When opportunities to drink alcohol exist simultaneously with
persistent social pressure, and when alcohol use is classically
conditioned with pleasurable experiences such as dating and
partying--such conditions are likely to lead to social drinking and even
alcohol abuse. College life consists of social encounters that involve
alcohol and, consequently, may nurture behavioral norms that foster
alcohol consumption. It is hypothesized that life in college promotes
alcohol drinking and alcoholism tendencies in students, as they engage
in essentially four or more years of "training" in alcohol
consumption.

Students (n = 168) at a conglomerate of small liberal arts colleges
in Southern California were asked to fill out and return via mail
self-report questionnaires concerning demographic information, social
involvement in college life, and alcohol drinking behavior. Results
indicated that tenure in college predicted the development of alcoholism
tendency. Specifically, social involvement was the strongest predictor
of alcohol consumption and alcoholism tendency, with gender also found
to be a strong predictor of alcohol drinking behavior, particularly for
males. Both social involvement and gender provided reasons for college
students to consume alcohol.

Factor analysis revealed different patterns of alcoholism
tendencies for those of pathological nature and those of socially
disruptive nature. It further suggested various reasons for alcohol
consumption, ranging from external social pressures to internal ones.
Unfortunately, the present model could not adequately distinguish
between these factors due to multicollinearity limitations.

It was concluded that the propensity towards social involvement in
college students might simultaneously increase the risk of
self-destructing behaviors--that is, alcohol use and abuse. In addition,
these potential byproducts may increase as students gain tenure in
college.

Does a college education produce only better educated individuals
or does it also promote alcoholism tendencies? The use and abuse of
alcohol by students have been identified as major problems affecting
college life (Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching,
1990). Although consumption rates vary among college campuses, high
alcohol use by college students has been repeatedly supported by
numerous studies (Haworth-Hoeppner, Globetti, Stem, & Corasco, 1989;
Hughes & Dodder, 1983; Lo & Globetti, 1993), with a reported
consumption rate reaching as high as 84% in a national survey of 140
colleges and universities (Wechsler, Davenport, Dowdall, Moeykens, &
Castillo, 1994).

College administrators have noted an increase in students'
alcohol consumption with each successive year in college (White, 1987;
Wiggins & Wiggins, 1987; Straus & Bacon, 1953). Data supporting
this observation first emerged in a study by Straus and Bacon (1953),
who surveyed alcohol consumption patterns in a large number of American
undergraduate students. Wiggins and Wiggins (1987) obtained similar
results in a survey conducted at a southern California university. White
(1987) also found that drinking-related problems for adolescents reached
their peak between the ages of 20 to 24, incidentally the normative age
range of many college students.

In general, activities that involve alcohol have become a prevalent
social norm in American society. Between the 1960s and 1980s, per capita
alcohol consumption in America rose steadily by 60% (Gross, 1988).
Although the 1995 alcohol sales data indicated that per capita
consumption of alcohol declined (Williams, Stinson, Sanchez, &
Dufour, 1997), no significant decreases have been found on reports of
social consequences or dependence symptoms (Midanik & Clark, 1994;
Midanik & Greenfield, 2000). Reference group theory has attributed
the social context as the most significant reason for the progressive
increase in alcohol use. From dates, parties, and holiday celebrations
to job recruitment, interviews, and receptions (Conger & Petersen,
1984; Kaplan, 1998), students regularly encounter social gatherings that
induce what is commonly referred to as "social drinking"
(Vogler & Bartz, 1982; Wiggins & Wiggins, 1987). Both direct and
indirect peer pressure in such social events appear to influence college
students to consume alcohol (Hartford & Grant, 1987; Rabow &
Duncan-Schill, 1995). In particular, drinking with best friends may
serve as a strong predictor of students' drinking behavior (Downs,
1987; Hannon et al., 1987). If greater pressure from fellow peers may
induce more conforming behavior, then conformity in college students may
evidence itself in increased alcohol consumption.

[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]

The notion that peer pressure may lead to alcohol consumption has
been supported by studies that found a high correlation between
subjects' drinking habits and that of their best friends (Straus
& Bacon, 1953; Wiggins & Wiggins, 1987). For instance, if a high
percentage of varsity team members engage in social drinking, the
greater the likelihood that the others will also consume alcohol
(Christiansen & Teahan, 1987). In general, peer pressure and best
friends' drinking behavior seem to be the strongest predictors of
alcohol consumption in college students (Conger & Petersen, 1984).
As compared with students who abstain from alcohol, those who drink are
described as "more likely to engage heavily in social
activities" and "to have friends, particularly best friends,
who also drink alcohol" (Conger and Petersen, 1984, p. 511). Thus,
alcohol consumption may be perceived as a learned social behavior via
classical conditioning and reinforcement (Conger & Petersen, 1984).

The analyses conducted in this study differed from those of
previous studies in so far as they attempted to clarify causal
relationships. It was predicted that if A) higher college status is
linked to B) increased alcohol consumption, it is because of an
intervening variable C) increased involvement in social activities that
serve alcohol. It was also argued that the amount of time spent in
college determines the extent to which students engage in social
activities involving alcohol. In accordance, reference group settings
that socialize students to use alcohol would lead to greater alcohol
consumption.

Method

Participants. A total of 300 undergraduate students were randomly
selected from a directory of 1,500 students attending private liberal
arts colleges in southern California. Because particular importance was
placed on the time spent in college, efforts were made to include
proportional numbers of students from each college level, which
consisted of freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior. Out of 350
seniors, 70 were selected; out of 395 juniors, 79 were selected; out of
375 sophomores, 75 were selected; and out of 380 freshmen, 76 were
selected.

The sample consisted of 168 students who returned the completed
questionnaire packet, an overall return rate of 58%. In terms of gender
distribution, the sample was comprised of 73 men (44%) and 93 women
(56%), proportionally comparable to the population of 707 males and 793
females. In regards to the college level, the sample included 44
freshmen, 45 sophomores, 47 juniors, and 30 seniors. In comparison with
the student population, the sample was a rough representation of the
proportional distribution by college class. The age distribution in the
population ranged between 18 to 23 years old. Because more than 55% of
the subjects were between the ages of 19 and 20, the sample was further
representative of the population in its age composition.

Subjects' total annual family income was normally distributed
around a mean of $80,000 to $99,999 per year, for both parents combined.
The standard deviation of 2.4 closely approximated the distribution in
the population. The ethnic/racial background of the sample consisted of
79% Caucasian, 10% Asian, 6% Hispanic, and 2% African American. Again,
this distribution was reflective of the population. Similarly, religious
affiliation of the sample cut along the same lines as the population,
with 40% secular, 27% Protestant, 14% Catholic, 8% Muslim, 7% Jewish,
and 2% Buddhist.

Instrument. A uniform, 10-paged questionnaire packet requiring
approximately 10 minutes to complete was sent to all 300 subjects. The
Likert-type items addressed subjects' involvement in social
activities and alcohol drinking habits. Social involvement was examined
by items that inquired about membership and/or participation in social
groups, including fraternity/sorority activities, dormitory parties,
dates, and holiday celebrations. The indicators of alcohol consumption
consisted of questions involving frequency and amount of alcohol use,
motivations for drinking alcohol, situations in which alcohol is used,
and the frequency in which alcohol consumption led to drunkenness.
Standard demographic information was also elicited, including
socioeconomic status, year in college, age, and race/ethnicity.

Procedure. Questionnaire packages were distributed through the
inter-college mail system to all 300 sample addresses. Each packet
contained a cover letter from the researchers and a self-addressed and
stamped return envelope. After distribution of the packages, two letters
were sent to all subjects in 1-and 2-week intervals, respectively, in
order to remind and encourage participation. No personally identifiable
information was required, and neither did the return envelope contain
personally identifiable information.

The Independent Variable in this study was the subjects' year
in college--freshman, sophomore, junior, or senior. The Mediating Factor
was the degree of social involvement, indicated by both quantity and
frequency of participation in social activities. The Dependent Variables
consisted of the reported quantity and frequency of regular alcohol
consumption at the time of survey. The dependent variables were measured
via the tables by Vogler and Bartz (1982) for calculating blood/alcohol
levels and the DSM-IV (1994) list of alcoholism symptoms.

Hypotheses. A causal path was hypothesized, which stated that the
higher the college status, the greater the social involvement and, in
turn, the more reasons to consume alcohol. It was hypothesized that
maintaining more reasons to use alcohol would further result in greater
alcohol consumption, followed by a more extensive list of alcoholism
symptoms. Gender, socioeconomic status, and racial/ethnic background
were not hypothesized to be significant predictors of alcohol
consumption.

Statistical Analysis. To ensure internal consistency, all items in
the measurement scales were factor analyzed. Items that did not yield
loadings of .40 or greater were excluded from the composite (Zeller
& Carmines, 1980). Multiple regression data was derived using
pairwise deletion of missing values, and all predictors were entered
into the equation at each corresponding causal level (Cohen & Cohen,
1983).

Results

Descriptive Statistics. Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics
of the sample for all variables in the model. The calculated standard
deviations indicated that sufficient variation existed in regards to all
variables to justify multivariate analysis.

Factor Analysis. Two factors emerged out of reasons to consume
alcohol. One emphasized the external social pressure to drink alcohol,
and the other the internal motivation to alter one's state of
consciousness. Unfortunately, these two factors correlated to a high
degree, prohibiting further regression analysis, which would increase
the risk of multicollinearity. Similarly, two factors emerged from the
analysis of alcoholism tendencies. Although one seemed more pathological
in nature, the other appeared more socially disruptive. These two
factors also correlated highly with each other, increasing the risk of
multicollinearity with further multiple regression analysis. Factor
analysis of the social involvement scale, which consisted of public
activities known to involve alcohol, excluded factors containing the
element of personal preference, such as competitive sports and artistic
endeavors.

Unlike most of the variables in this study, social involvement did
not have a sufficient amount of variation. This was expected, as the
social involvement scale was originally intended as a mediating
variable, and its predictors had no bearing on this study. In regards to
the two central dependent variables, statistically significant amounts
of variation were explained, particularly in the scales involving
alcoholism tendency and alcohol consumption. In fact, the magnitude of R
Square for these latter two scales was shown to be atypical in social
science research (Cohen & Cohen, 1983).

Regression Model. Figure 1 presents the regression model developed
in this study. Only significant Beta values are marked in the model.
Results confirmed that alcoholism tendencies develop with college
tenure. However, the relationship between college tenure and social
involvement failed to reach statistical significance. As expected,
results indicated that social involvement is a salient determiner of all
subsequent dependent variables in the model. However, gender was
unexpectedly found to also serve as a strong predictor of alcohol
drinking behavior.

[ILLUSTRATIONS OMITTED]

Discussion

The results of this study confirmed most of the hypotheses set
forth--that is, the higher the college status and more specifically, the
greater the social involvement, the more likely college students were to
score high on alcohol indicators (i.e., having reasons to consume
alcohol, engaging in alcohol drinking behavior, and exhibiting
alcoholism tendencies). Such outcome was noted regardless of
socioeconomic status or racial/ethnic background. Results also indicated
that being a male college student was a particularly good predictor in
developing reasons to use and consume alcohol. The findings showed that
college students with highly active social lives tended to experience
greater social pressure to consume alcohol, as compared with their less
socially active counterparts. Socially active students were more likely
to find reasons to use and consume alcohol, as well as develop
characteristics of alcoholism tendencies. Because social involvement
continues to be highly valued by college students, it may be important
that school administrators and policymakers seek to address the
potentially ill effects of social involvement on students' health
and behavior. In order to affect students' drinking behaviors, it
may also be important to acknowledge their prevalence and learn about
their predictors.

Particularly strong relationships were found between A) having
reasons to drink alcohol, B) alcohol consumption, and C) development of
classic alcoholism tendencies. These relationships have not been clearly
established in previous research on alcohol for this specific
population. Nevertheless, the effects were expected. Students in a
competitive college environment who have reasons to drink alcohol will
typically do so, thereby risking the development of alcoholism
tendencies.

A key hypothesis in this study obtained only limited
confirmation--that is, number of years in college was not found to be
consistently and significantly related to social involvement and alcohol
indicators. It might be that college status is related in a non-linear
manner or at similar levels across all college years. This relationship,
however, was implicitly confirmed by other paths discovered, notably one
that predicted an increase in alcoholism tendencies with college tenure.
In other words, higher classmen were more likely to exhibit alcoholic
symptoms, such as drinking during morning hours, suffering more from
hangovers, and drinking alcohol while alone. Of all the effects of
tenure in college, this result was perhaps the most unfortunate and
distressing. It may be that students encounter greater pressure to
succeed academically with each subsequent year in college, such that it
becomes increasingly difficult to admit to deviant academic behavior,
including alcohol consumption. It may also be too painful to acknowledge
the intensified need to consume alcohol, and furthermore, the active
actualization of this need. Whereas students in general may tend not to
admit to alcohol-related characteristics, upper classmen may
particularly encounter difficulties acknowledging symptoms of
alcoholism.

Gender was unexpectedly found as a predicting factor in the model.
Whether due to external or internal pressure, men were particularly
found to have reasons to use alcohol, engage in alcohol consumption, and
consequently become intoxicated. Perhaps males use alcohol more readily
than their female counterparts because they find the pressure of a
competitive college environment more taxing.

As predicted, neither students' socioeconomic status nor
racial/ethnic background impacted the alcohol consumption patterns found
in this study. Consistent with data from previous studies, results also
contradicted the prevalent stereotypes that associate alcoholic
tendencies with those of lower socioeconomic status, as well as
racial/ethnic minority. According to the present data, those of minority
status and lower socioeconomic background are just as likely as their
Caucasian and higher income counterparts to abstain from or pursue
alcohol consumption.

Summary and Conclusion

Results from this study indicated that the probability of
developing alcoholism tendencies increases as students gain tenure in
college. Furthermore, social involvement was consistently and strongly
linked to all alcoholic characteristics, including higher alcohol
consumption and greater need to use alcohol. Peer pressure and best
friends' drinking habits also served key elements in the social
environment of college life. Social activities, though highly valued,
may thus foster the development of alcoholism in college students.

Results pointed to the importance of considering existing policies
regarding alcohol use on college campuses. It is very likely that
liberal policies regarding alcohol use may contribute to the development
of alcoholism in students. The present data denoted the ease by which
alcohol consumption becomes incorporated into the social routine and,
moreover, the ease by which normal use becomes abuse. Results
exemplified how college communities, by embedding social reward within a
highly competitive environment, may nurture and promote alcohol use and
abuse. Social involvement appeared to be a powerful factor in fostering
such self-destructive behaviors.

Important policy questions emerged out of this study. The most
noteworthy conflicting choices confronting college administrators may be
the promotion of an egalitarian environment and simultaneous curbing of
alcohol consumption. It is not clear to what extent counseling and
guidance programs may aid students in dealing with the pressures of
academic life and freedom to experiment with alcohol use. Should
policies that curtail alcohol be enacted in fraternity and sorority
meetings? Should such independent social groups be required to serve
non-alcoholic beverages along with alcohol, in order to introduce the
principle of choice?

[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]

Due to the limitations of this study, additional research would be
both necessary and beneficial. Subsequent research should acquire a
larger sample size, strive for a higher return rate, and correct for
attenuation due to the sensitivity associated with the questions. Finer
measuring tools that enable a more accurate distinction between
motivations to consume alcohol, alcohol-drinking behaviors, and various
kinds of social involvement patterns should also be employed.
Nonetheless, the effectiveness of the present research design and the
data acquired speak for themselves. It is hoped that this study will
serve as a foundation for subsequent research.

POST CE TEST QUESTIONS

1. What are the risks and problems specifically associated with
consumption of alcohol among college students?

Hamilton, C.J., & Collins, J.J. (1981). The role of alcohol in
wife beating and child abuse: A review of the literature. In J.J.
Collins (Ed.), Drinking and crime: Perspectives on the relationships
between alcohol consumption and criminal behavior (pp. 253-287). New
York: Guilford.

Johnston, L.D., O'Malley, P.M., & Bachman, J.G. (1993).
National survey results on drug use from the monitoring the future
study. 1975-1992. Volume II: College students and young adults.
Rockville, MD: National institute of drug abuse.

Jones, N.E., Peiper, C.F., & Robertson, L.S. (1992). The
effects of drinking age on fatal injuries of adolescents and young
adults. American Journal of Public Health, 82, 112-115.

Midanik, L.T., & Clark, W.B. (1994). The demographic
distribution of U.S. drinking patterns in 1990: Description and trends
from 1984. American Journal of Public Health, 84, 1218-1222.

Midanik, L.T., & Greenfield, T.K. (2000). Trends in social
consequences and dependence symptoms in the United States: The national
alcohol surveys, 1984-1995. American Journal of Public Health, 90(1),
53-56.

Zeller, A.R., & Carmines, E.G. (1980). Measurement in the
social sciences: The link between theory and data. New York: Cambridge
University.

Earn CE Credit

Take CE tests for free online at www. americanpsychotherapy.com or
see the questions for this article on page 17.

Reuben Vaisman-Tzachor, PhD, FACFEI, DAPA, CHS-III, was born in
Israel. He obtained his doctorate in clinical psychology from Alliant
International University, California School of Professional Psychology
in Los Angeles, where he is currently an adjunct professor. He is a
Fellow of the American College of Forensic Examiners, a Diplomate of the
American Psychotherapy Association, and is Certified in Homeland
Security at Level III.

Judy J. Lai-Yates, PhD, MFT, is a licensed clinical psychologist.
She has a private practice in West Los Angeles. In addition to serving
local communities, Dr. Lai-Yates is committed to international outreach.
Other research areas of interest include assessing neuropsychological
sequelae in children with brain tumors as well as issues related to
diversity. More information can be found on her Web site:
www.Dr-Judy.com.