the committee continued to exist on paper but largely abandoned its work in the mid-1950s. By the 1970s, the UN budget for social and economic development was far greater than its budget for peacekeeping. After the Cold War, the UN saw an expansion in its peacekeeping duties. Between 1988 and 2000, the number of adopted Security Council resolutions more than doubled, undersecretary-General Brian Urquhart later described the hopes raised by these successes as a false renaissance for the organization, given the more troubled missions that followed. In 1994, the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda failed to intervene in the Rwandan Genocide in the face of Security Council indecision, in the late 1990s, UN-authorised international interventions took a wider variety of forms

5.
Peace treaty
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A peace treaty is an agreement between two or more hostile parties, usually countries or governments, which formally ends a state of war between the parties. A treatys content usually depends on the nature of the conflict being concluded, in the case of large conflicts between numerous parties there may be one international treaty covering all issues or separate treaties signed between each party. There are many issues which may be included in a peace treaty. Some of these may be, Formal designation of borders, a peace treaty also is often not used to end a civil war, especially in cases of a failed secession, as it implies mutual recognition of statehood. In cases such as the American Civil War, it ends when the armies of the losing side surrender. By contrast, a secession or declaration of independence is often formalized by means of a peace treaty. Treaties are often ratified in territories deemed neutral in the previous conflict, since its founding after World War II the United Nations has sought to act as a forum for resolution in matters of international conflict. A number of treaties and obligations are involved in which member states seek to limit. This has meant that formal declarations of war are not undertaken. Probably the earliest recorded peace treaty, although rarely mentioned or remembered, was between the Hittite Empire and the Hayasa-Azzi confederation, circa 1350 BC. More famously, one of the earliest recorded peace treaties was concluded between the Hittite and Egyptian empires after the ca.1274 BC Battle of Kadesh, the battle took place in what is modern-day Syria, the entire Levant being at that time contested between the two empires. After an extremely costly four-day battle, in which neither side gained a substantial advantage, the lack of resolution led to further conflict between Egypt and the Hittites, with Ramesses II capturing the city of Kadesh and Amurru in his 8th year as king. However, the prospect of further protracted conflict between the two states eventually persuaded both their rulers, Hatusiliš III and Ramesses, to end their dispute and sign a peace treaty. The peace treaty was recorded in two versions, one in Egyptian hieroglyphs, and the other in Akkadian using cuneiform script, fortunately, such dual-language recording is common to many subsequent treaties. This treaty differs from others, however, in that the two versions are worded differently. Although the majority of the text is identical, the Hittite version claims that the Egyptians came suing for peace, while the Egyptian version claims the reverse. The treaty was given to the Egyptians in the form of a plaque. The Treaty was concluded between Ramesses II and Hatusiliš III in Year 21 of Ramesses reign and its eighteen articles call for peace between Egypt and Hatti and then proceed to maintain that their respective gods also demand peace

6.
Korean War Armistice Agreement
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The Korean Armistice Agreement is the armistice which ended the Korean War. The armistice was signed on July 27,1953, and was designed to insure a complete cessation of hostilities, No final peaceful settlement has been achieved yet. The signed armistice established the Korean Demilitarized Zone, put into force a cease-fire, the Demilitarized Zone runs not far from the 38th parallel, which separated North and South Korea before the Korean War. By mid-December 1950, the United States was discussing terms for an agreement to end the Korean War, the desired agreement would end the fighting, provide assurances against its resumption, and protect the future security of UNC forces. The United States asked there needed to be a military commission of mixed membership that would supervise all agreements. Both sides would need to agree to cease the introduction into Korea of any reinforcing air, and to refrain from increasing the level of war equipment and material existing in Korea. The U. S. also desired to make a demilitarized zone that would be roughly 20 miles wide, the agreement would address the issue of prisoners of war which the U. S. believed should be exchanged on a one-for-one basis. While talks of an armistice agreement were circulating, in late May and early June 1951. He believed the ROK should continue to expand its army in order to all the way to the Yalu River. The UNC did not endorse Rhee’s position, even without UNC support, Rhee and the South Korean government launched a massive effort to mobilize the public to resist any halt in the fighting short of the Yalu River. Other ROK officials supported Rhee’s ambitions and the National Assembly of South Korea unanimously passed a resolution endorsing a continued fight for an “independent and unified country. ”At the end of June, however, like Syngman Rhee, North Korean leader Kim Il-sung also sought complete unification. North Korea was pressured to support armistice talks by allies the Peoples Republic of China, talks concerning an armistice started July 10,1951, in Kaesŏng, a city occupied by North Korea in North Hwanghae Province near the South Korean border. The two primary negotiators were Chief of Army Staff General Nam Il, a North Korean Deputy Premier, and United States Vice Admiral Charles Turner Joy. After a period of two weeks, on June 26,1951, an agenda was agreed upon and this guided talks until signing of the armistice on July 27,1953. The items to be discussed were, Adoption of agenda, fixing a military demarcation line between both sides so as to establish a demilitarized zone as a basic condition for cessation of hostilities in Korea. Arrangements relating to prisoners of war, recommendations to the governments of the countries concerned on both sides. After the agenda was decided, talks proceeded slowly with off, the longest gap between discussions started on August 23,1951, during the morning before sunrise, when North Korea and its allies claimed the conference site in Kaesŏng had been bombed. North Korea requested the UNC conduct an investigation, which concluded there was evidence a UNC aircraft had attacked the conference site

7.
Truce
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A ceasefire, also called cease fire, is a temporary stoppage of a war in which each side agrees with the other to suspend aggressive actions. Ceasefires may be declared as part of a treaty. A ceasefire is usually more limited than a broader armistice, which is an agreement to end fighting. Successful ceasefires may be followed by armistices, and finally by peace treaties, during World War I, on December 24,1914, there was an unofficial ceasefire on the Western Front as France, the United Kingdom, and Germany observed Christmas. No treaty was signed, and the war resumed after a few days, on November 29,1952, the newly U. S. president-elect Dwight D. Eisenhower, went to Korea to learn what might end the Korean War. Upon agreeing to the agreement, the belligerents established the Korean Demilitarized Zone, which has since been patrolled by the KPA and the joint ROKA, US. The Korean Demilitarized Zone runs northeast of the 38th parallel, to the south, the old Korean capital city of Kaesong, site of the armistice negotiations, originally lay in the pre-war ROK, but now is in the DPRK. The United Nations Command, the North Korean Korean Peoples Army, the Armistice also called upon the governments of South Korea, North Korea, China, and the United States to participate in continued peace talks. For his part, ROK President Syngman Rhee attacked the peace proceedings, the war is considered to have ended at this point, even though there was no peace treaty. On January 15,1973, President Richard Nixon of the USA ordered a ceasefire of the bombings in North Vietnam. The decision came after Dr. Henry Kissinger, the National Security Affairs advisor to the president, returned to Washington from Paris, combat missions continued in South Vietnam. By January 27,1973, all warring parties in the Vietnam War signed a ceasefire as a prelude to the Paris Peace Accord. After Iraq was driven by U. S. -led coalition forces out of Kuwait during Operation Desert Storm, Iraq, throughout the 1990s, the U. N. Security Council passed 16 Resolutions calling for Iraq to disarm the WMDs program unconditionally and immediately. The war remained in effect until 2003 when U. S. and United Kingdom forces invaded Iraq, a United Nations-mediated ceasefire was agreed between India and Pakistan on 1 January 1949, ending the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. The Security Council set up a dedicated United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan, the Security Council set up a United Nations Military Observer Group for India and Pakistan to monitor the ceasefire line. During World War I, Turkey, which was an ally of Germany, had its troops stationed both in the Balkan States in the west and at the Russian-Iranian border in the north and east. The Turkish government, who were angry at the Christians, had kept under pressure by the Russian Army. Simkos hope was that by annihilating the Assyrians he would get an autonomous rule for his people, who lived in both Turkey and Iran

8.
Ceasefire
–
A ceasefire, also called cease fire, is a temporary stoppage of a war in which each side agrees with the other to suspend aggressive actions. Ceasefires may be declared as part of a treaty. A ceasefire is usually more limited than a broader armistice, which is an agreement to end fighting. Successful ceasefires may be followed by armistices, and finally by peace treaties, during World War I, on December 24,1914, there was an unofficial ceasefire on the Western Front as France, the United Kingdom, and Germany observed Christmas. No treaty was signed, and the war resumed after a few days, on November 29,1952, the newly U. S. president-elect Dwight D. Eisenhower, went to Korea to learn what might end the Korean War. Upon agreeing to the agreement, the belligerents established the Korean Demilitarized Zone, which has since been patrolled by the KPA and the joint ROKA, US. The Korean Demilitarized Zone runs northeast of the 38th parallel, to the south, the old Korean capital city of Kaesong, site of the armistice negotiations, originally lay in the pre-war ROK, but now is in the DPRK. The United Nations Command, the North Korean Korean Peoples Army, the Armistice also called upon the governments of South Korea, North Korea, China, and the United States to participate in continued peace talks. For his part, ROK President Syngman Rhee attacked the peace proceedings, the war is considered to have ended at this point, even though there was no peace treaty. On January 15,1973, President Richard Nixon of the USA ordered a ceasefire of the bombings in North Vietnam. The decision came after Dr. Henry Kissinger, the National Security Affairs advisor to the president, returned to Washington from Paris, combat missions continued in South Vietnam. By January 27,1973, all warring parties in the Vietnam War signed a ceasefire as a prelude to the Paris Peace Accord. After Iraq was driven by U. S. -led coalition forces out of Kuwait during Operation Desert Storm, Iraq, throughout the 1990s, the U. N. Security Council passed 16 Resolutions calling for Iraq to disarm the WMDs program unconditionally and immediately. The war remained in effect until 2003 when U. S. and United Kingdom forces invaded Iraq, a United Nations-mediated ceasefire was agreed between India and Pakistan on 1 January 1949, ending the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. The Security Council set up a dedicated United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan, the Security Council set up a United Nations Military Observer Group for India and Pakistan to monitor the ceasefire line. During World War I, Turkey, which was an ally of Germany, had its troops stationed both in the Balkan States in the west and at the Russian-Iranian border in the north and east. The Turkish government, who were angry at the Christians, had kept under pressure by the Russian Army. Simkos hope was that by annihilating the Assyrians he would get an autonomous rule for his people, who lived in both Turkey and Iran

9.
International law
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International law is the set of rules generally regarded and accepted as binding in relations between states and between nations. It serves as a framework for the practice of stable and organized international relations, International law differs from state-based legal systems in that it is primarily applicable to countries rather than to private citizens. National law may become law when treaties delegate national jurisdiction to supranational tribunals such as the European Court of Human Rights or the International Criminal Court. Treaties such as the Geneva Conventions may require national law to conform to respective parts, much of international law is consent-based governance. This means that a member is not obliged to abide by this type of international law. This is an issue of state sovereignty, however, other aspects of international law are not consent-based but still are obligatory upon state and non-state actors such as customary international law and peremptory norms. The term international law can refer to three distinct legal disciplines, Public international law, which governs the relationship between states and international entities. It includes these legal fields, treaty law, law of sea, international law, the laws of war or international humanitarian law, international human rights law. Private international law, or conflict of laws, which addresses the questions of jurisdiction may hear a case. The two traditional branches of law are, jus gentium – law of nations jus inter gentes – agreements between nations. Several legal systems developed in Europe, including the systems of continental European states and English common law, based on decisions by judges. Some doubt the effectiveness of law, as they see the implementation of international law as a policy option among others to tackle global dilemmas. They say that international law must be evaluated with other, possibly more effective, International law is sourced from decision makers and researchers looking to verify the substantive legal rule governing a legal dispute or academic discourse. The sources of law applied by the community of nations to find the content of international law are listed under Article 38. Many scholars agree that the fact that the sources are arranged sequentially in the Article 38 of the ICJ Statute suggests a hierarchy of sources. The sources have influenced by a range of political and legal theories. During the 20th century, it was recognized by legal positivists that a state could limit its authority to act by consenting to an agreement according to the principle pacta sunt servanda. Public international law concerns the treaty relationships between the nations and persons which are considered the subjects of international law, evidence of consensus or state practice can sometimes be derived from intergovernmental resolutions or academic and expert legal opinions

10.
Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907
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The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 are a series of international treaties and declarations negotiated at two international peace conferences at The Hague in the Netherlands. The First Hague Conference was held in 1899 and the Second Hague Conference in 1907, along with the Geneva Conventions, the Hague Conventions were among the first formal statements of the laws of war and war crimes in the body of secular international law. A third conference was planned for 1914 and later rescheduled for 1915, the 1874 Brussels Declaration listed 56 articles that drew inspiration from the Lieber Code. Much of the regulations in the Hague Conventions were borrowed heavily from the Lieber Code, both conferences included negotiations concerning disarmament, the laws of war and war crimes. This effort, however, failed at both conferences, instead a voluntary forum for arbitration, the Permanent Court of Arbitration, was established, the peace conference was proposed on 24 August 1898 by Russian Tsar Nicholas II. Nicholas and Count Mikhail Nikolayevich Muravyov, his minister, were instrumental in initiating the conference. The conference opened on 18 May 1899, the Tsars birthday, the treaties, declarations, and final act of the conference were signed on 29 July of that year, and they entered into force on 4 September 1900. Convention with respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land This voluminous convention contains the laws to be used in all wars on land between signatories, inhabitants of occupied territories may not be forced into military service against their own country and collective punishment is forbidden. The section was ratified by all major powers mentioned above and it too was ratified by all major powers. The declaration was ratified by all the powers mentioned above, except the United Kingdom. Ratified by all major powers, except the United States and this directly banned soft-point bullets and cross-tipped bullets. It was ratified by all major powers, except the United States, the second conference, in 1907, resulted in conventions containing only few major advancements from the 1899 Convention. However, the meeting of powers did prefigure later 20th-century attempts at international cooperation. The second conference was called at the suggestion of U. S. President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904, the Second Peace Conference was held from 15 June to 18 October 1907. The intent of the conference was to expand upon the 1899 Hague Convention by modifying some parts and adding new topics, in particular, the 1907 conference had an increased focus on naval warfare. The British attempted to secure limitation of armaments, but these efforts were defeated by the powers, led by Germany. Germany also rejected proposals for compulsory arbitration, however, the conference did enlarge the machinery for voluntary arbitration and established conventions regulating the collection of debts, rules of war, and the rights and obligations of neutrals. The treaties, declarations, and final act of the Second Conference were signed on 18 October 1907, Convention respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land This convention confirms, with minor modifications, the provisions of Convention of 1899

11.
Armistice Day
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The date was declared a national holiday in many allied nations, and coincides with Remembrance Day and Veterans Day, public holidays. The first Armistice Day was held at Buckingham Palace, commencing with King George V hosting a Banquet in Honour of the President of the French Republic during the hours of 10 November 1919. The first official Armistice Day events were held in the grounds of Buckingham Palace on the morning of 11 November 1919. This would set the trend for a day of Remembrance for decades to come, in 1919, South African Sir Percy Fitzpatrick proposed a two-minute silence to Lord Milner. People observe a one or more commonly a two-minute moment of silence at 11,00 a. m. local time, similar ceremonies developed in other countries during the inter-war period. m. Presumably to coincide with the traditional 11,00 a. m. time for Armistice ceremonies taking place in Europe due to the time difference between Eastern Australia and Europe. Veterans in New Zealand have used silence to pay homage to departed comrades in general at veteran functions, as the toast of Fallen or Absent Comrades. In Britain, beginning in 1939, the silence was moved to the Sunday nearest to 11 November in order not to interfere with wartime production should 11 November fall on a weekday. They adopted the name Remembrance Day or Remembrance Sunday, other countries also changed the name of the holiday just prior to or after World War II, to honor veterans of that and subsequent conflicts. The United States chose All Veterans Day, later shortened to Veterans Day, to honor military veterans. Both Armistice Day and Remembrance Sunday are commemorated formally, in recent years Armistice Day has become increasingly recognised, and many people now attend the 11,00 a. m. In New Zealand and Australia observance ceremonies take place, but the day is not a public holiday, anzac Day, on 25 April, is a public holiday and day of remembrance. In Canada,11 November is a time to both living and dead veterans. Patriotic displays are created annually, and veterans are offered free transit and cab rides in a number of cities, including Halifax, Ottawa, Toronto, Mississauga, London, Calgary, and Vancouver. In the U. S. the function of Veterans Day is subtly different from that of other 11 November observances, instead of specifically honoring war dead, Veterans Day honors all American veterans living and dead. Armistice Day remains the name of the holiday in France and Belgium, in Italy the end of World War I is commemorated on 4 November, the day of the Armistice of Villa Giusti. In Denmark, Netherlands and Norway, the end of World War I is not commemorated as the three countries remained neutral, Denmark instead observes Flagday on 5 September in commemoration of both living and dead soldiers who served in any conflict. The same counts for 4 May in Netherlands

12.
Remembrance Day
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Following a tradition inaugurated by King George V in 1919, the day is also marked by war remembrances in many non-Commonwealth countries. Remembrance Day is observed on 11 November in most countries to recall the end of hostilities of World War I on that date in 1918, the First World War officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on 28 June 1919. The memorial evolved out of Armistice Day, which continues to be marked on the same date, the first official Armistice Day was subsequently held on the grounds of Buckingham Palace the following morning. The red remembrance poppy has become an emblem of Remembrance Day due to the poem In Flanders Fields written by Canadian physician Lieutenant-Colonel John McCrae. After reading the poem, Moina Michael, a professor at the University of Georgia, wrote the poem, We Shall Remember, the custom spread to Europe and the countries of the British Empire and Commonwealth within three years. Madame Anne E. Guerin tirelessly promoted the practice in Europe, in the UK Major George Howson fostered the cause with the support of General Haig. Poppies were worn for the first time at the 1921 anniversary ceremony, at first real poppies were worn. These poppies bloomed across some of the worst battlefields of Flanders in World War I, the Flowers of the Forest, O Valiant Hearts, I Vow to Thee, My Country and Jerusalem are often played during the service. Services also include wreaths laid to honour the fallen, a blessing, the central ritual at cenotaphs throughout the Commonwealth is a stylised night vigil. The Last Post was the bugle call at the close of the military day. This makes the ritual more than just an act of remembrance, the act is enhanced by the use of dedicated cenotaphs and the laying of wreaths—the traditional means of signalling high honours in ancient Greece and Rome. Services are held at 11 am at war memorials and schools in suburbs and cities across the country, at which the Last Post is sounded by a bugler and a one-minute silence is observed. In recent decades, Remembrance Day has been eclipsed as the national day of war commemoration by ANZAC Day. When Remembrance Day falls on a working day in Melbourne and other major cities. While this occurs, the majority of passers by stop and observe a moment of silence while waiting for the bugler to finish the recital, in Barbados, Remembrance Day is not a public holiday. It is recognised as 11 November, but the parade and ceremonial events are carried out on Remembrance Sunday, the day is celebrated to recognise the Barbadian soldiers who died fighting in the First and Second World Wars. The parade is held at National Heroes Square, where a service is held. The Governor-General and Barbadian Prime Minister are among those who attend, along with government dignitaries

13.
Veterans Day
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Veterans Day is an official United States public holiday, observed annually on November 11, that honors military veterans, that is, persons who served in the United States Armed Forces. The United States previously observed Armistice Day, the U. S. holiday was renamed Veterans Day in 1954. In 1945, World War II veteran Raymond Weeks from Birmingham, Alabama, had the idea to expand Armistice Day to celebrate all veterans, Weeks led a delegation to Gen. Dwight Eisenhower, who supported the idea of National Veterans Day. Weeks led the first national celebration in 1947 in Alabama and annually until his death in 1985, President Reagan honored Weeks at the White House with the Presidential Citizenship Medal in 1982 as the driving force for the national holiday. Elizabeth Dole, who prepared the briefing for President Reagan, determined Weeks as the Father of Veterans Day, representative Ed Rees from Emporia, Kansas, presented a bill establishing the holiday through Congress. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, also from Kansas, signed the bill into law on May 26,1954 and it had been eight and a half years since Weeks held his first Armistice Day celebration for all veterans. Congress amended the bill on June 1,1954, replacing Armistice with Veterans, the National Veterans Award was also created in 1954. Congressman Rees of Kansas received the first National Veterans Award in Birmingham, although originally scheduled for celebration on November 11 of every year, starting in 1971 in accordance with the Uniform Monday Holiday Act, Veterans Day was moved to the fourth Monday of October. In 1978, it was moved back to its original celebration on November 11, because it is a federal holiday, some American workers and many students have Veterans Day off from work or school. When Veterans Day falls on a Saturday then either Saturday or the preceding Friday may be designated as the holiday, a Society for Human Resource Management poll in 2010 found that 21 percent of employers planned to observe the holiday in 2011. Non-essential federal government offices are closed, all federal workers are paid for the holiday, those who are required to work on the holiday sometimes receive holiday pay for that day in addition to their wages. In his Armistice Day address to Congress, Wilson was sensitive to the toll of the lean War years, Hunger does not breed reform, it breeds madness. As Veterans Day and the birthday of the United States Marine Corps are only one day apart, several commentators have noted the irony of Election Day being a regular working day, while Veterans Day, which typically falls the following week, is a federal holiday. Many people have called for the holidays to be merged, so citizens can have a day off to vote and this would be seen as a way to honor voting by exercising democratic rights. Official Website United States Department of Veterans Affairs 5 U. S. C. §6103

14.
Allies of World War I
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The Allies of World War I were the countries that opposed the Central Powers in the First World War. The members of the original Triple Entente of 1907 were the French Republic, the British Empire, Belgium, Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, and Romania were affiliated members of the Entente. The 1920 Treaty of Sèvres defines the Principal Allied Powers as the British Empire, French Republic, Italy, the Allied Powers comprised, together with the Principal Allied Powers, Armenia, Belgium, Greece, Hejaz, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serb-Croat-Slovene state and Czechoslovakia. The U. S. declaration of war on Germany, on 6th April 1917 was on the grounds that Germany had violated its neutrality by attacking international shipping and it declared war on Austria-Hungary in December 1917. The U. S. entered the war as a power, rather than as a formal ally of France. Although the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria severed relations with the United States, the Dominion governments did control recruiting, and removed personnel from front-line duties as they saw fit. From early 1917, the War Cabinet was superseded by the Imperial War Cabinet, in April 1918, operational control of all Entente forces on the Western Front passed to the new supreme commander, Ferdinand Foch of France. The Austrian Empire followed with an attack on the Serbian ally Montenegro on 8 August, on the Western Front, the two neutral States of Belgium and Luxembourg were immediately occupied by German troops as part of the German Schlieffen Plan. On 23 August Japan joined the Entente, which then counted seven members, the entrance of the British Empire brought Nepal into the war. In 1916, Montenegro capitulated and left the Entente, and two nations joined, Portugal and Romania, on 6 April 1917, the United States entered the war. Liberia, Siam and Greece also became allies and this was followed by Romanian cessation of hostilities, however the Balkan State declared war on Central Powers again on 10 November 1918. In response to the Germans invasion of neutral Belgium, the United Kingdom declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914, gibraltar, Cyprus and Malta were British dependencies in Europe. The UK held several colonies, protectorates, and semi-autonomous dependencies at the time of World War I, in Eastern Africa the East Africa Protectorate, Nyasaland, both Northern and Southern Rhodesia, the Uganda Protectorate, were involved in conflict with German forces in German East Africa. In Western Africa, the colonies of Gold Coast and Nigeria were involved in actions against German forces from Togoland. In Southwestern Africa, the dominion of South Africa was involved in military actions against German forces in German South-West Africa. Canada and Newfoundland were two autonomous dominions during the war that made major contributions to the British war effort. Other British dependent territories in the Americas included, British Honduras, the Falkland Islands, British Guiana, and Jamaica. The UK held large possessions in Asia, including the Indian Empire which was an assortment of British imperial authorities in the territory now defined as India, Bangladesh, Burma, australia and New Zealand were two autonomous dominions of the UK in Oceania during the war

15.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed

16.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks

17.
Western Front (World War I)
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The Western Front or Western Theater was the main theatre of war during World War I. Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium, the tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne. Following the Race to the Sea, both sides dug in along a line of fortified trenches, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France. This line remained unchanged for most of the war. Between 1915 and 1917 there were several major offensives along this front, the attacks employed massive artillery bombardments and massed infantry advances. However, a combination of entrenchments, machine gun emplacements, barbed wire, as a result, no significant advances were made. In an effort to break the deadlock, this front saw the introduction of new technology, including poison gas, aircraft. But it was only after the adoption of improved tactics that some degree of mobility was restored, the German Armys Spring Offensive of 1918 was made possible by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that marked the end of the conflict on the Eastern Front. In spite of the stagnant nature of this front, this theatre would prove decisive. The terms of peace were agreed upon with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, belgiums neutrality was guaranteed by Britain under the 1839 Treaty of London, this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at 11 pm GMT on 4 August. Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914, Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August. The first battle in Belgium was the Siege of Liège, which lasted from 5–16 August, Liège was well fortified and surprised the German Army under von Bülow with its level of resistance. German heavy artillery was able to demolish the main forts within a few days. Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian field army retreated to Antwerp, leaving the garrison of Namur isolated, with the Belgian capital, Brussels, although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their flank. Another siege followed at Namur, lasting from about 20–23 August, for their part, the French had five armies deployed on their borders. The pre-war French offensive plan, Plan XVII, was intended to capture Alsace-Lorraine following the outbreak of hostilities, on 7 August the VII Corps attacked Alsace with its objectives being to capture Mulhouse and Colmar. The main offensive was launched on 14 August with 1st and 2nd Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg-Morhange in Lorraine, in keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French. The French advanced the 3rd and 4th Armies toward the Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg, attacking Briey and Neufchateau, before being driven back

18.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany

19.
Count's Feud
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The Counts Feud, also called the Counts War, was a civil war that raged in Denmark in 1534–36 and brought about the Reformation in Denmark. The Counts Feud takes its name from the Protestant Count Christopher of Oldenburg, after Frederick Is death in 1533, the Jutland nobility proclaimed his son, then Duke Christian of Gottorp, as King under the name Christian III. Meanwhile, Count Christoffer organized an uprising against the new king, demanding that Christian II be set free, supported by Lübeck and troops from Oldenburg and Mecklenburg, parts of the Zealand and Skåne nobilities rose up, together with cities such as Copenhagen and Malmø. The headquarters for the revolt came to be in Aalborg, a large number of manors were burned down in northern and western Jutland. On 10 August 1534, Count Christoffer accepted Skåne for Christian IIs rule, the month before, Christoffer was heralded as regent on Christian IIs behalf by the Zealand Council in Ringsted. An army of nobles under the leadership of Niels Brock and Holger Rosenkrantz was defeated at the Battle of Svenstrup on 16 October 1534, Christian III, in the meantime, forced a peace with Lübeck, from which great reinforcements could be freed up to fight against the rebels. On 18 December, Rantzaus troops stormed the city, and it fell, at least 2,000 people are thought to have lost their lives in the storming of the city and in the plundering of the following days. For his part, Skipper Clement, badly wounded, managed to escape, Skipper Clement was later sentenced to death by the judicial council in Viborg and executed in 1536. Fortune did not fare well for the supporters of the Catholic faith. Later, a Swedish army invaded Halland, which was destroyed by fire, some of the Scanian nobles sided with the Swedes, but Tyge Krabbe in Helsingborg Castle supported Count Christoffer. In January 1535, the Swedes and the army of nobles advanced on Helsingborg, with that, Denmark east of the Sound was lost for Count Christoffer. After the victory at Aalborg, Rantzau brought his troops to Funen, and on 11 June 1535, they fought the Battle of Øksnebjerg, both Copenhagen and Malmø, however, were able to hold out until 1536, when they were forced to capitulate after several months siege. With this, the Counts Feud was officially over, in the aftermath of the feud, the nobles regrouped and healed the rifts the usual way, namely through inter-marriage. One of the most powerful among the Danish nobility in Skåne at this time was the Bille family, the Billes also had six family members on the Council of the Realm and owned castles throughout Denmark and Norway. The Brahe family was one of the first among the nobility to convert to Lutheranism, Tycho Brahes paternal grandfather, whom he was named after, Tyge Brahe of Tosterup in eastern Skåne, was killed 7 September 1523 during the siege of Malmø, fighting for Frederick I. Axel Brahe, the brother of the older Tyge Brahe, served as governor of Scania for a long period, in contrast, the consequences of the peasant uprising cost all parties dearly. Many were forced to purchase their lives with great gifts both to the king and to the nobles. Moreover, the dissatisfactions of the peasants, which had culminated in the uprising of the Counts Feud, were made worse

20.
Armistice of Stuhmsdorf
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The treaty introduced a truce for 26 and a half years. Sweden, weakened by its involvement in the Thirty Years War, the truce lasted until 1655, when Sweden invaded the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Second Northern War. The Polish side was not unified, king Władysław IV Vasa of Poland, from the Swedish House of Vasa, wanted to regain the Swedish crown, which had been held and then lost by his father Sigismund III. He thought the negotiations gave him the opportunity to trade his right to the Swedish crown for a claim to one of the regained lands. They were, however, willing to give up their conquests in Prussia if Władysław would renounce his claim to the Swedish crown and they would retain their conquests in Livonia. Swedens position was weakened by the disagreements within its government. Some of these led to leaks which gave leverage to the Polish side. To this end, he needed Sweden to continue to take part in the Thirty Years War, richelieu had no wish to see Poland open a second front in Prussia, and thus he dispatched Claude dAvaux, one of his trusted negotiators. French efforts were supported by the Dutch and English ambassadors at the conference, Dutch envoys included Rochus van den Honaert, Andries Bicker and Joachim Andraee. Brandenburger mediators included Andreas Kreutz, Johan Georg Saucken and Peter Bergmann, the negotiations started on 24 January 1635 in the Prussian village of Preussisch Holland. Swedish negotiators were led by Per Brahe and included the governor of Prussia, Herman Wrangel, the early negotiations were unsuccessful, as both sides played delaying tactics, disputing the titles of their monarchs, and awaiting most of the international mediators. The Swedes were more willing to discuss their retreat from Prussia, by the end of March they were ready to accept most of the Polish terms. On 24 May, the began in Stuhmsdorf, although the Polish negotiators had their quarters in nearby Jonasdorf. Foreign mediators arrived and Swedish negotiators were joined by Jacob De la Gardie, after the first month and a half, the idea of a peace was discarded, and Swedes proposed to retreat from all Prussia for a 50-year truce if Władysław renounced his claims to the Swedish crown. Nonetheless, he was convinced by his advisors to sign the treaty without gaining almost anything for himself. Therefore, the treaty could be seen as a mistake by George William. The treaty signed on 12 September introduced an truce for 26, the truce was an extension of the Truce of Altmark. The Swedes retained the Duchy of Livonia north of the Daugava River and the town of Riga, the Swedes also were to return the ships of the Commonwealth Navy they seized in the past years, however, the Commonwealth Navy was forbidden from supporting enemies of Sweden

21.
Peace of Westphalia
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The Peace of Westphalia was a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in the Westphalian cities of Osnabrück and Münster, effectively ending the European wars of religion. The Treaty of Osnabrück, involving the Holy Roman Empire, Sweden, the treaties did not restore peace throughout Europe, but they did create a basis for national self-determination. Inter-state aggression was to be held in check by a balance of power, a norm was established against interference in another states domestic affairs. As European influence spread across the globe, these Westphalian principles, especially the concept of states, became central to international law. Peace negotiations between France and the Habsburgs, provided by the Holy Roman Emperor and the Spanish King, were started in Cologne in 1641 and these negotiations were initially blocked by France. Cardinal Richelieu of France desired the inclusion of all its allies, in Hamburg and Lübeck, Sweden and the Holy Roman Empire negotiated the Treaty of Hamburg. This was done with the intervention of Richelieu, the Holy Roman Empire and Sweden declared the preparations of Cologne and the Treaty of Hamburg to be preliminaries of an overall peace agreement. This larger agreement was negotiated in Westphalia, in the cities of Münster. Both cities were maintained as neutral and demilitarized zones for the negotiations, Münster was, since its re-Catholization in 1535, a strictly mono-denominational community. It housed the Chapter of the Prince-Bishopric of Münster, only Roman Catholic worship was permitted. No places of worship were provided for Calvinists and Lutherans, in the years of 1628–1633 Osnabrück had been subjugated by troops of the Catholic League. The Catholic Prince-Bishop Franz Wilhelm, Count of Wartenberg then imposed the Counter-Reformation onto the city with many Lutheran burgher families being exiled, while under Swedish occupation Osnabrückss Catholics were not expelled, but the city severely suffered from Swedish war contributions. Therefore, Osnabrück hoped for a great relief becoming neutralised and demilitarised, since Lutheran Sweden preferred Osnabrück as a conference venue, its peace negotiations with the Empire, including the allies of both sides, took place in Osnabrück. The Empire and its opponent France, including the allies of each, as well as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, between January 1646 and July 1647 probably the largest number of diplomats were present. The French delegation was headed by Henri II dOrléans, duc de Longueville and further comprised the diplomats Claude dAvaux, the Swedish delegation was headed by Count Johan Oxenstierna and was assisted by Baron Johan Adler Salvius. Philip IV of Spain was represented by a double delegation, the Spanish delegation was headed by Gaspar de Bracamonte y Guzmán, and notably included the diplomats and writers Diego de Saavedra Fajardo, and Bernardino de Rebolledo. The Burgundian lawyer Antoine Brun represented Philip as hereditary ruler of the Franche Comté, the papal nuncio in Cologne, Fabio Chigi, and the Venetian envoy Alvise Contarini acted as mediators. Various Imperial States of the Holy Roman Empire also sent delegations, Brandenburg sent several representatives, including Vollmar

22.
Thirty Years' War
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The Thirty Years War was a series of wars in Central Europe between 1618 and 1648. It was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, as well as the deadliest European religious war, resulting in eight million casualties. Initially a war between various Protestant and Catholic states in the fragmented Holy Roman Empire, it developed into a more general conflict involving most of the great powers. These states employed relatively large mercenary armies, and the war became less about religion, in the 17th century, religious beliefs and practices were a much larger influence on an average European than they are today. The war began when the newly elected Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand II, tried to impose uniformity on his domains. The northern Protestant states, angered by the violation of their rights to choose that had granted in the Peace of Augsburg. Ferdinand II was a devout Roman Catholic and relatively intolerant when compared to his predecessor and his policies were considered strongly pro-Catholic. They ousted the Habsburgs and elected Frederick V, Elector of the Rhenish Palatinate as their monarch, Frederick took the offer without the support of the union. The southern states, mainly Roman Catholic, were angered by this, led by Bavaria, these states formed the Catholic League to expel Frederick in support of the Emperor. The Empire soon crushed this rebellion in the Battle of White Mountain. After the atrocities committed in Bohemia, Saxony finally gave its support to the union, Spain, wishing to finally crush the Dutch rebels in the Netherlands and the Dutch Republic, intervened under the pretext of helping its dynastic Habsburg ally, Austria. No longer able to tolerate the encirclement of two major Habsburg powers on its borders, Catholic France entered the coalition on the side of the Protestants in order to counter the Habsburgs. Both mercenaries and soldiers in fighting armies traditionally looted or extorted tribute to get operating funds, the war also bankrupted most of the combatant powers. The Thirty Years War ended with the treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, the war altered the previous political order of European powers. Lutherans living in a prince-bishopric could continue to practice their faith, Lutherans could keep the territory they had taken from the Catholic Church since the Peace of Passau in 1552. Those prince-bishops who had converted to Lutheranism were required to give up their territories and this added a third major faith to the region, but its position was not recognized in any way by the Augsburg terms, to which only Catholicism and Lutheranism were parties. The Dutch revolted against Spanish domination during the 1560s, leading to a war of independence that led to a truce only in 1609. This dynastic concern overtook religious ones and led to Catholic Frances participation on the otherwise Protestant side of the war, Sweden and Denmark-Norway were interested in gaining control over northern German states bordering the Baltic Sea

23.
Eighty Years' War
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The Eighty Years War or Dutch War of Independence was a revolt of the Seventeen Provinces against the political and religious hegemony of Philip II of Spain, the sovereign of the Habsburg Netherlands. After the initial stages, Philip II deployed his armies and regained control over most of the rebelling provinces, under the leadership of the exiled William the Silent, the northern provinces continued their resistance. They eventually were able to oust the Habsburg armies, and in 1581 they established the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, after a 12-year truce, hostilities broke out again around 1619 which can be said to coincide with the Thirty Years War. An end was reached in 1648 with the Peace of Münster, in the decades preceding the war, the Dutch became increasingly discontented with Habsburg rule. A major cause of discontent was heavy taxation imposed on the population, while support. At that time, the Seventeen Provinces were known in the empire as De landen van herwaarts over, the presence of Spanish troops, under the command of the Duke of Alba, brought in to oversee order, further amplified this unrest. Spain also attempted a policy of religious uniformity for the Catholic Church within its domains. The Reformation meanwhile produced a number of Protestant denominations, which gained followers in the Seventeen Provinces and these included the Lutheran movement of Martin Luther, the Anabaptist movement of the Dutch reformer Menno Simons, and the Reformed teachings of John Calvin. This growth lead to the 1566 Beeldenstorm, the Iconoclastic Fury which saw many churches in northern Europe stripped of their Catholic statuary, in October 1555, Emperor Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire began the gradual abdication of his several crowns. The balance of power was heavily weighted toward the local and regional governments, Philip did not govern in person but appointed Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy as governor-general to lead the central government. When Philip left for Spain in 1559 political tension was increased by religious policies, not having the liberal-mindedness of his father Charles V, Philip was a fervent enemy of the Protestant movements of Martin Luther, John Calvin, and the Anabaptists. Towards the end of Charles reign enforcement had become lax. Philip, however, insisted on rigorous enforcement, which caused widespread unrest, the new hierarchy was to be headed by Granvelle as archbishop of the new archdiocese of Mechelen. The reform was unpopular with the old church hierarchy, as the new dioceses were to be financed by the transfer of a number of rich abbeys. Granvelle became the focus of the opposition against the new governmental structures, after the recall of Granvelle, Orange persuaded Margaret and the Council to ask for a moderation of the placards against heresy. Philip delayed his response, and in this interval the opposition to his religious policies gained more widespread support, Philip finally rejected the request for moderation in his Letters from the Segovia Woods of October 1565. This Compromise of Nobles was supported by about 400 nobles, both Catholic and Protestant, and was presented to Margaret on 5 April 1566, impressed by the massive support for the compromise, she suspended the placards, awaiting Philips final ruling. The first half of the Eighty Years War between the Spanish Empire and the Dutch Republic was fought between 1566 and 1609, when the Twelve Years Truce was signed in 1609, ending this first phase of war, the northern Netherlands had achieved de facto independence

24.
Armistice of Salonika
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The Armistice of Salonica was signed on 29 September 1918 between Bulgaria and the Allied Powers in Thessaloniki. The convention followed after a request by the Bulgarian government on 24 September asking for a ceasefire, the armistice effectively ended Bulgarias participation in World War I on the side of the Central Powers and came into effect on the Bulgarian front at noon on 30 September. The armistice regulated the demobilization and disarmament of the Bulgarian armed forces, the terms of the armistice called for the immediate demobilization of all Bulgarian military activities. German and Austrian-Hungarian troops had to leave Bulgaria within 4 weeks, Bulgaria and especially Sofia were not to be occupied, but the Allies had the right to temporarily occupy some strategic points and to transfer troops over Bulgarian territory. According to the five of the Armistice about 150000 Bulgarian soldiers that have been situated on the West of Skopje meridian have been delivered to Entente’s forces as hostages. The French would send troops to Romania and the British and Greeks to European Turkey, the document would remain in effect until a final general peace treaty was concluded. Bulgaria Armistice Convention, September 29th,1918, the American Journal of International Law Vol.13 No.4 Supplement, Official Documents, 402-404. Battle of Dobro Pole Serbian Campaign of World War I Macedonian front

25.
Armistice of Mudros
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The Armistice of Mudros, concluded on 30 October 1918, ended the hostilities, at noon the next day, in the Middle Eastern theatre between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies of World War I. It was signed by the Ottoman Minister of Marine Affairs Rauf Bey, the Ottoman army including the Ottoman air force was demobilized, and all ports, railways, and other strategic points were made available for use by the Allies. In the Caucasus, the Ottomans had to retreat to within the borders between the Ottoman and the Russian Empires. The armistice was followed by the occupation of Constantinople and the subsequent partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, the Treaty of Sèvres which was signed in the aftermath of World War I was never ratified by the Ottoman Parliament in Istanbul. The Caucasus Campaign put the Ottomans at odds with their ally, Germany, the Ottomans wanted to establish its eastern borders The Ottoman armies advanced far into Caucasus, gathering supporters as far away as Tashkent, on the eastern side of the Caspian Sea. Additionally, with the Bolsheviks in power in Moscow, chaos spread in Persia, in contrast, in Syria, the Ottomans were steadily pushed back by British forces, culminating in the fall of Damascus in October 1918. Hopes were initially high for the Ottomans that their losses in Syria might be compensated with successes in the Caucasus, developments in Southeast Europe quashed the Ottoman governments hopes. The Macedonian Front, also known as the Salonika campaign, had been stable since 1916. In September 1918, the Allied forces mounted an offensive which proved quite successful. The Bulgarian army was defeated, and Bulgaria was forced to sue for peace in the Armistice of Salonica, Grand Vizier Talaat Pasha visited Berlin, Germany, and Sofia, Bulgaria in September 1918. He came away with the understanding that the war was no longer winnable, with Germany likely seeking a separate peace, the Ottomans would be forced to do so as well. Talaat convinced the members of the ruling party that they must resign. On October 13, Talaat and the rest of his ministry resigned, ahmed Izzet Pasha replaced Talaat as Grand Vizier. Two days after taking office, he sent the captured British General Charles Vere Ferrers Townshend to the Allies to seek terms on an armistice, the British Cabinet received word of the offer and were eager to negotiate a deal. The British cabinet empowered Admiral Calthorpe to conduct the negotiations with an exclusion of the French from them. They also suggested an Armistice rather than a peace treaty, in the belief that a peace treaty would require the approval of all of the Allied nations. The negotiations began on Sunday, October 27 on the HMS Agamemnon, both sides did not know that the other was actually quite eager to sign a deal and willing to give up their objectives to do so. B. before speaking to America. He also thought it would attract attention to our enormous gains during the war if we swallowed our share of Turkey now

26.
Austrian-Italian Armistice of Villa Giusti
–
The Armistice of Villa Giusti ended warfare between Italy and Austria-Hungary on the Italian Front during World War I. The armistice was signed on 3 November 1918 in the Villa Giusti, outside of Padua in the Veneto, northern Italy, by the end of October 1918 the Austro-Hungarian Army found itself in such a state that its commanders were forced to seek a ceasefire. At the final stage of the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, the troops of Austria-Hungary were defeated, ceased to exist as a combat force, from 28 October onwards, Austria-Hungary sought to negotiate a truce but hesitated to sign the text of armistice. In the meantime the Italians reached Trento, Udine, and landed in Trieste, after the threat to break off the negotiations, on 3 November the Austro-Hungarians accepted the terms. The cease-fire would be started at 3.00 pm on 4 November, but due to an order of the Austro-Hungarian high command. After the war, the Kingdom of Italy annexed the Southern Tyrol, according to Treaty of London terms as well as Trieste, nyékhegyi Korvettenkapitaen Georg Ritter von Zwierkowski Oberstleutnant i. G. Victor Freiherr von Seiller Hauptmann i. G, camillo Ruggera Bollettino della Vittoria address of General Diaz to his troops and the nation after the Armistice of Villa Giusti Text of the armistice

27.
Armistice of Mudanya
–
The Kingdom of Greece acceded to the armistice on 14 October 1922. Under the Armistice of Mudros, ending its part in World War I and they also decided to partition the Ottoman Empire. This was resisted by Turkish nationalists in the form of the Grand National Assembly, having achieved victories over occupying powers in Anatolia, Turkish forces were advancing on the neutral zone of the Straits. On 5 September 1922, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk asserted the Turkish claim to East Thrace, on 15 September, the British cabinet decided that British forces should maintain their position, and issued an ultimatum. On 19 September Britain decided to deny Constantinople and Thrace to the Turkish nationalists, but France, Yugoslavia, Italy, raymond Poincaré, the French prime minister, persuaded the Turks to respect the neutral zone. The allies asked for a conference on 23 September, to which Mustafa Kemal agreed on 29 September. At the same time, the British cabinet decided to abandon East Thrace to the Turks, talks were convened on 3 October, leading to the Armistice of Mudanya being signed on 11 October, agreement being reached two hours before British troops were due to attack at Çanakkale. The Greeks acceded to the terms on 13 October, factors that convinced the Turks to sign probably included the arrival of British reinforcements. Under the terms agreed, Greek troops were to leave Eastern Thrace as far as the Maritsa River, civil power would become Turkish 30 days after the Greek troops left. No more than 8,000 Turkish gendarmes were to be in East Thrace until a treaty was completed. The final settlement between the parties was worked out at the Conference of Lausanne from 21 November 1922 to 24 February 1923 and from 23 April to 24 July 1923, Allied troops continued to occupy the neutral zone, until they were withdrawn under the terms of the treaty. Turkish War of Independence Greco-Turkish War International Treaties of the Twentieth Century, London, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-14125-7

28.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan

29.
Armistice with Italy
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It was signed at a conference of generals from both sides in an Allied military camp at Cassibile in Sicily, which had recently been occupied by the Allies. The armistice was approved by both King Victor Emmanuel III and Italian Prime Minister Pietro Badoglio, the armistice stipulated the surrender of Italy to the Allies. After its publication, Germany retaliated against Italy, attacking Italian forces in Italy, South of France, Italian forces were quickly defeated and most of Italy was occupied by German troops, while the King, the government and most of the navy reached territories occupied by the Allies. Following the surrender of the Axis powers in North Africa on 13 May 1943 and these moves by Mussolini were described as slightly hostile acts to the king, who had been growing increasingly critical of the war. To help carry out his plan, the King asked for the assistance of Dino Grandi. Grandi was one of the members of the Fascist hierarchy and, in his younger years. The King was also motivated by the suspicion that Grandis ideas about Fascism might be changed abruptly, various ambassadors, including Pietro Badoglio himself, proposed to him the vague possibility of succeeding Mussolini as dictator. The conspirators devised an Order of the Day for the reunion of the Grand Council of Fascism which contained a proposal to restore direct control of politics to the king. Following the Council, held on 23 July 1943, where the order of the day was adopted by majority vote, Mussolini was summoned to meet the King, upon leaving the meeting, Mussolini was arrested by carabinieri and spirited off to the island of Ponza. Badoglio took the position of Prime Minister and this went against what had been promised to Grandi, who had been told that another general of greater personal and professional qualities would have taken the place of Mussolini. The appointment of Badoglio apparently did not change the position of Italy as Germanys ally in the war, however, many channels were being probed to seek a peace treaty with the Allies. Meanwhile, Hitler sent several divisions south of the Alps, officially to help defend Italy from allied landings, three Italian generals were separately sent to Lisbon in order to contact Allied diplomats. In the end, Castellano was admitted to speak with the Allied diplomats in order to set the conditions for the surrender of Italy. To ease communication between the Allies and the Italian Government, a captured British SOE agent, Dick Mallaby, was released from Verona prison and secretly moved to the Quirinale. It was vital that the Germans remained ignorant of any suggestion of Italian surrender, Badoglio still considered it possible to gain favourable conditions in exchange for the surrender. He ordered Castellano to insist that any surrender of Italy was subordinate to a landing of Allied troops on the Italian mainland. On 31 August General Castellano reached Termini Imerese, in Sicily, by plane and was transferred to Cassibile. It soon became obvious that the two sides in the negotiations had adopted rather distant positions, Castellano pressed the request that the Italian territory be defended from the inevitable reaction of the German Wehrmacht against Italy after the signing

30.
Allies
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Members of an alliance are called allies. Alliances form in many settings, including political alliances, military alliances, when the term is used in the context of war or armed struggle, such associations may also be called allied powers, especially when discussing World War I or World War II. A formal military alliance is not required for being perceived as an ally—co-belligerence, according to this usage, allies become so not when concluding an alliance treaty but when struck by war. When spelled with a capital A, Allies usually denotes the countries who fought together against the Central Powers in World War I, the term has also been used by the United States Army to describe the countries that gave assistance to the South Vietnamese during the Vietnam War. Bush administration, the coalition of the willing, some, such as the Russian Empire, withdrew from the war before the armistice due to revolution or defeat. Scholars are divided as to the impact of alliances, several studies find that defensive alliances deter conflict. One study questions these findings, showing that alliance commitments deterred conflict in the era but has no statistically meaningful impact on war in the postnuclear era. Another study finds that while alliance commitments deter conflict between sides with a recent history of conflict, alliances tend to provoke conflicts between states such a history. A2003 study found that allies fulfill their alliance commitments approximately 75% of the time, according to a 2017 poll by WIN/GIA, the United States was the most preferred ally internationally. Russia and China, who preferred one another, both trailed the US globally, four countries, Bulgaria, Greece, Slovenia and Turkey, preferred Russia, despite being members of NATO. In Pakistan, 72% of respondents preferred ties to China, the largest margin of any country surveyed, while 46% of Bangladesh preferred India. A total of 22 countries indicated a preference for the United Kingdom at a rate of 10% or more, five counties preferred France at a rate of 10% or more, led by Belgium at a rate of 25%. Kosovo reported the most unified opinion, preferring the US at a rate of 92%, in total,21 countries expressed a preference for the US at a rate of 50% or more

31.
Moscow Armistice
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The Moscow Armistice was signed between Finland on one side and the Soviet Union and United Kingdom on the other side on September 19,1944, ending the Continuation War. The Armistice restored the Moscow Peace Treaty of 1940, with a number of modifications, the final peace treaty between Finland and many of the Allies was signed in Paris in 1947. The new armistice also handed all of Petsamo to the Soviet Union, other conditions included Finnish payment of $300,000,000 in the form of various commodities over six years to the Soviet Union as war reparations. Finland also agreed to legalise the Communist Party of Finland and ban the ones that the Soviet Union considered fascist, further, the individuals that the Soviets considered responsible for the war had to be arrested and put on trial, the best-known case being that of Risto Ryti. The armistice compelled Finland to drive German troops from its territory, the American Journal of International Law 39,2, 286–95

32.
Continuation War
–
The Continuation War consisted of hostilities between Finland and the Soviet Union from 1941 to 1944. The Continuation War began shortly after the end of the Winter War, in the Soviet Union, the war was considered part of the Great Patriotic War. Germany regarded its operations in the region as part of its war efforts on the Eastern Front. Acts of war between the Soviet Union and Finland recommenced on 22 June 1941, the day Germany launched its invasion of the Soviet Union, open warfare began with a Soviet air offensive on 25 June. Subsequent Finnish operations undid its post-Winter War concessions to the Soviet Union on the Karelian Isthmus and Ladoga Karelia, on the Karelian Isthmus, the Finns halted their offensive 30 km from Leningrad, at the pre-World War II border between the Soviet Union and Finland. Finnish forces did not participate in the siege of Leningrad directly, in 1944, Soviet air forces conducted air raids on Helsinki and other major Finnish cities. A ceasefire ended hostilities on 5 September and was followed by the Moscow Armistice on 19 September, the 1947 Paris peace treaty concluded the war formally. Finland ceded Pechengsky District to the Soviets, leased Porkkala peninsula to them, shortly afterward, Germany invaded Poland and as a result the United Kingdom and France declared war against Germany. The Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland on 17 September, next, Moscow demanded that the Baltic states allow the establishment of Soviet military bases and the stationing of troops on their soil. The Baltic governments accepted these ultimatums, signing corresponding agreements in September and October 1939, the Finnish government refused, and the Red Army attacked Finland on 30 November 1939. Condemnation of the Soviets by the League of Nations and by all over the world had no effect on Soviet policy. International help for Finland was planned, but very little actual help materialized, the Moscow Peace Treaty, which was signed on 12 March 1940, ended the Winter War. By the terms of the treaty, Finland lost one eleventh of its national territory, however, Finland had avoided having the Soviet Union annex the whole country. Finlands foreign policy had been based on multilateral guarantees for support from the League of Nations, Finnish public opinion favored the reconquest of Finnish Karelia. Finlands government declared the countrys defense to be its first priority, Finland purchased and received donations of war material during and immediately after the Winter War. On Finlands southern frontier the Soviet Union had acquired a base in Hanko near the capital Helsinki. Finland also had to resettle some 420,000 evacuees from the lost territories, to ensure the supply of food, it was necessary to clear new land for the evacuees to cultivate. This was facilitated by the Rapid Settlement Act, the Finnish leadership wanted to preserve the spirit of unanimity that was commonly felt throughout the country during the Winter War

33.
1949 Armistice Agreements
–
The United Nations established supervising and reporting agencies to monitor the established armistice lines. In addition, discussions related to the enforcement, led to the signing of the separate Tripartite Declaration of 1950 between the United States, Britain, and France. In it, they pledged to take action within and outside the United Nations to prevent violations of the frontiers or armistice lines. It also outlined their commitment to peace and stability in the area, their opposition to the use or threat of force and these lines held until the 1967 Six-Day War. On 6 January 1949, Dr. Ralph Bunche announced that Egypt had finally consented to start talks with Israel on an armistice, the talks began on the Greek island of Rhodes on 12 January. Shortly after their commencement, Israel agreed to the release of a besieged Egyptian brigade in Faluja, at the end of the month, the talks floundered. Israel demanded that Egypt withdraw all its forces from the area of Mandate Palestine. The deadlock culminated on 12 February 1949 with the murder of Hassan al-Banna, Israel threatened to abandon the talks, whereupon the United States appealed to the parties to bring them to a successful conclusion. On 24 February the Israel–Egypt Armistice Agreement was signed in Rhodes, the Egyptian forces besieged in the Faluja Pocket were allowed to return to Egypt with their weapons, and the area was handed over to Israeli military control. A zone on both sides of the border around Uja al-Hafeer was to be demilitarized, and became the seat of the armistice committee. The agreement with Lebanon was signed on 23 March 1949, the main points were, The provisions of this agreement being dictated exclusively by military considerations. The armistice line was drawn along the boundary between Lebanon and Mandatory Palestine. Israel withdrew its forces from 13 villages in Lebanese territory, which were occupied during the war, the agreement with Jordan was signed on 3 April 1949. Jordanian forces remained in most positions held by them, particularly East Jerusalem which included the Old City, Jordan withdrew its forces from their front posts overlooking the Plain of Sharon. In return, Israel agreed to allow Jordanian forces to take over positions previously held by Iraqi forces, exchange of territorial control, Israel received control in the area known as Wadi Ara and the Little Triangle in exchange for territory in the southern hills of Hebron. The operation allowed Israel to renegotiate the cease fire line in the Wadi Ara area in an agreement reached on 23 March 1949. The green line was redrawn in blue ink on the southern map to give the impression that a movement into green line had been made. The events that led to a change in the Green Line was an exchange of land in the Bethlehem area to Israeli control

34.
Geneva Agreements
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The Geneva Agreements of 1954 arranged a settlement which brought about an end to the First Indochina War. The agreement was reached at the end of the Geneva Conference, a ceasefire was signed and France agreed to withdraw its troops from the region. French Indochina was split into three countries, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam, Vietnam was to be temporarily divided along the 17th Parallel until elections could be held to unite the country. Specifically, the statement seemed to not only US acquiescence to the mandated elections. Registration by Vietnamese wanting to go south to French territory increased threefold, Vietnam documents, American and Vietnamese views of the war. McGraw Hill full text of the Final Declaration Works related to Geneva Agreements at Wikisource The Pentagon Papers, — complete text with supporting documents, maps, and photos. — a resource site that supports a currently playing docu-drama about the Pentagon Papers, the site provides historical context, time lines, bibliographical resources, information on discussions with current journalists, and helpful links

35.
First Indochina War
–
The First Indochina War began in French Indochina on 19 December 1946 and lasted until 1 August 1954. Fighting between French forces and their Viet Minh opponents in the South dated from September 1945, Japanese forces located south of that line surrendered to him and those to the north surrendered to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek. In September 1945, Chinese forces entered Tonkin and a small British task force landed at Saigon, the Chinese accepted the Vietnamese government under Ho Chi Minh, then in power in Hanoi. The British refused to do likewise in Saigon, and deferred to the French there from the outset, on V-J Day, September 2, Ho Chi Minh had proclaimed in Hanoi the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. On 23 September 1945, with the knowledge of the British Commander in Saigon, French forces overthrew the local DRV government, guerrilla warfare began around Saigon immediately. The first few years of the war involved a low-level rural insurgency against the French, French Union forces included colonial troops from the whole former empire, French professional troops and units of the French Foreign Legion. The use of metropolitan recruits was forbidden by the government to prevent the war from becoming more unpopular at home. It was called the dirty war by leftists in France, the strategy of pushing the Viet Minh into attacking well-defended bases in remote parts of the country at the end of their logistical trails was validated at the Battle of Nà Sản. However, this base was relatively weak because of a lack of concrete and this combination proved fatal for this base defenses, culminating in a decisive French defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. The south continued under Emperor Bảo Đại, a year later, Bảo Đại would be deposed by his prime minister, Ngô Đình Diệm, creating the Republic of Vietnam. Soon an insurgency, backed by the North, developed against Diệms government, the conflict gradually escalated into the Vietnam War. Vietnam was absorbed into French Indochina in stages between 1858 and 1887, nationalism grew until World War II provided a break in French control. Early Vietnamese resistance centered on the intellectual Phan Bội Châu, Châu looked to Japan, which had modernized and was one of the few Asian nations to successfully resist European colonization. With Prince Cường Để, Châu started two organizations in Japan, the Duy Tân hội and Vietnam Cong Hien Hoi, due to French pressure, Japan deported Phan Bội Châu to China. Witnessing Sun Yat-sens 1911 nationalist revolution, Châu was inspired to commence the Viet Nam Quang Phục Hội movement in Guangzhou, from 1914 to 1917, he was imprisoned by Yuan Shikais counterrevolutionary government. In 1925, he was captured by French agents in Shanghai, due to his popularity, Châu was spared from execution and placed under house arrest until his death in 1940. In September 1940, shortly after Phan Bội Châus death, Japan launched its invasion of French Indochina, keeping the French colonial administration, the Japanese ruled from behind the scenes in a parallel of Vichy France. As far as Vietnamese nationalists were concerned, this was a double-puppet government, Emperor Bảo Đại collaborated with the Japanese, just as he had with the French, ensuring his lifestyle could continue

36.
Algeria
–
Algeria, officially the Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a sovereign state in North Africa on the Mediterranean coast. Its capital and most populous city is Algiers, located in the far north. With an area of 2,381,741 square kilometres, Algeria is the tenth-largest country in the world, the country is a semi-presidential republic consisting of 48 provinces and 1,541 communes. Abdelaziz Bouteflika has been President since 1999, Berbers are the indigenous inhabitants of Algeria. Algeria is a regional and middle power, the North African country supplies large amounts of natural gas to Europe, and energy exports are the backbone of the economy. According to OPEC Algeria has the 16th largest oil reserves in the world, Sonatrach, the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa. Algeria has one of the largest militaries in Africa and the largest defence budget on the continent, most of Algerias weapons are imported from Russia, with whom they are a close ally. Algeria is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, OPEC, the countrys name derives from the city of Algiers. The citys name in turn derives from the Arabic al-Jazāir, a form of the older Jazāir Banī Mazghanna. In the region of Ain Hanech, early remnants of hominid occupation in North Africa were found, neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the Levalloisian and Mousterian styles similar to those in the Levant. Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of Middle Paleolithic Flake tool techniques, tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called Aterian. The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called Iberomaurusian and this industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the Maghreb between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic civilization developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BC or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC and this life, richly depicted in the Tassili nAjjer paintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The amalgam of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a native population that came to be called Berbers. These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages, as Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilization was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, by the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the Revolt of the Mercenaries, Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthages North African territory, the Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars

37.
Algerian War
–
An important decolonization war, it was a complex conflict characterized by guerrilla warfare, maquis fighting, and the use of torture by both sides. The conflict also became a war between loyalist Algerians supporting a French Algeria and their Algerian nationalist counterparts. A referendum took place on 8 April 1962 and the French electorate approved the Évian Accords, the planned French withdrawal led to a state crisis, to various assassination attempts on de Gaulle, and to some attempts at military coups. Upon independence, in 1962,900,000 European-Algerians fled to France, in fear of the FLNs revenge, the French government was totally unprepared for the vast number of refugees, which caused turmoil in France. On the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French invaded Algiers in 1830, in 1834, Algeria became a French military colony and was subsequently declared by the constitution of 1848 to be an integral part of France and divided into three departments. Many French and other Europeans later settled in Algeria, under the Second Empire, the Code de lindigénat was implemented by the Sénatus-consulte of July 14,1865. Its first article stipulated, The indigenous Muslim is French, however and he may be admitted to serve in the army and the navy. He may be called to functions and civil employment in Algeria and he may, on his demand, be admitted to enjoy the rights of a French citizen, in this case, he is subjected to the political and civil laws of France. However, prior to 1870, fewer than 200 demands were registered by Muslims and 152 by Jewish Algerians, the 1865 decree was then modified by the 1870 Crémieux decrees, which granted French nationality to Jews living in one of the three Algerian departments. In 1881, the Code de lIndigénat made the official by creating specific penalties for indigènes. The Law of September 20,1947, granted French citizenship to all Algerian subjects, Algeria was unique to France because, unlike all other overseas possessions acquired by France during the 19th century, only Algeria was considered and legally classified an integral part of France. Both Muslim and European Algerians took part in World War I, Algerian Muslims served as tirailleurs and spahis, and French settlers as Zouaves or Chasseurs dAfrique. Within this context, a grandson of Abd el-Kadir spearheaded the resistance against the French in the first half of the 20th century and he was a member of the directing committee of the French Communist Party. The North African Star broke from the PCF in 1928, before being dissolved in 1929 at Pariss demand, the pieds-noirs violently demonstrated against it and the North African Party opposed it, leading to the projects abandonment. This new party was dissolved in 1939, under Vichy, the French state attempted to abrogate the Crémieux decree in order to suppress the Jews French citizenship, but the measure was never implemented. On the other hand, nationalist leader Ferhat Abbas founded the Algerian Popular Union in 1938, in 1943 Abbas wrote the Algerian Peoples Manifesto. In the early morning hours of November 1,1954, FLN maquisards attacked military and he declared in the National Assembly, One does not compromise when it comes to defending the internal peace of the nation, the unity and integrity of the Republic. The Algerian departments are part of the French Republic and they have been French for a long time, and they are irrevocably French

War
–
War is a state of armed conflict between societies. It is generally characterized by extreme aggression, destruction, and mortality, an absence of war is usually called peace. Warfare refers to the activities and characteristics of types of war. Total war is warfare that is not restricted to legitimate military targets. While some scholars see war

1.
The War by Tadeusz Cyprian (1949), a photograph in the collection of the National Museum in Warsaw showing ruins of Warsaw's Napoleon Square in the aftermath of World War II.

2.
Mural of War (1896), by Gari Melchers

3.
Ruins of Guernica (1937). The Spanish Civil War was one of Europe's bloodiest and most brutal civil wars.

4.
Japanese samurai attacking a Mongol ship, 13th century

Cessation of hostilities
–
A ceasefire, also called cease fire, is a temporary stoppage of a war in which each side agrees with the other to suspend aggressive actions. Ceasefires may be declared as part of a treaty. A ceasefire is usually more limited than a broader armistice, which is an agreement to end fighting. Successful ceasefires may be followed by armistices, and fi

1.
A truce – not a compromise, but a chance for high-toned gentlemen to retire gracefully from their very civil declarations of war. By Thomas Nast in Harper's Weekly, February 17, 1877, p. 132.

2.
British and German officers after arranging the German handover of the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp and the surrounding area, negotiated during a temporary truce, April 1945

Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages

1.
Latin inscription, in the Colosseum

2.
Julius Caesar 's Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the Roman republic.

United Nations Security Council
–
The Security Council held its first session on 17 January 1946. Like the UN as a whole, the Security Council was created following World War II to address the failings of an international organization. The Security Council consists of fifteen members, the great powers that were the victors of World War II—the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, Franc

1.
UN Security Council Chamber in New York City

2.
United Nations Security Council

3.
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Soviet General Secretary Joseph Stalin at the Yalta Conference, February 1945

4.
US Secretary of State Colin Powell holds a model vial of anthrax while giving a presentation to the Security Council in February 2003.

Peace treaty
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A peace treaty is an agreement between two or more hostile parties, usually countries or governments, which formally ends a state of war between the parties. A treatys content usually depends on the nature of the conflict being concluded, in the case of large conflicts between numerous parties there may be one international treaty covering all issu

1.
Tablet of one of the earliest recorded treaties in history, Treaty of Kadesh, at the Istanbul Archaeology Museum.

Korean War Armistice Agreement
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The Korean Armistice Agreement is the armistice which ended the Korean War. The armistice was signed on July 27,1953, and was designed to insure a complete cessation of hostilities, No final peaceful settlement has been achieved yet. The signed armistice established the Korean Demilitarized Zone, put into force a cease-fire, the Demilitarized Zone

1.
Delegates sign the Korean Armistice Agreement in P’anmunjŏm

2.
Site of negotiations in 1951

3.
The building where the armistice was signed, now housing the North Korea Peace Museum

Truce
–
A ceasefire, also called cease fire, is a temporary stoppage of a war in which each side agrees with the other to suspend aggressive actions. Ceasefires may be declared as part of a treaty. A ceasefire is usually more limited than a broader armistice, which is an agreement to end fighting. Successful ceasefires may be followed by armistices, and fi

1.
A truce – not a compromise, but a chance for high-toned gentlemen to retire gracefully from their very civil declarations of war. By Thomas Nast in Harper's Weekly, February 17, 1877, p. 132.

2.
British and German officers after arranging the German handover of the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp and the surrounding area, negotiated during a temporary truce, April 1945

Ceasefire
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A ceasefire, also called cease fire, is a temporary stoppage of a war in which each side agrees with the other to suspend aggressive actions. Ceasefires may be declared as part of a treaty. A ceasefire is usually more limited than a broader armistice, which is an agreement to end fighting. Successful ceasefires may be followed by armistices, and fi

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A truce – not a compromise, but a chance for high-toned gentlemen to retire gracefully from their very civil declarations of war. By Thomas Nast in Harper's Weekly, February 17, 1877, p. 132.

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British and German officers after arranging the German handover of the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp and the surrounding area, negotiated during a temporary truce, April 1945

International law
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International law is the set of rules generally regarded and accepted as binding in relations between states and between nations. It serves as a framework for the practice of stable and organized international relations, International law differs from state-based legal systems in that it is primarily applicable to countries rather than to private c

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Created in 1945, the United Nations is responsible for much of the current framework of international law.

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The First Geneva Convention (1864) is one of the earliest formulations of international law.

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The Italian thinker Sir Alberico Gentili is acknowledged to be the founder of the science of international law.

Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907
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The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 are a series of international treaties and declarations negotiated at two international peace conferences at The Hague in the Netherlands. The First Hague Conference was held in 1899 and the Second Hague Conference in 1907, along with the Geneva Conventions, the Hague Conventions were among the first formal st

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The First Hague Conference in 1899

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The Second Hague Conference in 1907

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Nicholas II of Russia

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Commemorative medal of the 1907 convention

Armistice Day
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The date was declared a national holiday in many allied nations, and coincides with Remembrance Day and Veterans Day, public holidays. The first Armistice Day was held at Buckingham Palace, commencing with King George V hosting a Banquet in Honour of the President of the French Republic during the hours of 10 November 1919. The first official Armis

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Front page of The New York Times on Armistice Day, November 11, 1918.

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Armistice Day celebrations in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on November 11, 1918.

Remembrance Day
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Following a tradition inaugurated by King George V in 1919, the day is also marked by war remembrances in many non-Commonwealth countries. Remembrance Day is observed on 11 November in most countries to recall the end of hostilities of World War I on that date in 1918, the First World War officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Versaille

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The Cenotaph at Whitehall, London on Remembrance Day 2004

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Canadian Poppy pins adorn a memorial at McCrae House in Guelph, Ontario

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The Governor of Western Australia, Malcolm McCusker, laying a wreath at the Eternal flame, Kings Park, Western Australia, 11 November 2011

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The Guard of Honour (a member from the Royal Canadian Navy at left and from the Royal Canadian Air Force at right) at the National War Memorial in Ottawa, Remembrance Day, 2010

Veterans Day
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Veterans Day is an official United States public holiday, observed annually on November 11, that honors military veterans, that is, persons who served in the United States Armed Forces. The United States previously observed Armistice Day, the U. S. holiday was renamed Veterans Day in 1954. In 1945, World War II veteran Raymond Weeks from Birmingham

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Joseph Ambrose, an 86-year-old World War I veteran, attends the dedication day parade for the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in 1982, holding the flag that covered the casket of his son, who was killed in the Korean War.

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Veterans Day 2007 Poster

Allies of World War I
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The Allies of World War I were the countries that opposed the Central Powers in the First World War. The members of the original Triple Entente of 1907 were the French Republic, the British Empire, Belgium, Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, and Romania were affiliated members of the Entente. The 1920 Treaty of Sèvres defines the Principal Allied Powers a

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A 1914 Russian poster depicting the Triple Entente.

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European military alliances prior to the war.

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The Council of Four (from left to right): David Lloyd George, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando, Georges Clemenceau and Woodrow Wilson in Versailles

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British soldiers in a trench during the Battle of the Somme in 1916.

Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular

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The Nebra sky disk is dated to c. 1600 BC.

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Flag

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Martin Luther (1483–1546) initiated the Protestant Reformation.

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Foundation of the German Empire in Versailles, 1871. Bismarck is at the center in a white uniform.

France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territ

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One of the Lascaux paintings: a horse – Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC

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Flag

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The Maison Carrée was a temple of the Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the Roman Empire.

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With Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the Frankish monarchy, elective and secular until then, became hereditary and of divine right.

Western Front (World War I)
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The Western Front or Western Theater was the main theatre of war during World War I. Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium, the tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne. Following the Race to the Sea, both sides dug in along a line of

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A German trench occupied by British troops near the Albert-Bapaume road at Ovillers-La Boisselle, July 1916 during the Battle of the Somme. The men are from A Company, 11th (Service) Battalion, Cheshire Regiment. Photo by Ernest Brooks.

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French bayonet charge

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German infantry on the battlefield, 7 August 1914

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Map of the Western Front, 1915–16

World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts i

1.
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the Battle of the Somme, Mark V tanks cross the Hindenburg Line, HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a mine in the Dardanelles, a British Vickers machine gun crew wears gas masks during the Battle of the Somme, Albatros D.III fighters of Jagdstaffel 11

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Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the Austrian annexation in 1908.

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This picture is usually associated with the arrest of Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.

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Serbian Army Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.

Count's Feud
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The Counts Feud, also called the Counts War, was a civil war that raged in Denmark in 1534–36 and brought about the Reformation in Denmark. The Counts Feud takes its name from the Protestant Count Christopher of Oldenburg, after Frederick Is death in 1533, the Jutland nobility proclaimed his son, then Duke Christian of Gottorp, as King under the na

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King Christian III

2.
Johan Rantzau

Armistice of Stuhmsdorf
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The treaty introduced a truce for 26 and a half years. Sweden, weakened by its involvement in the Thirty Years War, the truce lasted until 1655, when Sweden invaded the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Second Northern War. The Polish side was not unified, king Władysław IV Vasa of Poland, from the Swedish House of Vasa, wanted to regain the Sw

Peace of Westphalia
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The Peace of Westphalia was a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in the Westphalian cities of Osnabrück and Münster, effectively ending the European wars of religion. The Treaty of Osnabrück, involving the Holy Roman Empire, Sweden, the treaties did not restore peace throughout Europe, but they did create a basis for natio

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The Ratification of the Treaty of Münster, 15 May 1648 (1648) by Gerard ter Borch

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Historical map

Thirty Years' War
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The Thirty Years War was a series of wars in Central Europe between 1618 and 1648. It was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, as well as the deadliest European religious war, resulting in eight million casualties. Initially a war between various Protestant and Catholic states in the fragmented Holy Roman Empire, i

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Les Grandes Misères de la guerre (The Great Miseries of War) by Jacques Callot, 1632

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The Spanish Fury at Maastricht in 1579.

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Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia. He urged the Council of Trent to approve Communion in Both kinds for German and Bohemian Catholics.

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Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia.

Eighty Years' War
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The Eighty Years War or Dutch War of Independence was a revolt of the Seventeen Provinces against the political and religious hegemony of Philip II of Spain, the sovereign of the Habsburg Netherlands. After the initial stages, Philip II deployed his armies and regained control over most of the rebelling provinces, under the leadership of the exiled

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Relief of Leiden after the siege, 1574

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Philip II of Spain berating William the Silent. Prince of Orange by Cornelis Kruseman, painting from 19th century. This scene was purported to have happened on the dock in Flushing when Philip departed the Netherlands.

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Disarming the waardgelders in Utrecht, 31 July 1618, by Joost Cornelisz. Droochsloot

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Detail from a pamphlet about the Winter King

Armistice of Salonika
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The Armistice of Salonica was signed on 29 September 1918 between Bulgaria and the Allied Powers in Thessaloniki. The convention followed after a request by the Bulgarian government on 24 September asking for a ceasefire, the armistice effectively ended Bulgarias participation in World War I on the side of the Central Powers and came into effect on

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The official terms of the Armistice with Bulgaria.

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The Bulgarian delegates: Major General Ivan Lukov, Andrey Lyapchev and Simeon Radev.

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Balkan Wars

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Ferdinand

Armistice of Mudros
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The Armistice of Mudros, concluded on 30 October 1918, ended the hostilities, at noon the next day, in the Middle Eastern theatre between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies of World War I. It was signed by the Ottoman Minister of Marine Affairs Rauf Bey, the Ottoman army including the Ottoman air force was demobilized, and all ports, railways, and o

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HMS Agamemnon on an earlier visit to Mudros during the Dardanelles campaign in 1915

Austrian-Italian Armistice of Villa Giusti
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The Armistice of Villa Giusti ended warfare between Italy and Austria-Hungary on the Italian Front during World War I. The armistice was signed on 3 November 1918 in the Villa Giusti, outside of Padua in the Veneto, northern Italy, by the end of October 1918 the Austro-Hungarian Army found itself in such a state that its commanders were forced to s

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Historical image of Villa Giusti

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Austro-Hungarian plenipotentiaries enter Villa Giusti

Armistice of Mudanya
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The Kingdom of Greece acceded to the armistice on 14 October 1922. Under the Armistice of Mudros, ending its part in World War I and they also decided to partition the Ottoman Empire. This was resisted by Turkish nationalists in the form of the Grand National Assembly, having achieved victories over occupying powers in Anatolia, Turkish forces were

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Building where the Armistice of Mudanya was signed.

World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directl

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Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the Battle of Wanjialing, Australian 25-pounder guns during the First Battle of El Alamein, German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the Lingayen Gulf, Wilhelm Keitel signing the German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the Battle of Stalingrad

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The League of Nations assembly, held in Geneva, Switzerland, 1930

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Adolf Hitler at a German National Socialist political rally in Weimar, October 1930

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Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the Second Italo-Abyssinian War

Armistice with Italy
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It was signed at a conference of generals from both sides in an Allied military camp at Cassibile in Sicily, which had recently been occupied by the Allies. The armistice was approved by both King Victor Emmanuel III and Italian Prime Minister Pietro Badoglio, the armistice stipulated the surrender of Italy to the Allies. After its publication, Ger

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King Victor Emanuel III in his uniform as Marshal of Italy.

2.
General Giuseppe Castellano

Allies
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Members of an alliance are called allies. Alliances form in many settings, including political alliances, military alliances, when the term is used in the context of war or armed struggle, such associations may also be called allied powers, especially when discussing World War I or World War II. A formal military alliance is not required for being

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Allies Day, May 1917, National Gallery of Art

2.
Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery decorates Soviet Marshals and generals at the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, 12 July 1945.

Moscow Armistice
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The Moscow Armistice was signed between Finland on one side and the Soviet Union and United Kingdom on the other side on September 19,1944, ending the Continuation War. The Armistice restored the Moscow Peace Treaty of 1940, with a number of modifications, the final peace treaty between Finland and many of the Allies was signed in Paris in 1947. Th

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The areas ceded by Finland to the Soviet Union after the Continuation War. Porkkala was returned to Finland in 1956.

Continuation War
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The Continuation War consisted of hostilities between Finland and the Soviet Union from 1941 to 1944. The Continuation War began shortly after the end of the Winter War, in the Soviet Union, the war was considered part of the Great Patriotic War. Germany regarded its operations in the region as part of its war efforts on the Eastern Front. Acts of

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Finnish StuG III Ausf. G assault guns on parade. The swastika in front of the tank was a longstanding emblem of the Finnish military, and was used independently of Nazi German forces.

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Finnish ski troops in Northern Finland on 12 January 1940

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Finnish flags are at half-mast after the publication of the peace terms

1949 Armistice Agreements
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The United Nations established supervising and reporting agencies to monitor the established armistice lines. In addition, discussions related to the enforcement, led to the signing of the separate Tripartite Declaration of 1950 between the United States, Britain, and France. In it, they pledged to take action within and outside the United Nations

Geneva Agreements
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The Geneva Agreements of 1954 arranged a settlement which brought about an end to the First Indochina War. The agreement was reached at the end of the Geneva Conference, a ceasefire was signed and France agreed to withdraw its troops from the region. French Indochina was split into three countries, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam, Vietnam was to be tem

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The US sent a representative to the conferences, but did not sign the document

First Indochina War
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The First Indochina War began in French Indochina on 19 December 1946 and lasted until 1 August 1954. Fighting between French forces and their Viet Minh opponents in the South dated from September 1945, Japanese forces located south of that line surrendered to him and those to the north surrendered to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek. In September 194

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A French Foreign Legion unit patrols in a communist-controlled area.

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French Indochina (1913)

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Japanese troops lay down their arms to British troops in a ceremony in Saigon 1945

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Commando of the C.L.I. (Corps Léger d'Intervention) in Indochina after the surrender of Japan.

Algeria
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Algeria, officially the Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a sovereign state in North Africa on the Mediterranean coast. Its capital and most populous city is Algiers, located in the far north. With an area of 2,381,741 square kilometres, Algeria is the tenth-largest country in the world, the country is a semi-presidential republic consisti

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Ancient Roman Empire ruins of Timgad. Street leading to the Arch of Trajan.

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Flag

3.
Ancient Roman theatre in Djémila

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Numidia along with Egypt, Rome, and Carthage 200 BCE

Algerian War
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An important decolonization war, it was a complex conflict characterized by guerrilla warfare, maquis fighting, and the use of torture by both sides. The conflict also became a war between loyalist Algerians supporting a French Algeria and their Algerian nationalist counterparts. A referendum took place on 8 April 1962 and the French electorate app