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1Welcome – Thanks for joining this ITRC Training ClassSoil Sampling and Decision Making Using Incremental Sampling Methodology (ISM) Part 1 – Principles, Systematic Planning, and Statistical DesignWeb-Based Document at:When sampling soil at potentially contaminated sites, the goal is collecting representative samples which will lead to quality decisions. Unfortunately traditional soil sampling methods don't always provide the accurate, reproducible, and defensible data needed. Incremental Sampling Methodology (ISM) can help with this soil sampling challenge. ISM is a structured composite sampling and processing protocol that reduces data variability and provides a reasonable estimate of a chemical's mean concentration for the volume of soil being sampled. The three key components of ISM are systematic planning, field sample collection, and laboratory processing and analysis. The adequacy of ISM sample support (sample mass) reduces sampling and laboratory errors, and the ISM strategy improves the reliability and defensibility of sampling data by reducing data variability. ISM provides representative samples of specific soil volumes defined as Decision Units. An ISM replicate sample is established by collecting numerous increments of soil (typically 30 to 100 increments) that are combined, processed, and subsampled according to specific protocols. ISM is increasingly being used for sampling soils at hazardous waste sites and on suspected contaminated lands. Proponents have found that the coverage afforded by collecting many increments, together with disciplined processing and subsampling of the combined increments, yields consistent and reproducible results that in most instances have been preferable to the results obtained by more traditional (e.g. discrete) sampling approaches. This 2-part training course along with ITRC's web-based Incremental Sampling Methodology Technical and Regulatory Guidance Document (ISM-1, 2012) is intended to assist regulators and practitioners with the understanding the fundamental concepts of soil/contaminant heterogeneity, representative sampling, sampling/laboratory error and how ISM addresses these concepts. Through this training course you should learn: - basic principles to improve soil sampling results - systematic planning steps important to ISM - how to determine ISM Decision Units (DU) - the answers to common questions about ISM sampling design and data analysis - methods to collect and analyze ISM soil samples - the impact of laboratory processing on soil samples - how to evaluate ISM data and make decisionsIn addition this ISM training and guidance provides insight on when and how to apply ISM at a contaminated site, and will aid in developing or reviewing project documents incorporating ISM (e.g., work plans, sampling plans, reports). You will also be provided with links to additional resources related to ISM. The intended users of this guidance and training course are state and federal regulators, project managers, and consultant personnel responsible for and/or directly involved in developing, identifying or applying soil and sediment sampling approaches and establishing sampling objectives and methods. In addition, data end users and decision makers will gain insight to the use and impacts of ISM for soil sampling for potentially contaminated sites. Recommended Reading: We encourage participants to review the ITRC ISM document (http://www.itrcweb.org/ISM-1/) prior to participating in the training classes. If your time is limited in reviewing the document in advance, we suggest you prioritize your time by reading the Executive Summary, Chapter 4 "Statistical Sampling Designs for ISM," and Chapter 7 "Making Decisions Using ISM Data" to maximize your learning experience during the upcoming training classes.ITRC (Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council)Training Co-Sponsored by: US EPA Technology Innovation and Field Services Division (TIFSD) (www.clu-in.org)ITRC Training Program: Phone:Incremental Sampling Methodology Technology Regulatory and Guidance Document (ISM-1, February 2012)Sponsored by: Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (www.itrcweb.org) Hosted by: US EPA Clean Up Information Network (www.cluin.org)

2Housekeeping Course time is 2¼ hours Question & Answer breaksPhone - unmute *6 to ask question out loudSimulcast - ? icon at top to type in a questionTurn off any pop-up blockersMove through slidesArrow icons at top of screenList of slides on leftFeedback form available from last slide – please complete before leavingThis event is being recordedDownload slides as PPT or PDFGo to slide 1Although I’m sure that some of you are familiar with these rules from previous CLU-IN events, let’s run through them quickly for our new participants.We have started the seminar with all phone lines muted to prevent background noise. Please keep your phone lines muted during the seminar to minimize disruption and background noise. During the question and answer break, press *6 to unmute your lines to ask a question (note: *6 to mute again). Also, please do NOT put this call on hold as this may bring unwanted background music over the lines and interrupt the seminar.You should note that throughout the seminar, we will ask for your feedback. You do not need to wait for Q&A breaks to ask questions or provide comments using the ? icon. To submit comments/questions and report technical problems, please use the ? icon at the top of your screen. You can move forward/backward in the slides by using the single arrow buttons (left moves back 1 slide, right moves advances 1 slide). The double arrowed buttons will take you to 1st and last slides respectively. You may also advance to any slide using the numbered links that appear on the left side of your screen. The button with a house icon will take you back to main seminar page which displays our presentation overview, instructor bios, links to the slides and additional resources. Lastly, the button with a computer disc can be used to download and save today’s presentation slides.Submit comment or questionReport technical problemsMove back 1 slideGo to seminar homepageGo to last slideMove forward 1 slideCopyright 2012 Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council, 50 F Street, NW, Suite 350, Washington, DC 200012

3ITRC DisclaimerThis material was sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof and no official endorsement should be inferred.The information in ITRC Products was formulated to be reliable and accurate. However, the information is provided "as is" and use of this information is at the users’ own risk. Information in ITRC Products is for general reference only; it should not be construed as definitive guidance for any specific site and is not a substitute for consultation with qualified professional advisors.ITRC Product content may be revised or withdrawn at any time without prior notice.ITRC, ERIS, and ECOS make no representations or warranties with respect to information in its Products. ITRC, ERIS, and ECOS will not accept liability for damages of any kind that result from acting upon or using this information.ITRC, ERIS, and ECOS do not endorse or recommend the use of specific technology or technology provider through ITRC Products.This material was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof and no official endorsement should be inferred.The information provided in documents, training curricula, and other print or electronic materials created by the Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC) (“ITRC Products”) is intended as a general reference to help regulators and others develop a consistent approach to their evaluation, regulatory approval, and deployment of environmental technologies. The information in ITRC Products was formulated to be reliable and accurate. However, the information is provided "as is" and use of this information is at the users’ own risk.ITRC Products do not necessarily address all applicable health and safety risks and precautions with respect to particular materials, conditions, or procedures in specific applications of any technology. Consequently, ITRC recommends consulting applicable standards, laws, regulations, suppliers of materials, and material safety data sheets for information concerning safety and health risks and precautions and compliance with then-applicable laws and regulations. ITRC, ERIS and ECOS shall not be liable in the event of any conflict between information in ITRC Products and such laws, regulations, and/or other ordinances. ITRC Product content may be revised or withdrawn at any time without prior notice.ITRC, ERIS, and ECOS make no representations or warranties, express or implied, with respect to information in its Products and specifically disclaim all warranties to the fullest extent permitted by law (including, but not limited to, merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose). ITRC, ERIS, and ECOS will not accept liability for damages of any kind that result from acting upon or using this information.ITRC, ERIS, and ECOS do not endorse or recommend the use of specific technology or technology provider through ITRC Products. Reference to technologies, products, or services offered by other parties does not constitute a guarantee by ITRC, ERIS, and ECOS of the quality or value of those technologies, products, or services. Information in ITRC Products is for general reference only; it should not be construed as definitive guidance for any specific site and is not a substitute for consultation with qualified professional advisors.3

4ITRC (www.itrcweb.org) – Shaping the Future of Regulatory AcceptanceHost organizationNetworkState regulatorsAll 50 states, PR, DCFederal partnersITRC Industry Affiliates ProgramAcademiaCommunity stakeholdersWide variety of topicsTechnologiesApproachesContaminantsSitesProductsTechnical and regulatory guidance documentsInternet-based and classroom trainingDOEDODEPAThe Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC) is a state-led coalition of regulators, industry experts, citizen stakeholders, academia and federal partners that work to achieve regulatory acceptance of environmental technologies and innovative approaches. ITRC consists of all 50 states (and Puerto Rico and the District of Columbia) that work to break down barriers and reduce compliance costs, making it easier to use new technologies and helping states maximize resources. ITRC brings together a diverse mix of environmental experts and stakeholders from both the public and private sectors to broaden and deepen technical knowledge and advance the regulatory acceptance of environmental technologies. Together, we’re building the environmental community’s ability to expedite quality decision making while protecting human health and the environment. With our network of organizations and individuals throughout the environmental community, ITRC is a unique catalyst for dialogue between regulators and the regulated community.For a state to be a member of ITRC their environmental agency must designate a State Point of Contact. To find out who your State POC is check out the “contacts” section at Also, click on “membership” to learn how you can become a member of an ITRC Technical Team.

6Meet the ITRC InstructorsAnnette DietzOregon Department of Environmental QualityPortland, ORRobin BoydAECOM EnvironmentHonolulu, HIDeana CrumblingU.S. Environmental Protection AgencyWashington, DCcrumbling.deana@epa.govPhil GoodrumCardno ENTRIXSyracuse, NYphilip.goodrum@cardno.comAnnette C. Dietz, Ph.D., is the Cleanup Program Coordinator for the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality located in Portland, Oregon. She acts as technical and policy expert for cleanup program activities, oversees the maintenance and development of policy and guidance for cleanup project work, coordinates program functions performed by technical staff in regional offices, and provides outreach and training support for external stakeholders. Before joining OR DEQ in 2010, Annette worked as an environmental consultant managing and performing site investigation and remediation projects. She is Oregon’s Point of Contact (POC) to ITRC and is a member of the ITRC Incremental Sampling Methodology team. Annette earned a bachelor's degree in Spanish and Global Studies in 1993, a master’s in environmental engineering in 1996 and a doctoral degree in environmental engineering in 2000, all from the University of Iowa in Iowa City, Iowa.Deana Crumbling is an Environmental Scientist in the Technology Innovation section of EPA’s Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response in Washington, DC. Since 1997 she has focused on the topics of dynamic work plans, field analysis and other analytical chemistry technologies, sampling designs and data uncertainty management. She has taught many classroom and webinar courses in those topics. Before coming to EPA, she worked for 2 years as a risk assessor for an environmental consulting firm, for 2 years as a lab and safety manager and adjunct faculty for a college, for 1 year as a science consultant for an environmental attorney, and 1 year in the Pennsylvania State Hazardous Site Cleanup Program. She worked for 20 years as a hospital-based clinical laboratory analyst and trainer. Deana was a team member in the ITRC Site Characterization and Monitoring Team from 2002 to 2004, and now a member of the Incremental Sampling Methodology Team since She earned a bachelor’s in biochemistry and a bachelor’s in psychology from Lebanon Valley College in Lebanon, Pennsylvania, in 1989, and a master’s in environmental science from Drexel University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1997.Robin Boyd is Senior Project Manager with AECOM in Honolulu, Hawaii and serves as Technical Development Manager for the Honolulu office. Robin is a specialist in the use of incremental sampling for both surface and subsurface remedial investigations and remediation. Since 1989 Robin has gained experience with investigating hazardous waste sites including the development and implementation of innovative technologies for the remediation of soil and ground water. He has designed and implemented over 25 incremental sampling programs of various types and conducted numerous training classes on the use of incremental sampling. He has attended both Francis Pitard’s and Chuck Ramsey’s classes on incremental sampling and Gy’s Sampling Theory (which is the cornerstone of ISM). He is an active member of the ITRC Incremental Sampling Methodology team. Robin earned both a bachelor’s degree in 1979 and master’s degree in 1981 in geology and geophysics from the University of Wisconsin in Madison. Robin also serves as a registered professional geologist in several states.Philip Goodrum is a Senior Consultant with Cardno ENTRIX in Syracuse, New York. Since 1989 Phil has gained experience in quantitative risk assessment and environmental modeling, specializing in applications to human health and ecological risk assessment, sediment remediation, groundwater compliance monitoring, and natural resource damage assessment. He brings a broad understanding of the use and effective communication of data evaluation, visualization, and statistical analysis techniques to support ecological risk assessment and injury assessment. He is responsible for developing sampling designs and conducting data interpretation, statistical analysis, modeling, and risk characterization at sites around the country. He is a recognized national expert in probabilistic modeling, lead (Pb) risk assessment, and environmental sampling, having been invited to teach numerous professional short courses on these topics by regulators and industry. He has co-authored USEPA guidance on probabilistic risk analysis, served as an independent peer reviewer for state and federal agencies on survey design, and continues to serve on USEPA’s Science Advisory Board for lead (Pb). Phil has contributed to ITRC Incremental Sampling Methodology team since Phil earned his bachelor’s degree in environmental technology from Cornell University in Ithaca, New York in 1989, a master’s in water resources from SUNY Environmental Science and Forestry (ESF) in Syracuse, New York in 1995, and Ph.D. in environmental engineering from ESF in He is on the adjunct faculty at ESF where he teaches courses in applied statistics and risk assessment.

8Are Your Samples Representative?How fully do you plan your sampling event?Are you confident in your sample results?How representative are your samples?Do you understand the distribution?How reproducible are your data?_____How are your decisions made when you review soil sampling data?

9Sample Results - #%*&^%!_____Discrete samples – if you find a hotspot you step out… but if you get a ND – are you done?With a small number of discrete samples how well did you define the extent of contamination to begin with?What does each discrete sample represent?

10What Does the Sample Represent?Representative subsampling_____What does a single sample represent and how can/should you assess the spatial variation of samples.A small # of discrete samples encourages two key errors:Underestimate the representative concentration in the an area, andUnderestimate the vertical and later extent of contamination.Does 1g of soil represent your site?That small volume of samples that is analyzed provides a results that represents the area we are assessing for risk type decisions.Picture Reference:

11What Do These Environmental Criteria Have In Common?Most risk-based environmental criteria based on estimate of meanSoil screening levelsRegional screening levelsSite-specific cleanup levelsExposure point concentrations_____Most Risk-based environmental criteria are based on an estimate of the mean (.e.g., 95% UCL).If you have a few discrete samples how do you estimate the mean?Discrete samples give some sense of spatial variability.The more discrete samples you have, the more you know about the population variability, and build certainty.

12Uncertainty Sources Instrument analysis Sample preparationLaboratory sub-samplingField sample collection____What are Sources of Uncertainty and where do we find them?With proper maintenance and standard operating procedures instrument analysis is actually very consistent.Uncertainty increases as you move down the list.

13Uncertainty Sources Instrument analysis Sample preparationLaboratory sub-samplingField sample collection_____The largest amount of uncertainty lies in laboratory sub sampling and field sampling collection, including sample heterogeneity.Is there a better way to control uncertainty and errors and get a better representative sample?

14What is Incremental Sampling Methodology (ISM)?ISM Objective: To obtain a single sample for analysis that hasthe mean analyte concentration representative of the decision unitStructured composite sampling and processing protocolReduces data variabilityProvides a reasonably unbiased estimate of mean contaminant concentrations in a volume of soil targeted for sampling_____Incremental Sampling is a structured sampling and processing protocol that reduces data variability and increases sample representativeness.ISM is an improved form of composite sampling, because the process involved in collection and analysis of an ISM sample greatly improves sample representativeness. The ISM sample goal is to have all the same constituents in the same proportion as the volume sampled.ISM samples provide a result that better estimates the mean concentration of the sampled volume, than sparse discrete sampling.Decision Unit (DU): the smallest volume of soil (or other media)for which a decision will be made based upon ISM sampling

162009 ISM Survey: Areas of Question/Concern263 responses (75% respondents state regulators and consultants)Can ISM find “hot spots”?Do regulators allow or accept ISM?Can you collect volatile organic compound (VOC) samples?Does ISM delineate the extent of contamination?What’s the right size for a Decision Units (DUs)?Can you obtain Upper Confidence Limits (UCLs)?Can ISM and discrete results be compared?Are there approved laboratory processes and certification?How much does ISM cost?_____Survey identified outstanding issues and used to aid development of the ISM technical regulatory document.263 responses to our survey½ of the responses from consultants¼ from State regulators¼ from federal agencies, regulators, laboratories, stakeholder groups.These summarize the key implementation issues identified by the survey.Section 8 addressed these issues in the ISM document.ISM is still being developed and some of these issues (e.g. cost) are still being worked out with more wide spread use.Reluctance to use ISM stems from a lack of experienceITRC, ISM-1, Appendix B, August 2009 ISM Survey Results

172009 ISM Survey: ISM Sampling and Land UseISM primarily used at commercial/industrial sitesbut applicable to all types of sites_____The survey found that ISM has been applied on a variety of sites.ITRC, ISM-1, Appendix B, August 2009 ISM Survey Results

182009 ISM Survey: Chemicals of Interest for Incremental Sampling?ISM can be used at sites with a broad range of contaminants80%60%40%20%0%_____ISM sampling can be used for a broad range of contaminants – data from our 2009 survey.MetalsVOCsPCBsTPHOtherCyanideDioxinsExplosivesPerchlorateSVOCs (pesticides, PAHs)ITRC, ISM-1, Appendix B, August 2009 ISM Survey Results

19ISM – What is Your Perception? 2009 ISM Survey Revealed……Common misperceptions: “It’s just composite sampling, misses hot spots, and costs more.”Few state regulators had heard of ISM and very few with ISM experienceHawaii, California, and Alaska made up over 40% of the reported ISM projectsMore than half of the state regulators responded that ISM was discouraged____No associated notesWe accepted the challenge to provide tools for state regulators, consultants, and others to learn the value of ISM and how to apply ISMITRC, ISM-1, Appendix B, August 2009 ISM Survey Results

20ITRC ISM Team Team history Products ITRC Team Member CompositionFormed 200974 membersRegulators from 13 statesProductsCase studyWeb-based guidanceInternet-based trainingITRC Team Member Composition_____Multi-disciplinary team includes, scientists, geologist, toxicologists, engineers, chemists, statisticians, and community and tribal representatives.

21Fundamental understanding of how and why ISM worksOur ITRC Solution: ITRC ISM-1 Technical and Regulatory Guidance DocumentWeb-Based Document at:Fundamental understanding of how and why ISM worksDetailed instructions for design and implementationAddresses potential regulatory concernsProvides case studies and simulations_____Training classes on Multi-Increment sampling and guidance available from Hawai’i, Alaska, and the USACOEISM Tech-Reg document deals with things in more detail and include case study and simulation info to support application of ISM.In 2010, the ISM Team developed and implement an IS plan for a case study site in Florida. It is presented in our Tech-Reg document and will be presented during different Internet-based training modules.As of March 2012, the Florida Dept. of Environmental Protection is in the process of developing ISM guidance by incorporating the ITRC ISM guidance document.Web-based document has live links and you can print the entire document, a Section, or just a page.

22What is Incremental Sampling Methodology (ISM)?_____ISM involves planning, field implementation, and laboratory processing and subsampling to provide a representative analytical aliquot. The goal of ISM is to analyze an aliquot that represents the same proportion of constituents as the sampling area.The box represents a Decision Unit or DU - the volume being sampled and the volume you want to make a decision on.Within the DU, there are sample locations or ”Increments”.The sampling grid and increment locations are established during the systematic planning as are the number of increments represented by the X’s, O’s and triangles.The ISM field replicate for X is a composite of all 60 X increments, likewise for the O’s and the triangles.After collection in the field the samples are sent to a lab to be processed, and subsampled.The lab subsampling approach is similar to that applied to collection of a single field increments. The goal of ISM is to have all the same constituents in the same proportion as the area sampled.The ISM document recommends at least three replicate results (X, O, and triangle) for each DU.

23Advantages and Limitations of ISMAdvantages of ISMEffectImproved spatial coverage(increments x replicates)Sample includes high and low concentrations in proper proportionsHigher Sample MassReduces errors associated with sample processing and analysisOptimized processingRepresentative subsamples for analysisFewer non-detectsSimplifies statistical analysisMore consistent dataMore confident decisionLimitations of ISMEffectSmall number of replicatesLimits Upper Confidence Limit calculation methodsNo spatial resolution within Decision UnitLimits remediation options within Decision UnitLimits multivariate comparisonsAssessing Acute ToxicityDecision Unit has to be very small_____ISM has both advantages and disadvantages from a sampling design perspective.Can’t directly compare discrete and ISM samples because each measure different properties of the population.Under disadvantages, discrete sampling allows for calculations of ratios of two variables – allows for correlations among constituents, or estimates of bioaccumulation factors (update from abiotic media to organisms) that you cannot get from ISM.When assessing acute toxicity issues, the decision unit would have to be very small for incremental sampling. ISM may not be practical.

24ISM – What’s In It For YOU?Fewer analyses but a more representative sampleHigh quality data leads to a more confident decisionPotential for cost savings_____No associated notes

25Are YOU the next ISM User?This training will provide answers and show you howISM fits with sampling and decision making.WhyHow?When??_____Training provides answers to make informed ISM decisions by answering:Where can ISM be used?When should ISM not be used?What contaminants are most suitable for ISM?What effect does sample processing have on contaminant concentration?Does ISM mask area of high concentrations due to compositing and homogenization?How does ISM differ from discrete sampling?How many replicates should be collected?How are data quality objectives (DQOs) addressed?How do ISM results relate to action levels?WhereWhat

28Principles Learning ObjectivesLearn how to use basic principles to improve planning,implementation and decision-making:Soil heterogeneity at 2 spatial scales makes it difficult to correctly interpret data resultsThose spatial scales are micro-scale and short-scaleHeterogeneity at these scales can cause data variability  costly decision errorsMicro-scale heterogeneity is managed by increasing sample mass and improving lab sample processing (required by ISM)Short-scale spatial heterogeneity is managed by the field incremental sampling of ISMSpeaker NotesMicro-scale heterogeneity is also called compositional heterogeneity.ITRC, ISM-1, Sections 2 and 5.3.1

29How Soil Heterogeneity Can Cause Decision Errors: Navigation PaneNature of soil and its contaminant interactionsContaminant HeterogeneityResults In:Sampling ErrorsSampling withoutaddressing it leads to:Data VariabilityDecision ErrorsManifested (observed) as:Which can lead to:Speaker NotesPrevious section emphasized 1) importance of up-front planning BEFORE going to the field, and 2) sample processing is critical part of incremental sampling methodology. Planning is necessary to minimize errors throughout data generation. In order to plan effectively, need to understand the causes and effects of sampling error, and be able to detect when sampling error may have degraded data quality.A key goal of ISM is to reduce decision errors when dealing with soils. Decision error refers to decisions that would be made differently IF the true nature of the contamination were known. An example of a decision error is deciding that contamination is not present above a certain level, when it actually is.To reduce decision errors, need to examine their root causes. This slide shows how the heterogeneous nature of soil ends up causing decision errors. Starting with the first box on the left (the blue box), we’ll look at how contaminants interact with soil. That interaction leads to contaminant heterogeneity, which is a primary cause of sampling errors. Sampling errors, in turn, lead to data variability, and data variability can mislead decision makers. In this presentation I’m going to explain how this cascade occurs. We’ll use this figure to serve as a navigation aid.Supplemental InformationSee ISM-1 Section 2.1Heterogeneity: the condition of being non-uniformThe heterogeneous nature of contaminants in soils increases the chances of decision errorITRC, ISM-1, Section 2.1

30Soil is a Complex Particulate MaterialNature of soil and its contaminant interactionsContaminant HeterogeneityResults In:Sampling ErrorsSampling withoutaddressing it leads to:Data VariabilityDecision ErrorsManifested (observed) as:Which can lead to:Speaker NotesHeterogeneity in composition is referred to as “compositional” or “constitutional” heterogeneitySoil samples show compositional heterogeneity in 3 primary ways:made up of particle sizes that vary over several orders of magnitude and so differ in surface area, andcomposed of different mineral grains which vary in their “stickiness” for contaminant molecules,contain various amounts and types of organic matter.Supplemental InformationSee ISM-1 Section 2.2All soil is heterogeneous in compositionTypical mixing/stirring cannot make soil uniformITRC, ISM-1, Section 2.2

31Micro-Scale Variation in a Homogeneous-Looking SoilPhoto credit: Deana CrumblingSpeaker NotesThis figure is a photo of magnified sandy soil containing very little organic matter.At the macro level (i.e., viewed without magnification) this soil looks homogeneous.But under magnification, can see it is composed of mineral grains that vary from relatively large to barely visible at this magnification.Colors of individual grains vary from white to pink to greenish, reflecting the different minerals present in the grains.This is an example of soil heterogeneity at the micro-scale.A sandy soil, showing variation in particulate size and mineral content (10X magnification)

32Soil Particle CompositionIndividual soil particles are inorganic mineral or some form of organic carbon.Many contaminants adhere to the surfaces of certain mineralsOrganic carbon is composed of complex molecules that act as molecular spongesSpeaker NotesSoil is composed of an infinite number of particles, some made of inorganic minerals and some of organic matter.Organic matter comes from living organisms. It could be grass, leaves, sticks, insects, microbes, etc.Organic matter is of particular importance to contaminants because it decays into complex molecules that act as molecular sponges.Many contaminants, although not all, adhere well to certain soil minerals.Organic and inorganic contaminants can be absorbed into organic carbon complexes.Supplemental InformationSee ISM-1 Section 2.2ITRC, ISM-1, Section 2.2

33“Sticky” MineralsContaminant molecules/atoms “stick” well to certain particlesSmallest particles usually the stickiestClays (see photo)Iron (hydr)oxidesStickiness mechanisms(-) and (+) chargesSurface areaSpeaker NotesDifferent particles bind contaminants to varying degrees.Clay minerals strongly bind many contaminants.This is a photograph of clay particles under high magnification. If you look closely, you’ll see that clay particles take the form of stacked plates.The plates have molecule-sized spaces between them. The very small size of clay particle gives them a large surface area on the outside, then the plate structure provides even more. More surface area provides more sites where contaminants can bind.Some of the “stickiness” of clays is due having many negative charges lining the inside of the plates. Clay particles have some positive charges along the edges of the plates.Negative charges attract metal contaminants that are positively charged. An example is when Pb in bullets corrodes into Pb minerals that then dissolve and release positively charged Pb ions into the soil. Lead ions are attracted to the clay’s negative charges and can become trapped between the clay plates.Another type of soil particle that is sticky from a contaminant’s point of view are oxide minerals, such as iron oxides and aluminum oxides. Geochemical oxides are small particles with a large surface area. They can carry either a positive or negative charge depending on the pH.Iron oxide is interchangeable with iron hydroxide, depending on the pH.Supplemental InformationSee ISM-1 SectionPhoto credit: USGS Photo Library, 2006, USGS, URL =Electron microscope photograph of smectite clay – magnification 23,500Photo credit: USGS, 2006ITRC, ISM-1, Section

34Arsenic (whitish color) sorbed to iron hydroxide particlesParticles with High Loadings are Called “Nuggets”Arsenic (whitish color) sorbed to iron hydroxide particlesContaminants adsorbed to distinct particles form “nuggets” of high concentration“the iron in a cubic yard of soil [1-1.5 tons] is capable of adsorbing 0.5 to 5 lbs of soluble metals …or organics” (Vance 1994).Speaker NotesParticulate iron minerals, such as oxides, are very good at binding contaminants.One researcher stated that the Fe in a cubic yard of soil can adsorb ½ to 5 lbs of soluble metals or organics.The photomicrograph shows microscopic iron hydroxide grains coated with arsenic. The arsenic appears as a light-colored deposit covering Fe-OH grains (see red arrow).Silicate minerals make up most of the soil mass in the photo. Arsenic does not adsorb to those minerals, so they are dark gray.Photo provided by Roger Brewer with the Hawaii Dept. of HealthSupplemental InformationSee ISM-1 Section 2.2 hyperlinksQuote from the journal article: “Given the average concentration in soil, the iron in a cubic yard of soil is capable of adsorbing from 0.5 to 5 pounds of soluble metals as cations, anionic complexes, or a similar amount of organic[s].” (Vance, 1994). [Reference = David B. Vance. “Iron – The Environmental Impact of a Universal Element,” National Environmental Journal, May/June Vol.4 No. 3 page see also URL =Photo courtesy of Roger Brewer, HDOHITRC, ISM-1, Section 2.2 hyperlinks

35Key Point: Contaminants Often Exist or Behave as Particles1mmNuggetsTiny chunks of pure TNT-based explosive compound isolated from a soil sampleSpeaker NotesThe photo is of Composition B particles from low-order 81-mm mortar. 60% Military grade RDX (Contains about 10% HMX) 39% Military grade TNT.Photo provided by Alan Hewitt (US Army Corp of Engineers Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory).Sometimes contaminants are released directly in particulate form. Examples are explosives residues, organic or metal-based pesticides applied as a dust; airborne smelter residues depositing as dust; and lead and other metals dust and fragments created by firing guns at firing ranges.But even if they were not originally released in particulate form, contaminants behave as if they were particles when they bind to soil particles by the mechanisms just described.As a consequence contaminants are heterogeneous in their spatial distribution throughout even small soil samples.Photo courtesy of Alan Hewitt (USACE)

36Nature of soil and contaminant interactions addressing it leads to:Particulates in Solid Matrices Create“Micro-Heterogeneity”Nature of soil and contaminant interactionsContaminant HeterogeneityResults In:Sampling ErrorsSampling withoutaddressing it leads to:Data VariabilityDecision ErrorsWhich can lead to:Manifested (observed) as:“Micro-heterogeneity” is non-uniformity within the sample jarImportant because contamination is heterogeneous at the same spatial scale as sample analysisSpeaker NotesThis is important because particulate contaminants integrate with soil particles in a non-uniform manner, which creates contaminant heterogeneity at a micro-scale. In other words, contaminants are not uniformly spread out evenly throughout the soil in a jar.This is called “distributional heterogeneity” at a micro-scale.This matters because the mechanics of sample analysis take place at this micro spatial scale. When the lab scoops out subsamples from a jar for analysis, different scoops of soil may have different numbers of contaminant particles.Supplemental InformationSee ISM-1 Section 2.5.2ITRC, ISM-1, Section 2.5.2

37Micro-Heterogeneity Makes Contamination Hard to “Read”Micro-heterogeneity interferes with interpreting analytical resultsIf contaminant distribution is not uniform in the sample jar, how sure that analytical data represent the contents of the jar, much less the field?Huge mismatch between scale of decision-making and scale of sample analysisSpeaker NotesLike in this graphic, heterogeneity makes soil contamination hard to read.Soil may appear to be homogeneous when viewed from the spatial scale of decision-making, but it is NOT homogeneous at the scale at which chemical data are generated.Yet we expect that analyzing tiny samples will tell us the true concentration of tons of soil.Supplemental InformationSee ISM-1 Section 2.4ITRC, ISM-1, Section 2.4

38Metals Analysis on 1 Gram of Soil Guides Decisions on Tonsvs.Speaker NotesBased on the results of analyses performed on a few grams of soil, decisions are made about whether contamination is present (and at what level) in tens to hundreds to thousands of tons of soil.Although a jar of soil containing 100 or more grams of soil is submitted to the lab, routine metals analysis actually analyzes only 0.5, 1 or sometimes 2 gram of soil (depending on the lab) from that jar.Organics analysis typically will analyze from 5 to 30 grams (depending on the lab and the analyte).Photo credits: Roger Brewer, HDOH

39Short-Scale Field Heterogeneity: Co-located SamplesShortest spatial scale in the field measured by “co-located samples” (inches to a few feet apart)Samples anticipated to be “equivalent,” but often give very different resultsChance governs exact location where soil is scoopedTherefore, chance can determine decision outcome!ISM addresses the problems of both micro- and short-scale heterogeneitySet of co-located samples for uranium (mg/kg)Speaker NotesPrevious discussion focused on heterogeneity WITHIN a sample (i.e., within a single jar).Now will focus on heterogeneity BETWEEN samples (i.e., from one sample to another in the field).“Co-located samples” are a QC check designed to assess short-scale heterogeneity.“Co-located samples” are expected to be equivalent in that they are expected to have pretty much the same concentration.But often co-located samples have very different results even though they may be only inches apart.Within the confines of a small area, chance governs which spoonful of core of soil is picked to be put in the jar.Since the concentration of each spoonful might be very different, chance can determine which decision gets made on that area.This is one of the dangers of making decisions based on single grab sample results.Uranium data set: although only about 8 inches apart, sample #1 has a concentration of 30, while sample #2 is nearly 500. If discrete samples are used to make decisions, the decisions in this area would be determined by chance, because the result depends on where the sampler happens to kneel down and dig.Co-located sample results are affected by both short-scale heterogeneity AND within-sample heterogeneity. So unless you have controlled for within-sample heterogeneity, you won’t be able to measure between-sample heterogeneity.Uranium data source: Robert Johnson (US Dept of Energy)Arsenic data source: Deana Crumbling (USEPA). Data from center of a residential yard.Supplemental InformationSee ISM-1 Section 2.2.2As1 ft apart over 4 ftArsenic in residential yard transect (mg/kg)ITRC, ISM-1, Section 2.2.2

40Long-Scale Heterogeneity is Generally at the Scale of Decision-Making50’Speaker NotesLong-scale heterogeneity is the spatial scale at which differences in concentration are expected.Sampling programs are generally designed to search for variation in concentrations at this scale.Figure credit: Roger Brewer, HDOHResults for an actual sampled property. Green circles denote concentrations below the action level; red circles are above the action level.

41Nature of soil and the interaction of contaminantsHeterogeneity Causes Sampling ErrorsNature of soil and the interaction of contaminantsContaminant HeterogeneityResults In:Sampling ErrorsSampling withoutaddressing leads to:Data VariabilityDecision ErrorsWhich can lead to:Manifested (observed) as:Speaker NotesThe next concept is that insufficient control over heterogeneity’s effects can lead to sampling errors. A sampling error is said to occur when the sampling process produces a sample that does not represent the intended population.To discuss sampling errors, need the term, “sample support.”Sample Support: “the size, shape, and orientation of sampling volume (i.e., “support”) for heterogeneous media have a significant effect on reported measurement values.” EPA Soil Screening Guidance: Technical Background Document, EPA/540/R95/128, May 1996Sample support refers to the physical dimensions of a sample as it is collected from the parent material.For example, a 6-inch deep core is a different sample support than scraping up surface soil to a 2-inch depth. A core with a 2-inch diameter is a different sample support from a core with a 5-inch diameter. A 100-gram sample is a different sample support from a 300-gram sample.Sample support is a critical factor governing the results of soil measurements.The following slides explain how this works.Supplemental InformationSee ISM-1 Sections 2.3.2, and 2.2 hyperlinksSampling error occurs when samples fail to mirror (represent) the original targeted populationNeed the concept of “sample support” (the physical dimensions and mass of the sample)ITRC, ISM-1, Section 2.3.2, and 2.2 hyperlinks

42Assumption wrong for solidsConcentration is a Function of Sample Support and Nugget MassCommon assumptionThe amount of soil analyzed makes no difference to what results are obtained.Assumption wrong for solidsCan have the same contaminant nugget mass (blue), BUT in different sample masses (white)…Extraction StepLab SampleReported ConcentrationConcentration (mg/kg) = contaminant mass (mg) / the soil mass (kg)Speaker NotesThe issue of “sample support” for heterogeneous environmental and waste matrices invalidates the common assumption that the reported concentration of an environmental sample should be the same no matter what mass/volume of sample is collected and analyzed.The mass/volume of the sample greatly influences the reported concentration for a sample, especially when contaminants are heterogeneously distributed throughout the parent matrix.It is like putting a drop of dye in water in a water glass vs. in water in gallon jug. The water in the glass will have a more intense color than the water in the jug.For heterogeneous samples (which are affected by the nugget effect to a greater or lesser degree), the analytical result for a sample is determined by how much contaminant (in the form of concentrated nuggets) is captured in that sample amidst a volume of cleaner matrix.The cleaner matrix serves to “dilute” the concentrated particles during sample extraction (for organics) or digestion (for metals).The issue of sample support is becoming an increasingly important determinant of analytical results as more sophisticated analytical technologies and efforts to reduce generation of lab waste drives a trend toward smaller and smaller masses of sample.…get different concentration results

43Smaller Sample Supports More Prone to Sampling Error than Larger OnesSpeaker NotesAnother way sample support influences concentration results is whether the sample support is large enough to accurately capture the particle ratio of the population.In this cartoon, the large container represents a field sample in a jar.The cartoon illustrates how subsample support affects how well a lab subsample represents the field sample.The lab subsample represents the field sample if the ratio of contaminant-laden particles to “cleaner” particles in the subsample mirrors the ratio in the field sample.A sampling error occurs when a subsample does not have same ratio as the field sample.Sampling error is more likely for smaller subsample supports, since they are more likely to under- or over-estimate the proportion of “hot nuggets” to less contaminated “cool” particles.Larger supports are more likely to represent the actual ratio and give a concentration result that is representative of the mean of the jarred field sample.Figure adapted from EPA 530-D , RCRA Waste Sampling Draft Technical Guidance, August 2002, page 92.ISM addresses this problem by collecting many increments which results in a large mass representing the whole volume of the material being investigated.Illustration of sampling error: For the blue and green samples, the proportion of nuggets in the samples do not represent the nugget proportion of the population (the large container)

44Arsenic (As) sorbed to iron hydroxide (Fe-OH) mineral grainsChange the Sample Support and Change the ConcentrationConcentration (mg/kg) = contaminant mass (mg) / the soil mass (kg)Arsenic (As) sorbed to iron hydroxide (Fe-OH) mineral grainsArsenic mass of 5 ng in a sample support of 1 µg of other soil minerals: arsenic conc = 5000 mg/kgSpeaker NotesNuggets carrying high contaminant loading have a huge effect on what the concentration is reported to be. Concentration is determined by 2 things: the mass of the contaminant and the mass of the material that contains the contaminant.A smaller mass of soil that contains some contaminant-laden nuggets will have a higher concentration than if the same nuggets are present in a larger mass of soil.In the picture, the mass of arsenic on the Fe-OH mineral grains was measured to be 5 nanograms. The mass of the soil minerals containing the arsenic is 1 microgram (blue circle). Expressed in common concentration units, 5 ng arsenic in 1 microgram of soil material is 5000 mg/kg.On the other hand, consider if only the arsenic-coated iron hydroxide particle itself were analyzed (red oval). The arsenic might make up 10% of the mass, while iron hydroxide makes up the rest (90%). Then the arsenic concentration would be 100,000 mg arsenic/kg of soil material.When the number of contaminated particles (i.e., the mass of contaminant) stays the same, the concentration will be different depending on how much soil material is digested and analyzed.The notion of “maximum concentration” is meaningless unless a sample support is specified. This applies in the field as well as in the laboratory.Analyze an As-Fe-OH grain by itself and arsenic conc might be 100,000 mg/kg (10%) or more.Figure courtesy of Roger Brewer

45ISM Addresses Sample SupportSame As-Fe-OH grains in 1 gram of other minerals: arsenic conc = mg/kgPhoto credit: Deana CrumblingSpeaker NotesBut what if those same arsenic-bearing grains were present in 1 gram of “cleaner” soil particles (particles that are not laden with arsenic)?Then the arsenic concentration would be 5 ng arsenic in 1 gram of soil or mg/kg.A key concern of ISM is controlling sample support!Supplemental InformationSee ISM-1 Chapters 5 and 6A lack of control over sample support during lab subsampling and in the field is a primary cause of sampling error and data variability.ISM explicitly manages sample support!ITRC, ISM-1, Sections 5 and 6

46Ways to Reduce Sampling Error When Sampling a JarISM stresses the importance of sample support and techniques to reduce sampling errorReduce particle size (grinding)Increase sample support (i.e., extract a larger analytical sample mass)Take many increments to make up the analytical subsample (“incremental subsampling”)Use equipment like rotary splittersSpeaker NotesUnlike routine discrete sampling programs, ISM specifically addresses sample support issues. A project team using ISM must consider the likelihood of nuggets, the analytical subsample’s volume and particle size.Reducing the overall particle size by grinding prior to subsampling may sometimes be required.Increasing the mass of the subsample and incremental subsampling are common ways to reduce subsampling error.If a field sample needs to be split, there are specialized equipment and techniques, such as rotary splitters. Choice of technique is heavily dependent on soil properties.Supplemental InformationSee ISM-1 Chapter 6See also EPA guidance documents:“Guidance for Obtaining Representative Laboratory Analytical Subsamples from Particulate Laboratory Samples”, EPA/600/R-03/027 (Nov 2003); and“RCRA Waste Sampling Draft Technical Guidance”, EPA 530-D (August 2002), Chapter 6ITRC, ISM-1, Table 3-1 and to

47Reducing Short-scale Sampling ErrorGoal is to get THE concentration for a target soil volume, so…IDEAL: analyze whole volume as a single samplePRACTICAL: Increase sample support and sampling coverage by taking many small increments across the area and pooling themThis is what ISM doesSpeaker NotesThe same principles apply to short-scale sampling error. Recall that this refers to extrapolating a single data point to a large field area without taking spatial heterogeneity into account.Taking the whole targeted soil volume as a single sample for analysis would provide THE concentration for that volume without any sampling error. But, of course, that is not possible, so we take samples.Need to have enough samples to include fluctuations in concentration in the result for the soil volume, but without exorbitant cost.This goal can be accomplished by taking increments from many locations and pooling them together for a single analysis.Incremental field sampling increases the sampling density (the number of samples per unit area) AND it increases the sample support of the field sample—both of which help control sampling error.This is what ISM does in its planning stage and field implementation stage.Supplemental InformationSee ISM-1 SectionSet of co-located samples for uraniumITRC, ISM-1, Section

49Study Data for Pb: 5 Laboratory Replicate Subsamples from Same JarDU4 Lab Replicate Analyses on Unground SamplePb, Unground RepsLab Replicate NumberPb concentration (ppm)3500030000250002000015000100005000Speaker NotesDon’t dismiss this data just because all the concentrations are high. Just because these Pb concentrations are much greater than the common risk-related threshold of 400 ppm does not mean that variability at these high concentrations are not important. Decisions about remedy selection and design or soil treatment and disposal may still hinge on differences at these high concentrations.The prime purpose of this graph is to illustrate the extreme variability that soil contamination can display.Soils that are contaminated are more likely to display a nugget effect which manifests as high variability.Soils that are not contaminated (or very lightly contaminated) are less likely to have particles with high contaminant loading, and so typically show less variability.Data variability is striking in this experiment where 5 replicate subsamples were taken from a single unground sample. Each of the 5 subsamples were analyzed for metals. The mass of the subsamples was 2.5 grams.The Pb results varied between 4000 and 28,000. Remember! These are not different field samples…they are 5 different subsamples from the same jar of soil.Fortunately, routine lab quality control checks provide measures of variability. QC includes co-located samples, field splits, lab duplicates, and matrix spike/matrix spike duplicates.Unfortunately, the information provided by these QC results is greatly under-appreciated and often ignored.A small sample mass composed of large particles frequently does not preserve the proportion of constituents as is present in the original population.

50Same Soil Sample After GrindingPre-grind range: Pb Post-grind range: Pb~5000 ppmParticle size reductionDU4 Pb Unground vs. Ground Subsample Replicate30000250002000015000100005000Pb concentration (ppm)Pre-grind repsPost-grind repsSpeaker NotesThis is a continuation of the previous slide, now with ground results for the same sample (“post-grind”, in pink) also included in the graph.5 replicate subsamples were taken for analysis after the sample had been ground. The mass of the subsamples was again 2.5 grams.Variability was markedly reduced, which is the same as saying precision was markedly increased.The dramatic influence of nugget effects in the unground sample is evident by comparing the 2 sets of replicates.This data illustrates how grinding provides the smaller particles and mixing needed to better preserve the sample’s constituent proportions even when small subsamples are used.The larger the particle size in the sample, the more subsample mass is needed to produce a representative subsample.Lab Replicate Number

51Sample Support Influences Statistical DistributionsSmall sample supports contribute to skewed statistical distributionsSpeaker NotesThis graph plots the data from a study done in the 1970s. It directly measured how different masses of analytical samples (i.e., the sample support) influenced the statistical distribution of the data.Measurement units are in nCi/g, a measure of radioactive activity, which is related to the concentration (in ppm) of the radioisotope, in this case americium-241.The experiment involved first preparing a large soil sample (with mass of several kilograms—not shown on the slide—which will be called a batch) from which subsamples of various sizes could be taken (as shown on the slide). Preparing the large batch involved moderate homogenization efforts involving mild grinding and then sieving to less than 10-mesh.A series of 20 subsamples each of different supports were taken from the large prepared batch.The subsample supports that were tested included 1-gram, 10-gram, and 100-g ram.The wider the peak shape, the more variability present in the data set.The data set from the 1-g subsamples plots as a statistical distribution that is unsymmetrical and skewed in that the right-hand tail is pulled out.The 1-g tail does not reach the x-axis until about 5 (note the green subsample on the right with a higher nugget:matrix ratio than the ratio in the 100-g samples).Many samples have low concentrations, reaching down to about 0.25 (green subsample on the left without any high-load nuggets)The width and shape (a low hump) of the curve mean that repeated 1-gram subsamplings of the large batch will produce data results that have a wide spread in values. Frequently there are low results, but sometimes there will be very high results. This variability is also called imprecision. No single result can be trusted to be close to the true mean of the batch.In contrast to the 1-g subsamples, the g subsamples (purple) showed much less skewing of the right tail.The right-hand tail reaches the x-axis just past 3.The left-hand tail shows fewer samples (than the 1-g data set) with very low results, with the lower range of the distribution ending at about 0.8The width of the 10-g peak is narrower, reflecting less variability (more precision) in the 10-g data setFor the 100-g subsamples (red), the statistical distribution is almost symmetrical, with a high tight peak (high precision) and the right skewing nearly gone.The 100-g curve reaches the x-axis on the right at about 2.5On the left, the 100-g curve runs only down to about 1.4The height and narrowness of the 100-g peak indicates that replicate subsamplings of the batch produce values that are close to each other (precise), and most likely close to the true mean for the large batch.Not only do small sample supports increase variability, they also contribute to data taking a lognormal or gamma (or other skewed) statistical distribution.So what does this have to do with decision errors?P.G. Doctor and R.O. Gilbert DOE NAEG Report. Two Studies in Variability for Soil Concentrations: with Aliquot Size and with Distance [provided in webinar References]See also Gilbert, Richard O. and Pamela G. Doctor Determining the Number and Size of Soil Aliquots for Assessing Particulate Contaminant Concentrations. Journal of Environmental Quality Vol 14, No 2, ppSupplemental InformationSee ISM-1 SectionITRC, ISM-1, SectionAdapted from DOE study (Gilbert, 1978)

52Nature of soil and the interaction of contaminantsConcepts Underlying ISM: Avoiding Decision ErrorNature of soil and the interaction of contaminantsContaminant HeterogeneityResults In:Sampling ErrorsSampling withoutaddressing leads to:Data VariabilityDecision ErrorsWhich can lead to:Manifested (observed) as:Decision Error: a decision that would have been made differently if the true condition were knownCan occur when conclusions are based on data that were significantly influenced by heterogeneitySpeaker NotesA decision error is a conclusion that is different from the conclusion the data user WOULD have made if the true condition were known.Decision error in this context refers to using data results to draw a conclusion without taking data variability and other sources of sampling and analytical error into account.Supplemental InformationSee ISM-1 Sections and 2.4.2ITRC, ISM-1, Section and 2.4.2

53Skewed Data Distributions Promote Decision ErrorsSuppose 3 is an action level. The likelihood of single data points exceeding 3 depends on the sample support.True mean of large batch = 1.92Speaker NotesIt is known that the true “concentration” of the large multi-kg batch is 1.92 (refer back to a previous slide)Measurement units are in nCi/g, a measure of radioactive activity, which is related to the concentration (in ppm) of the radioisotope, in this case americium-241.For the sake of discussion, suppose 3 is an action level, which is here shown as the small vertical blue line on the x-axis.Therefore, the true “concentration” of the large batch (1.92) is below the action level of 3The question for a data user is: Will the subsample that is analyzed lead to the correct conclusion about whether the “concentration” of the batch is higher or lower than 3, or could the data lead the user astray?Look again at the curve representing the 1-g subsamples (the heavy-lined curve): Even though the true mean is well below 3, the skewed nature of the data means that sometimes (around 11% of the time) data results are going to be higher than 3, as exemplified by the green subsample on the right. This would contribute to a decision error.Note that there is a 12% chance that a 1-g subsample would have concentrations much lower (less than 1 nCi/g) than the true mean, as exemplified by the green subsample on the left.Look at the curve representing the 10-g subsamples (the purple subsample): Only rarely will a result from a 10-g subsample exceed 3.In contrast, look at the 100-g curve (red subsample). Since that curve ends around 2.5, it is very, very unlikely that any single data result would be greater than 3.Larger subsamples are more likely to provide data results that are close to the true mean, as evidenced by the tighter peaks the 10- and 100-g subsamples show around the true mean.The bottom line is that decisions that are based on a single sample result are more likely to be in error when subsample supports are small.As we talked about before, metals analysis typically uses around 1 gram of soil. Deciding that a few high results represent hotspots could well be decision errors due to the skewed distribution of data from small subsamples. This is why areas initially called hotspots sometimes cannot be found upon repeat sampling.Sampling errors operate in the other direction too. A sample from a true hotspot might give a data result biased far lower than the true value (as illustrated by the “clean” green subsample on the left) and the hotspot would be missed.Gilbert, Richard O. and Pamela G. Doctor Determining the Number and Size of Soil Aliquots for Assessing Particulate Contaminant Concentrations. Journal of Environmental Quality Vol 14, No 2, pp

54Avoiding Decision ErrorsPay attention to QC results in the data package!Suspect sampling error due to micro-scale within- sample heterogeneity whenLab duplicates do not “match”Matrix spikes/matrix spike duplicates do not “match”Suspect sampling error due to short-scale between- sample heterogeneity whenCo-located samples do not “match”Speaker NotesHow can we avoid decision errors?When laboratory duplicates and/or matrix spike/matrix spike duplicates do not match and there is wide variation in results within the data set, suspect that sampling error may be occurring at the within-sample level.If within-sample heterogeneity has been controlled, but co-located samples do not match, the problem is likely short-scale heterogeneity.When sampling error has affected a data set, making decisions based on single sample results is like flipping a coin—it is a matter of chance.Decisions need to be based on the data set as a whole. If the data set is large and decisions are based on the mean, or the UCL on the mean, at least some of these errors could cancel out. But typical discrete data sets are much too small for that to happen.So work plans such as Quality Assurance Project Plans (QAPPs) need to be constructed with procedures that control for heterogeneity’s effects and measure the degree of sampling error present.According to EPA Superfund guidance, data error must be measured for data to be definitive. (USEPA Applicability of Superfund Data Categories to the Removal Program OSWER FS EPA 540-F July 2006.) So QAPP reviewers should recommend that sampling error be quantified and controlled.

55Avoiding Decision Errors (continued)Be wary of making decisions based on a single data pointEspecially when traditional sample collection and handling is usedUse ISM in field and lab!Ensure ISM work plans spell out procedures to detect and control sampling errorSpeaker NotesHow can we avoid decision errors?When laboratory duplicates and/or matrix spike/matrix spike duplicates do not match and there is wide variation in results within the data set, suspect that sampling error may be occurring at the within-sample level.If within-sample heterogeneity has been controlled, but co-located samples do not match, the problem is likely short-scale heterogeneity.When sampling error has affected a data set, making decisions based on single sample results is like flipping a coin—it is a matter of chance.Decisions need to be based on the data set as a whole. If the data set is large and decisions are based on the mean, or the UCL on the mean, at least some of these errors could cancel out. But typical discrete data sets are much too small for that to happen.So work plans such as Quality Assurance Project Plans (QAPPs) need to be constructed with procedures that control for heterogeneity’s effects and measure the degree of sampling error present.According to EPA Superfund guidance, data error must be measured for data to be definitive. (USEPA Applicability of Superfund Data Categories to the Removal Program OSWER FS EPA 540-F July 2006.) So QAPP reviewers should recommend that sampling error be quantified and controlled.

56Summary: PrinciplesInadequate management of soil heterogeneity produces highly variable data setsThe “maximum concentration” notion is meaninglessChance data variability can be misinterpreted to represent the “true” condition for large soil volumesMisinterpreting data, especially single data points, can lead to costly decision errorsThe “nuts and bolts” of managing sampling error in the field and lab will be presented in Part 2Speaker NotesIn summary: Inadequate management of soil heterogeneity produces data sets tainted by sampling errors that manifest as data variability where data consistency would be expected.If single data results or very small data sets are used to make decisions, data variability and chance can produce data that might be misinterpreted as the “true” condition for large volumes of soil.Misinterpreting data sets can lead to costly and non-protective decision errors about risk, compliance and remediation of soils.Controlling sampling error is a prime feature of ISM, and more information on this will be presented throughout this webinar and in the ITRC ISM Tech-Reg document.Supplemental InformationSee ISM-1 Sections 5, 6 and 7ITRC, ISM-1, Sections 5, 6, and 7

57Acknowledge her or be hobbled by the consequencesHeterogeneity Rules!$You Can't Fool Mother NatureSpeaker NotesAs a bit of whimsy, this slide is meant to convey that heterogeneity is the natural state for soils.Pretending that heterogeneity doesn’t exist will hobble our projects with wasted time and money.Incremental sampling methodology is key to managing micro-scale heterogeneity to reduce subsampling error in the lab, as well as increasing sampling densities to manage short-scale heterogeneity in the field.The next section of the training will delve into another aspect of ISM that must be carefully planned, which is how to select the appropriate decision unit (DU) size, configuration, and location.Acknowledge her or be hobbled by the consequences

64Data/Information NeedsWhat receptors and pathways are being evaluated?What are your sampling objectives?Are there multiple sampling objectives that must be met?What is the scale of decision making?What population parameter is of interest?The key is the volume over whichthe mean should be estimated.No associated notes.

65Example Sampling ObjectivesEstimate the mean concentration of contaminants in a pre-determined volume of soil (i.e., DU)Delineate the extent of contamination above screening levelsEstimate the potential risk to receptors posed by the soil contaminationEvaluate background metals concentrations in soilConfirmation sampling following remediationNo associated notes.

66Designating Decision Units (DUs)Information used to develop DUsWhy DUs are so importantTypes of DUsExamplesInformation that can be used to determine DUs includes: Historical site use; aerial photos for possible source areas; existing sampling data; interviews with current or former site workers; sampling objectives; and data quality objectives.Stakeholder Agreement

67Decision Units (DUs) Source Areas Exposure AreasThe volume of soil where samples are to be collected and decisions made based on the resulting data.Exposure AreasSource AreasSize, shape and type of DU are an outcome of systematic planning and depend on site specific data quality objectives.Refer to ITRC ISM-1 Section Exposure Area Decision Units andITRC ISM-1 Section Source Area Decision UnitsITRC, ISM-1, Section 3.3

69Traditional Site Investigation ApproachProposed Discrete Samples (30)DU-1BuildingPotential ConcernsInadequate number of sample points to define outward boundariesHigh risk of False Negatives and False PositivesConfusion over single point “hot spots”Cost of 30 analysesSample points should be randomly located for estimation of exposure point concentration (EPC)Simple discrete design. Poor at identifying site boundaries, high risk of false negatives and false positives, potential to consider a single data point a hot spot, more expensive, and not a good design for estimating risk for an exposure area.

70Designate an exposure area DU assuming no source areaISM Approach (Option 1)Designate an exposure area DU assuming no source areaBuildingIncrement locationAdvantagesMore representativeRisk evaluation objective identified up frontIncrements randomly and evenly spaced to minimize size of hot spot missedQuick and cheap if minimal contamination suspectedDisadvantagesAdditional sampling required if DU failsThe Decision Statement: "Does contamination in soil around the perimeter of the building pose potential direct exposure concerns?” is the same as it was for the discrete design on the previous slide. This is agreed upon before the investigation. If the mean concentration is lower than a target screening level then no further action will be required. If the mean concentration exceeds a target screening level then remediation and/or further delineation will be required.

71ISM Approach (Option 2) Advantages Four Decision UnitsDU-1BuildingDU-3DU-2DU-4AdvantagesAddresses both source area and perimeter as well as directional variability if an exceedance is foundBest approach to minimize additional samplingWill minimize remediation volumes if DU exceeds screening levelIf increments are collected using cores, vertical delineation is easily done with stacked DUsNo associated notes.

72Suspected Lead Paint and Pesticides Around House and in YardSource Area DU: perimeter of houseExposure Area DU: remainder of the yardExample Decision Units for estimating the concentration of lead from lead-based paint around a home as well as pesticides in the yard.Do lead or pesticides exceed action levels around the house or in the yard?

74Source Area and Exposure Area DU DesignationExposure Area DUs(arsenic and dioxins;direct exposure hazards)Source Area DUs(triazine pesticides;leaching hazards)Use of small source area DUs and larger exposure area DUs for estimating the boundaries of contamination.Primary objective is to delineate the source area and the extent of contamination.

76Former Power Plant Proposed Community CenterTransformer repair areaNo associated notes.100’Primary objective is to identify and delineate source area and extent of contamination that exceeds action levels.

78Really Big Decision Units (DU)! (400-acre former sugarcane field)Source Area DU(investigated separately)Initial Screening DUResidual pesticide levels?OK for residential development?Lot-Scale ResolutionHypothetical lots5,000 ft2 Exposure AreaMay also be requiredRefer to ITRC ISM-1 SectionPrimary objective is to determine if property can be developed for residential use.

79Really Small Decision Units??? What about the Sandbox!?Yard-size DUs are most often appropriateIf acute hazards or intense exposure are being evaluated, smaller DUs may be necessaryNot typicalInvestigate known or suspected source areas separatelyRemember: As sampling objectives change, so must the sampling designNo associated notes.

85Stockpile Decision Units10 mThe soil from the stockpile was to be used for fill material in a residential development, and spread out to a depth of six inches over 5,000 square foot lots. This is approximately 100 cubic yards of soil per residential lot. The stockpile was then divided into 100 cubic yard DUs.Refer to ITRC ISM-1 Section and Figure 3-10ITRC, ISM-1, Section and Figure 3-10

90Summary: Systematic PlanningConduct Systematic PlanningIt’s important to develop a CSM before beginning a sampling designBe sure that your sampling design will achieve your sampling objectivesBe certain that your sampling design will provide the kind of data necessary to fulfill the sampling objectivesDecision Unit designationMake sure that all site information has been used to develop your DUsBe sure that your scale of decision making aligns with your sampling objectivesNo associated notes.

93Questions – Data Analysis1. Does a single ISM sample provide a reasonable estimate of the mean?What is the statistical foundation for ISM?Section 4.2.1Can a 95UCL be calculated with ISM data?Note that section numbers of the document are given for more detailed discussions of these topics.If the answer to #2 is yes – then the next question is - what UCL method should be used?Section 4.2.295UCL = 95% Upper Confidence Limit of the mean

94Questions – Sampling Design3. What sampling design should I use?4. Is it reasonable to assume that concentrations are similar across DUs?5. Can background and site data be compared using ISM?SectionSection 4.4.2- Sampling designs include multiple features: sampling pattern, number of increments, and number of replicates.- Extrapolation requires assumptions that the mean or variance are the same across multiple DUs.Sections and 7.2.4

951. Does a single ISM provide a reasonable estimate of the mean?Answer:It depends how much error we are willing to accept. Under some circumstances, one ISM sample can substantially underestimate the actual mean concentration.Why would someone collect just 1 ISM?UCL not required by regulatorSave time and expenseAssumption that more sampling wouldn’t change the decision. For exampleVariance among individual increments is lowMean of DU is far above or below an action levelSection 4.2.1Think of each ISM result (or “replicate”) as providing one point estimate from a distribution of possible means – the arithmetic mean of that distribution, also called the “grand mean”, is equal to the population mean. No sampling design yields a perfect estimate of the mean. The magnitude of the error in the estimate increases as: 1) the number of replicates decreases; and 2) the variance of the distribution of means increases.ITRC, ISM-1, Section 4.2.1

961(b). How “badly” might I underestimate the mean?ProbabilityUnderestimate of Mean60%40%20%0%20% 40% 60% 80%CV=1.0CV=2.0CV=3.0CVFrequencyMagnitudeTrue MeanEstimate133%10%400 ppm≤ 360 ppm220%≤ 320 ppm325%%ppmFigure 4-2, Section 4.2.1The CV in each case is based on the standard deviation of the “underlying distribution”. We generally do not know this SD (and therefore, cannot calculate the CV) since we do not measure concentrations in each increment that is composited to generate the ISM. The CV may be estimated if we also had discrete sampling.*Coefficient of variation (CV) = St Dev / meanITRC, ISM-1, Section 4.2.1, Figure 4-2

972. Can a 95UCL be calculated?Answer:Yes, even with as few as 3 ISM samples (replicates).Need at least 3 replicates (r ≥ 3)Supported by theory and statistical simulationsFewer methods are available than we are used to with discrete sampling:ChebyshevStudent’s-tSection 4.2.2UCL methods used with specific distributions (e.g., lognormal, gamma) would require larger sample sizes than are typically available with ISM data. UCL methods based on bootstrap resampling would also require larger sample sizes.Each ISM result provides an estimate of the mean (“x-bar”)Parameter estimates are calculated directly from ISM data

982(b). How do I choose a UCL method?CV = 3.0Consider performance measures (informed by simulation study)Coverage (probability UCL > mean)Magnitude of difference between UCL and meanRecognize the key to performance is variabilityDistribution of discretes ≠ Distribution of ISM resultsCV = standard deviation / mean = 3.0 refers to distribution of discretesWith only ISM results, assumptions about variability are very uncertainIn these examples, the true mean is meant to be The pink distribution represents discrete data; the blue distribution represents ISM data. Chebyshev will yield a higher UCL than Student’s t. This allows for better coverage but also a greater magnitude of difference between the UCL and mean. Performance varies depending on the underlying distribution’s shape and variance. This makes the choice difficult because ISM data do not give much information about the underlying distribution.

99Distribution of Means (ISM Replicates)ISM (N=30)DiscreteCV = 0.5CV = 1.0CV = 3.0CV = 2.0f(x)Concentration250Central Limit Theorem suggests that the distribution of means approaches normality with increasing sample sizes (number of increments). However, as demonstrated here, deviations from normality are apparent for the bottom two scenarios (CV = 2 and 3). This has implications for the performance metrics of the Student’s-t UCL, which provides sufficient coverage so long as the assumption of normality (of the mean) holds true.ISM distribution variance is smallerISM distribution shape becomes more non-normal with increasing CV of discrete distributionITRC, ISM-1, Figure 4-3

100Distribution of UCLsCV = 1.1, n=30 increments, Student’s-t UCL, repeated 2,000 timesr = 2r = 4Frequency (%)r = 3r = 5Distribution of UCLs can only be examined by simulation studies. Increasing number of increments and replicates will affect the coverage of Cheby-UCL and t-UCL differently. With Cheby-UCL, the increase in sample size will increase the coverage of the UCL. With t-UCL, increasing sample size does not provide improved coverage. Instead, coverage of t-UCL is dictated by the variance of the underlying distribution. Nevertheless, increasing r does have benefits: 1) will shrink the absolute value of the UCL – so difference between UCL and true mean is smaller; 2) increases the spatial area of the DU that is sampled – so we are even more likely to represent areas of high and low in the right proportions.Student’s t-UCLCoverage is determined by the proportion of UCLs that fall to the left of the “true mean” – here given by the red linesIncreasing r does not reduce the likelihood of t-UCL< true meanITRC, ISM-1, Appendix A, Figure A-12

101Coverage ProbabilitiesCV based on underlying distribution of incrementsBoth methods provide desired 95% coverage when variability is lowChebyshev has more consistent 95% coverage for medium and high variabilityIncreasing r (>3) and n (>30) provides marginal improvement in coverage for Chebyshev, but no improvement for Student's-tThis table reflects consensus results from simulation studies conducted by several members of the ISM team. This table specifically summarizes simulations of many thousands of applications of an ISM sampling protocol to hypothetical DUs. We assumed that the distribution of increments was lognormally distributed with CVs ranging from < 1.5 to > 3. ISM sampling protocols were also varied to investigate performance using different numbers of increments and replicates.ITRC, ISM-1, Table 4-4, Sections , , ; Appendix A.6.6, Fig. A-1, A-10, A-14, A-15, A-19, A-21ITRC, ISM-1, Table 4-4, Sections 4.3; Appendix A

102How much higher is Chebyshev?Chebyshev will tend to yield 10-45% higher UCLs than Student’s-t depending on the CV of 3 replicatesExample: Student’s-t = 100 ppm, Chebyshev = ppm1.5Chebyshev1.41.3Chebyshev / Student’s-tStudent’s-t1.2When both methods are applied to the same dataset, Chebyshev will yield 10-45% higher UCLs than Student’s-t. For example, if the Student’s t-UCL is 100 ppm, we might expect the Chebyshev UCL to be between 110ppm and 145 ppm. The exact difference depends on the variability in ISM results. Here we express that variability as the ratio of the SD to the mean (i.e., the CV). This CV of ISM replicates should not be confused with the CV of increments that was presented in the previous slide on coverage. Note that the Central Limit Theorem suggests that CV of replicates is ~ 5.5 times smaller than CV of increments when each replicate is comprised of n=30 increments. (SD replicates = SD increments / sqrt(30), and sqrt(30) = 5.48). So if CV of increments = 3.0, then CV of replicates = At this degree of variability, Chebyshev will yield about 20% higher UCL than Student’s t.1.11.01.02.03.04.05.0CV of ISM ReplicatesITRC, ISM-1, Section

1032(c). Can I use ProUCL to calculate the 95UCL?Answer:Unfortunately, no. However, there are other tools available to calculate a 95UCL from ISM data (visit the website for a link).ProUCL is designed to work with discrete sample data.ISM replicates are fundamentally different from discrete samples, and data are typically available for only a few replicates.ITRC guidance has calculator tools that work for ISM data (see ISM-1, Sections at 1/4_2_2_UCL_Calculation_Method.html)ProUCL provides more options for UCL calculations, but needs n=8 to 10 observations in order to evaluate distributions or conduct bootstrap resampling.ITRC, ISM-1, Sections 4.2.2

1042(d). What does the variability in ISM reveal?UnbiasedBiasedImprecisePreciseAccuracy reflects both bias and precision (reproducibility)These are metrics of the performance on average. They can only be assessed through simulation of many hypothetical sampling events – not by the results of any single ISM sampling eventFigure 4-6 in Section and Appendix E (Glossary)Before answering this, it is important to review the meaning of bias and precision (reproducibility), and how they can both contribute to error.Bias = the tendency for a measurement to consistently over- or underestimate the actual (true) value. Together precision and bias determine accuracy.Precision (reproducibility) = a measure of reproducibility. Together precision and bias determine accuracyITRC, ISM-1, Section 4.3.1, Figure 4-6 and Appendix E

1052(d). What does the variability in ISM reveal?Answer:High RSD can be an indication of lab error. Low RSD does not necessarily indicate that the results are sufficiently accurate to avoid decision error.RSD is the ratio of statistics calculated from ISM replicatesRSD = SD / meanIf the goal is to make sure that the mean is not underestimated, a 95UCL should be calculated regardless of whether the RSD is high or lowSectionRSD measures reproducibility, not accuracy of the results.A high RSD can be caused by lab error and should be investigated. A low RSD suggests the absence of lab error, but does not necessarily indicate that the results are sufficiently accurate to avoid decision error.ITRC, ISM-1, Section

1063. Is there a preferred ISM sampling design?Implementation of sampling designs requires coordination between the statistician and field collection team. If the statistician provides a set of coordinates (selected at random), the field team will first place flags to match those locations in the field.

1073. Is there a preferred ISM sampling design?Simple RandomRandom within GridSectionWith ISM, we can consider each of the 30 points to represent an individual increment. Collectively, the set of increments are combined to form a single composite sample that yields 1 ISM result. In the four sampling designs shown, each of these patterns is a form of random sampling. This means that the exact locations of the individual increments can change with each new sampling event. With #1, even though the increments are equidistant, the location of the first increment is selected a random from within the grid cell. With #2, three sampling events are shown (circle, square, triangle), each with a different random “starting” location. It is clear how the density of the samples (or “spatial coverage”) can be very high with ISM designs that involve multiple replicates.SystematicSystematic (3 replicates)ITRC, ISM-1, Section

1083. Is there a preferred ISM sampling design (continued)?Answer:Each random sampling design yields unbiased estimates of the mean and is an acceptable approach in most situations.Systematic random sampling is most often used because it is the easiest to implement random sampling,Concentration (mg/kg)100200f(x)Section (sampling design) and Section (bias)Random sampling from a population generates an estimate of the mean concentration of that population with desirable statistical properties.Bias is one metric used to evaluate the performance of a parameter estimation method. A sampling method is unbiased if, when repeated many times, the parameter estimate equals the population parameter. This examples shows the distribution of increments for three sampling events applied to a DU with a true (population) mean of 100 mg/kg. For purposes of presentation, we also assume that the distribution is normal. While no individual ISM is centered on the mean, on average (if repeated many times), we would expect the estimate of the mean to equal 100 mg/kg.ITRC, ISM-1, Section

1093(b). How many increments?Answer:n = 30: generally, 30 increments per ISM sample provide good results. Lower numbers are discouraged and higher numbers provide diminishing improvement in statistics.As the number of increments increases:spatial coverage improves (greater sample density)lower variability in ISM results (smaller standard deviation)95UCL will tend to be closer to the meanSize of DU can be a consideration – large DUs may require more incrementsSectionSample support and spatial coverage are usually optimized at about 30 increments. Lesser numbers compromise the ability of ISM to address sampling error; larger numbers provide limited improvement in error reduction. In the simulations, we calculated the difference between the UCL and mean using the “relative percent difference”, RPD = (UCL – mean) / meanITRC, ISM-1, Section

1103(c). How many replicates?Answer:r =3 : for most DUs, three replicates is sufficient.Minimum number to calculate standard deviation (and 95UCL) of ISM resultsMore replicates will produce a 95UCL closer to the actual mean, but may not be cost-effective unless the result is near the action level3No associated notes.ITRC, ISM-1, Section

1114. Can I extrapolate results across DUs?Unsampled DU – extrapolate estimate of meanDU with 1 ISM – extrapolate estimate of variabilityStandard deviation (SD)Coefficient of variation (CV)?DU-1=DU-2Section 4.4.2There are different assumptions associated with each, and therefore different answers…If you extrapolate variability, generally use the CV instead of the SD. This is because the CV estimates standard deviation based on the estimate of the mean: CV = SD/mean. This is more consistent with contamination that has a non-normal (or “positively skewed”) distribution (e.g., lognormal, gamma). Extrapolation of the SD is only recommended if the distribution of the concentrations of individual increments is approximately normal.ITRC, ISM-1, Section 4.4.2

1124(b). Extrapolation of the MeanAnswer:You are assuming that the mean concentration in the unsampled DU(s) is the same as in the sampled DU.DU-1:Mean = 100SD = ?DU-2:Extrapolation:?DU-1=DU-2Extrapolation is usually reserved for very large sites where sampling all DUs is prohibitively expensive.There is usually no confirmation of this assumption, so the rationale for the assumption must be very strong.Note that there is nothing magic about ISM that diminishes the uncertainty of extrapolating from sampled to unsampled areas. If you wouldn’t do it with discrete data, you shouldn’t do it with ISM.ITRC, ISM-1, Section 4.4.2

1134(c). Extrapolation of the VarianceAnswer:You are assuming that the heterogeneity in contaminant concentrations is similar in all of the DUs.DU-1:Mean = 100SD = 50CV = SD/mean = 50/100 = 0.5DU-2:Mean = 400Extrapolation:CV = 0.5 = x / 400thereforeSD = x = 200?DU-1=DU-2Extrapolation of variance is valid only if the distributions of concentrations in each DU are statistically similar.If you extrapolate variability, generally use the CV instead of the SD. This is because the CV estimates standard deviation based on the estimate of the mean: CV = SD/mean. This is more consistent with contamination that has a non-normal (or “positively skewed”) distribution (e.g., lognormal, gamma). Extrapolation of the SD is only recommended if the distribution of the concentrations of individual increments is approximately normal.ITRC, ISM-1, Section 4.4.2

1145. Can background and site ISM data be compared?Answer:Yes, but statistical tools for comparison are limited.Concentration (mg/kg)100200f(x)Concentration (mg/kg)100200f(x)SectionThe concept is to compare distributions. With ISM, we will generally have too few data points (e.g., r=3) to determine distribution shapes, or to use non-parametric methods. One cannot compare discrete data to ISM data because they represent the distribution of concentrations very differently.BackgroundDU-1Each data sets consists of ISM samples, preferably generated with similar sampling designsITRC, ISM-1, Section

1155. Can background and site ISM data be compared?Answer:Yes, but statistical tools for comparison are limited.BackgroundEqual central tendency (mean, median) ?Equal upper tails ?Hypothesis testing is limited to parametric tests of the mean:Assume distribution shapeUse estimates of mean, SD, and number of replicatesCannot test upper tails with ISM dataDU-1The concept is to compare distributions of ISM results. With ISM, we will generally have too few data points (e.g., r=3) to determine distribution shapes.Because of the small sample size, statistical power is too low to allow for non-parametric hypothesis tests like Wilcoxon Rank Sum (Mann Whitney).ITRC, ISM-1, Section

1165. Example Background Comparison0.50.40.30.20.1Concentration (mg/kg)Figure 7-1, Section 7.2.4Dot plots can be a useful graphic for presenting ISM results. While not the same as a formal statistical test, the graphic presents information in a manner that can support decisions.Reference Area(sample mean = 0.17)Site(sample mean = 0.18)ITRC, ISM-1, Section 7.2.4, Figure 7-1

117Recap of Learning ObjectivesSee: Section 4 and Appendix ASingle ISMUCL SelectionSampling DesignExtrapo-lationBackgroundBackgroundExtrapolationThis Module 4 brings the Day-1 training to an end. The focus of this module has been on specific questions that can be addressed through statistical analysis of ISM data. For more detailed discussion of these concepts and an overview of the simulations that were performed to support the recommendations that have been provided, please refer to Section 4 and Appendix A of the document.

118Summary: Statistical DesignMean or 95UCL from ISM data may be used to make decisions about a site3 replicate samples provide adequate information to calculate a 95UCLSystematic random sampling is most commonly usedAbout 30 increments per ISM sample is usually sufficientExtrapolation of the mean or variance can be very uncertainComparisons between ISM data (e.g., site vs. background) are possible, with cautionNo associated notes.

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