The origins and authorship of
China’s oldest military classic, The Art of War, remain unknown, but it
is generally believed that the book in its present form is a composite of
several military treatises which existed during the period of the Warring States
(476—221 B.C.). Hence a certain amount of repetition and disjointed thoughts
which we have tried to minimise in this translation, e.g. chapter 11, and a few
irrelevant introductory remarks which we have omitted, e.g. chapters 7 and 8.

Much literature on military
science was either lost or destroyed as Confucianism gained ascendancy in China
and pacifism supplanted militancy. The Art of War remained in obscurity
until Emperor Wu, a great soldier and statesman of the Wei Dynasty (55-220
A.D.), produced a new edition with a personal commentary. Since then there have
been many other annotated Chinese editions. The first translation was by a
Jesuit priest in 1772 (Art Militaire des Chinois) and the first English
translation appeared in 1910.

Over 2000 years have passed
since the original book was compiled, yet The Art of War remains
surprisingly full of sound, relevant thinking and instruction on traditional
combat and warfare.

1. Planning

War determines life and death,
the rise and fall of a State. It is therefore of vital importance that the art
of war should be studied with great care.

In the study of warfare these
five principles should be considered:

(1) The Moral Cause. A just and
noble cause will unite the men with their leader. They will follow him through
every vicissitude and gladly sacrifice their lives.

(2) The Climate. Consideration
must be given to the weather, the seasons and the time of day or night.

(3) The Terrain. Similarly,
careful account must be taken of the nature of the land, distances to be covered
and difficulties likely to be encountered on the way.

(4) The Command. The general
must be an outstanding leader---wise, loyal to his men, brave, compassionate yet
firm.

(5) Organisation and Discipline.
Order and the skilful management of men and affairs are essential, so that every
advantage may be fully utilised.

The general who thoroughly
understands and applies these five principles will be victorious. If he ignores
them, he will be defeated.

Based on the answers to the
following questions, the outcome of a war can be forecast:

(1) Which party has the stronger
moral cause?

(2) Which has the better
general?

(3) Which has the advantage of
climate and terrain?

(4) Which has the superior
army---better trained officers, more disciplined men, order and efficient
management, a better system of rewards and punishments?

The generals who can deliberate
in this fashion will surely win and their services must be retained. The
generals who do not consider these questions are bound to lose and should be
dismissed.

A good general should be able to
deal with all kinds of emergencies and modify his plans to suit changing
circumstances in order to achieve the best results.

War is mainly a game of deception. The strong should feign
weakness, the active inactivity. If the goal is near, pretend it is far away. If
the objective is far off, pretend that it is close.

Lull the enemy with small
“victories”; entice them into complete with bait. Then attack and throw them
into complete disorder so that they may be crushed with ease.

If the enemy are powerful, extra
care must be taken in one’s preparations. Know and avoid the enemy’s strong
points, attack their weaknesses. If they are angry, provoke them further.
Pretend to be weak to make them arrogant and overconfident. When they are eager
for action, weary them with delays. When they are united, try to create discord
and internal dissension. Attack where and when least expected.

All these considerations, which
are essential to military success, must be kept secret.

From the way a war is planned,
one can forecast its outcome. Careful planning will lead to success and careless
planning to defeat. How much more certain is defeat if there is no planning at
all!

2.
Preparations

In the conduct of a war
thousands of chariots and carriages and tens of thousands of soldiers may be
deployed. Provisions may have to be transported over thousands of li (a Chinese
mile). The total expenses for an army of one hundred thousand may amount to
thousands of taels of silver per day.

When victory is long delayed the
enthusiasm of the army may be diminished. A long siege exhausts the men.
A protracted war impoverishes the Treasury. When thus over-extended, a country
offers a golden opportunity to its other enemies and, in its weakened condition,
even its most resourceful leaders will be of no avail.

The foolish may sometimes win a
quick victory, but even the cleverest men will fail in a protracted war.
Prolonged fighting has never benefited any country,
vanquished or victorious.

Those who are not fully aware of
the dangers of war cannot wage war profitably.

The experienced leader will
ensure that there does not have to be a second conscription of men and that
provisions do not have to be replenished more than twice. Supplied
with adequate arms, the army should be made to live by foraging on the enemy. In
this way there will be adequate food for the men.

Military provisions transported
long distances would impoverish the government as well as the populace.

War causes inflation which in
turn depletes resources. As a country becomes poorer, levies and taxes become
heavier. People may lose as much as seven-tenths of their possessions and
the State use up as much as three-fifths of its total revenue. Therefore a wise
general makes it possible for the army to live off the enemy. A small amount of
food seized from the enemy is worth twenty times one’s own.

Men are incited to kill by
provocation and enticed to win by loot.

The first to capture ten
chariots or more should be rewarded, and, after changing colours, the captured
chariots should be put to use, while the prisoners should be treated kindly. The
way to increase one’s own strength is by appropriating the resources of the
vanquished.

To sum up, one should aim at a
swift victory and avoid protracted wars.

The experienced in warfare
control the welfare of the people and the safety of the State.

3.
Strategy

It is better to subdue than to
destroy an enemy State, army, regiment, company, even squadron.

To conquer the enemy without
having to resort to war is a greater achievement than fighting to win every
battle.

The highest form of military
leadership is to overcome the enemy by strategy. The next best way is to absorb
the enemy through an alliance. Third best is to conquer the enemy in battle. The
least satisfactory means of victory is to lay siege to walled cities.

This should be avoided if at all
possible, for it takes at least three months to make all the preparations, and
another three months to build the siege ladders. Impatience might lead to
reckless, futile attacks resulting in the loss of many men. Such are the
dangers of laying siege to a walled city.

Through clever strategy skilful
leaders can conquer the enemy without fighting battles, capture cities without
laying siege to them and annex States without prolonged warfare.
They can control an Empire without endangering their men, or win a complete
victory without even wearying them.

If you outnumber the enemy by
ten to one, surround them; by five to one, attack them; by two to one, divide
them. If you are equally matched, take the offensive. If the enemy forces are
slightly stronger, prepare for defence; if vastly superior, retreat, for no
matter how valiantly a small force may fight, it must succumb in the end to
greater strength and numbers.

Generals are guardians of the
State. Their proficiency in warfare is the country’s strength, their deficiency
its weakness.

A sovereign may bring disaster
on his army if:

(1) he interferes in military
command and orders an advance or a retreat at the wrong time,

(2) he causes disorder in the
army by making the mistake of treating military matters in the same way as civil
matters, and

(3) he undermines the morale of
officers and men by appointing commanders who are ignorant and inept.

Bringing disorder into the army
is tantamount to inviting defeat by the enemy who are sure to take advantage of
a demoralised army.

The five ways to victory are:

(1) to know when to fight and
when not to fight,

(2) to know how to match a small
force against a large one,

(3) to have the whole-hearted
support of all the men,

(4) to seize every possible
advantage or opportunity, and

(5) to be able to lead and
command without interference from the sovereign.

In conclusion, it may be said
that the leader who has a thorough knowledge of his own as well as enemy
conditions is sure to win. The man who knows his own condition but not the
enemy’s has an even chance of victory. But the man who has no knowledge of
either his own or enemy conditions is bound to lose every battle.

4.
Tactics

In ancient times great
military leaders would first ensure their own invulnerability, and then wait for
an opportunity to defeat the enemy.Security against defeat depends on
one’s own efforts, whereas the opportunity of victory depends partly on the
enemy. Thus, even the greatest leaders can only secure themselves against
defeat. They cannot be sure of an opportunity for victory. It may be said
that no one can be absolutely sure of victory.

Securing against defeat requires
defensive tactics, fighting
for victory requires offensive tactics. With an inferior force, defence is
the more advisable course; with a superior force, it is better to attack.

A leader experienced in
defensive tactics is able to position his forces in safe, inaccessible places. A
general adept in offensive tactics is able to position his troops at all vantage
points. The one aims to keep his forces intact, the other to crush the enemy.

Lifting a strand of hair does
not indicate unusual strength, being able to see the sun and the moon does not
indicate sharp vision, being able to hear thunder does not indicate sensitive
hearing. Similarly, a victory which anyone could win or the conquest of an
empire by mass slaughter does not merit the highest praise.

According to the ancients, the truly great in warfare are those who
not only win but win with such ease and ingenuity that their wisdom and courage
often go unrecognised. Such men do their best to ensure that victory will
be theirs before they even commence fighting, placing themselves in an
invulnerable position and not missing any opportunity to defeat the enemy. The
winner does everything to ensure success before he fights. The loser
rushes into combat without adequate preparation.

To be sure of victory the wise
in warfare see to it that they first have a strong moral cause and that the army
is well disciplined.

The science of war may be
summarised under these headings:

(1) Measurement of distances

(2) Estimation of expenses

(3) Evaluation of forces

(4) Assessment of possibilities

(5) Planning for victory.

Having measured geographical
distances, we make an estimate of expenses. Based on the estimation of expenses,
we evaluate the strength of the forces. On the strength of the forces, we assess
the possibilities of success and failure. On our assessment of the
possibilities, we plan for victory.

A confident army easily
outmatches a fearful army,
just as twenty taels outweigh one-twenty fourth of a tael. A
confident army attacking is like flood waters pouring into a chasm thousands of
fathoms deep.

5.
Organisation

Controlling a large army is the
same as controlling a small army. It is only a matter of organisation.
Similarly, whether fighting against a large or small army, one should follow the
same guiding principles of good organisation and efficient communication.

Soldiers should be carefully
divided into regulars and reserves so that the attacks of the enemy may be
successfully repulsed.

An attack should have the
forceful impact of a grinding stone crushing eggs. To do this the strength and
weaknesses of the enemy must first be ascertained.

In battle the regulars should be
used first. Reserves should be used with care. Marshalling reserves requires the
resourcefulness of sky, land and sea; the versatility of the sun and moon; the
continuity of the four seasons.

Various combinations of just
five musical notes can produce endless melodies. Combinations of just five
colours can create boundless beauty. Combinations of just five flavours can
produce an unlimited variety of delicious food. Similarly, when attacking, one
is restricted to using either regulars or reserves, but the variation is
infinite. Who can know all the possible variations? One method may lead to
another, like moving in a circle and never reaching the end.

With sudden force rushing
torrents move boulders. With correct timing the hovering falcon pounces on its
prey. In like manner the skilful leader attacks with terrifying speed and
perfect timing. On the verge of attack his army is like a taut bow, in
attacking like a trigger released.

Troop movements may appear
confused and disorderly, but in reality everything is done according to plan
and order.

To simulate disorder there must
be strict discipline. To simulate fear requires great courage. To simulate
weakness one must be strong.

Order or disorder depends on
organisation. Courage or fear depends on how an attack is implemented. Strength
or weakness depends on appearances.

Weary the enemy by making them chase after false prizes. Entice them
from their secure position and then ambush them.

The skilful general seeks
victory from an opportune situation, relying less on the efforts of individuals.
He selects the men to suit the situation (just as a builder selects the right
materials for the job). Logs and stones placed on a firm base remain stable.
When they are placed on an insecure foundation they tend to shift. In a corner
they remain still. Remember, the nature of a round object is to roll.

A great general pushes his army
forward just as gravity and momentum create an avalanche thousands of feet down
a mountain slope.

6. Seizing Opportunities

The army which reaches the
battlefield early has time to rest while waiting for the enemy. The army which
reaches the battlefield late has to rush into action while still weary and
exhausted.

The skilful general makes the
enemy traverse distances and encounter many dangers to meet him, while he waits
at ease. He entices the enemy into going where he wishes them to be and
prevents them from reaching their objective. He will not let them rest when
weary or eat though food is plentiful. He forces them to move on when they wish
to make camp.

Attack where enemy forces are
expected to appear, appear where they do not expect an attack.

If an army can travel thousands
of li without feeling weary, it must be due to the absence of opposition.

Attack where the enemy’s defence
is weak. Defend from
an impregnable position. In attacking, do not let the enemy find a strong
position of defence. In defending leave the enemy at a loss as to where to
attack.

Be subtle, unpredictable, almost
mystical, intangible! In this way you will control the fate of the enemy.

When an army can travel faster
than the enemy it can retreat without danger of pursuit and capture.

If you wish to draw the enemy
out of an inaccessible stronghold, attack some other position which they have to
defend. If you do not
wish to engage in battle and would rather remain fixed in your position, mislead
the enemy with unexpected sorties.

If you know the battle plans of
the enemy and at the same time can keep them ignorant of yours, you can
concentrate your forces and divide theirs, so that your whole army can be pitted
against their disintegrated groups.

Do not reveal where you plan to
attack, so that the enemy will have to prepare to defend several possible
places, thereby further scattering their forces and weakening their resistance
at any one point. If
they concentrate on defending their rear, their front line will be weak; if they
concentrate in front, their rear will be

vulnerable
to attack. If they strengthen the defence of their right flank, the left will be
weak; and if they strengthen the left, the right will suffer. If they spread
their forces in all directions, their defence will be weak all round.

The defending army generally
finds that its forces are inadequate, whereas the army on the attack finds its
forces more than adequate.

If you cannot anticipate the
time and place of a coming battle, you cannot coordinate your forces although
they are nearby---not
to mention those which are many li away.

It may be said that victory
depends on accurate anticipation of enemy movements.
Failure to do this could lead to the defeat of even a superior force.

Though the enemy are strong they
can be rendered impotent. Through spies one can ascertain their plans and plots;
through provocation their mood and movements; by tactics their strength and
weakness; and by contact the differences between the two opposing forces.

The consummate tactician is able
to conceal his plans so that even the cleverest spies cannot detect anything and
even the most skilful commanders cannot formulate counter plans.

To vanquish a superior force by
clever tactics is beyond the comprehension of the masses. They see the victory
but cannot understand the tactics which achieved it.

Tactics should not be repeated
in ensuing battles, but varied continually according to the circumstances.

The guiding principle in
military tactics may be compared to the nature of water. Just as water flows
from a higher level to a lower level, an army should avoid strength and
attack weakness. Just as water adapts to the contours of the land, an army
should adapt its plans to suit the enemy. Just as water has no fixed form,
warfare has no inflexible rules.

Those who are able to vary
military tactics according to the nature of the enemy may be compared to gods.
They are as versatile as the five elements, the four seasons, the sun and the
moon which wax and wane forever.

7. Manoeuvres

Manoeuvres may be difficult to
understand because the direct often seems devious and the advantageous
disadvantageous.

Entice the enemy into taking a
roundabout route, so
that you may arrive first at the battle-ground even though you set off late.

It is a great advantage to be
able to outwit the enemy by clever manoeuvring, for it is dangerous to have to
face their full combat strength.

To transport all the necessary
equipment may retard your advance, but to leave equipment behind may result in
the serious loss of supplies.

Consequently, if a leader tries
to win some advantageous position by forcing his men to abandon their equipment
and march hurriedly day and night over one hundred li, he may end up by
being utterly defeated and losing his commanders. Only the strongest men will
arrive on time, the weary lagging behind, so that not more than one in ten men
will be in battle position.

If a forced march covers fifty li,
not more than half the men will arrive on time, and the vanguard is likely to be
defeated.

If the march covers even thirty
Ii, not more than two-thirds of the men are likely to be in position on time.

An army which loses its baggage,
provisions or supply base will surely perish.

A State sovereign should not
enter into an alliance with other sovereigns before he is well acquainted with
their plans.

Do not conduct a war before
studying the layout of the land---its
mountains, forests, passes, lakes, rivers, etc.

Employ skilful guides to make
full use of all natural advantages.

War is motivated by gain and
based on deception. Its tactics lie in varying the deployment of your forces.

You must be able to move like
the wind or stand firm as a forest; be as destructive as fire or as unmoveable
as a mountain; remain as impenetrable as darkness or strike suddenly like a
thunderbolt.

When clearing the countryside
the soldiers should be dispersed in all directions.

When occupying a country they
should be distributed to hold key points.

Weigh all possibilities before
making a move, acquire the art of being devious before hoping to win.
This is an important point in military manoeuvres.

An ancient treatise on military
science states, “When words cannot be heard, signal with gongs and drums. When
eyes cannot see clearly in the distance, signal with banners and flags.” By such
signals control and direct the men so that they act as one, with neither the
bravest advancing on his own nor the most cowardly retreating on his own. Signal
with fires and drums by night, with banners and flags by day, thereby
controlling troop movements at all times.

An entire army may become
demoralised, just as a general may grow discouraged.

In the early stages of battle
the fighting spirit is Strong, but later it tends to flag. Towards the end it
may die out altogether. So the wise general tries to avoid encounters with
the enemy when their spirits are high and to attack when their spirits are low. He
understands and makes use of these emotional states.

His troops are orderly, in
contrast with the enemy’s disorder; his men are calm while the enemy’s are
anxious and fearful. He is in control of their mental states.

He remains close when the enemy
would be distant, rests when they toil, feasts while they starve. He is master
of their physical states.

Do not attack when enemy banners
indicate that their troops are in good order and condition. Do not give chase
when their movements show that they are well organised. Vary your plans
according to the circumstances.

Do not attack uphill or confront
the enemy with your back against a mountain. Do not pursue if they merely
simulate flight. Do not challenge them when their fighting spirit is strong. Do
not be tempted by false “bait”. Do not stop the enemy if they are determined to
return home. When laying siege, leave them a way of retreat. Do not drive a
defeated enemy to desperation.

These are guiding points in the
conduct of war.

8.
Variation in Tactics

Sometimes there are roads which
must not be taken, forces which must not be attacked, cities which should not be
besieged, positions which should not be contested and commands of sovereigns
best disobeyed.

The general who understands the
advantages of varying his tactics really knows the art of war.

The general who does not
appreciate the need to vary his tactics cannot turn natural advantages to
account, although he
may be familiar with the layout of the land. The general who appreciates the
need but does not know how to vary his tactics cannot make the best use of his
men.

The wise man considers both
favourable and unfavourable factors, the former to pursue his objectives and the
latter to extricate himself from difficulties.

Kingdoms can be cowered by the
infliction of heavy damage, wearied by constant harassment and lured by
temptation of gain.

Do not rely on the enemy’s
failure to come, but prepare instead how to confront them successfully; do not
rely on the enemy’s failure to attack, but consider instead how to make your own
position unassailable.

A general may be at fault in
five different ways:

(1) If he is reckless, he is
easily killed.

(2) If he is afraid of dying, he
is easily captured.

(3) If quick tempered, he is
easily provoked.

(4) If too sensitive about his
honour, he is easily insulted.

(5) If over concerned about his
men, he is easily harassed.

These five common weaknesses can
prove disastrous in warfare. When an army suffers a crushing defeat or a general
is slain, the cause can often be traced to one of these weaknesses which should,
therefore, be clearly understood and avoided.

9. Sites and Observations

This chapter deals with
encamping the army and observing the enemy.

If possible, avoid mountains and
keep to the valleys, but, if engaged in mountain warfare, stay on high ground
and fight downhill, not uphill.

Similarly, in river combat, keep
to high ground and fight downstream, not upstream. If you wish to make a stand
after crossing a river, choose a position some distance from it. If you plan to
attack at a river, conceal your forces on the river bank and intercept the enemy
in midstream or ambush them when they are about to land.

Do not linger on marshy terrain.
If forced to fight in a marsh, stay where there are reeds, and trees to the
rear.

In open country encamp on high
ground with your right flank and your rear well protected, so that only the
front is open to attack. Make sure that you have a means of safe retreat at your
rear.

Because he was experienced in
these four kinds of warfare, Emperor Huang was able to defeat other feudal
lords.

Take care over the daily diet
and living quarters of the troops so that they may be healthy and therefore more
likely to win.

All armies prefer high to low
ground, sunshine to shade. When camping on a hill, occupy the sunny side and
face downhill. Make use of such natural advantages.

When it is necessary to ford a
river during heavy rain, wait till the water begins to subside.

Avoid country with precipitous
cliffs, deep caverns, inaccessible recesses, tangled undergrowth, treacherous
quagmires or dangerous crevasses. When the terrain is difficult, face it and let
it be to the rear of the enemy. Drive them towards it.

When an army finds itself in the neighbourhood of dangerous passes,
ponds filled with reeds or woods with thick undergrowth, a most careful and
thorough search is necessary for these places provide excellent cover for the
enemy.

If the enemy appears undisturbed
when approached, it indicates that they are confident of their safety.

When the enemy comes out a long
way to make a challenge, it indicates that they are anxious for the other party
to approach.

When the enemy occupies a
seemingly vulnerable position, they may be setting a trap.

Motion in a forest indicates
that the enemies are approaching.

Grassland bestrewn with
obstacles may indicate that the enemy intends to lead you astray.

Birds suddenly taking flight or
animals startled out of their haunts indicate an enemy ambush.

High clouds of dust indicate the
approach of chariots.

Clouds of dust, more low lying
but over a larger area, indicate the approach of infantry.

Clouds of dust in different
directions indicate that the enemies are collecting firewood.

When clouds of dust are few and
scattered, the enemy are encamping.

When the speech of their
messengers is humble, but at the same time the enemy are increasingly preparing
for war, it means that they are about to attack.

When the speech of their
messengers is arrogant, but at the same time enemy movements appear nervous and
hasty, it means that they are about to retreat.

When light chariots advance
along the flanks, it may be assumed that the enemy are in battle formation,
ready for combat.

If the enemy suddenly sues for peace when there is no cause, beware
of a trick.

When there is unusual and
prolonged activity in the enemy camp, they are preparing for action and are
about to attack.

When the enemy advance and
retreat half-heartedly, they are probably trying to draw you forwards.

When men are seen leaning
(wearily) on their arms and equipment, food is probably scarce.

When water carriers have to rush
around to quench the men’s thirst, there is a scarcity of water.

When the enemies fail to seize
an obvious advantage, it is a sign of their weariness.

Where birds are seen in great
numbers, it may be assumed that the place is empty of men.

Crying during the night
indicates fear.

Frequent disorder and dissension
among the troops indicate a lack of strong authority.

A constant shifting of banners
and flags suggests the possibility of a rebellion.

When officers lose their tempers
easily with their men, it means that they are weary of war.

When horses are feasted with
grain and men with meat, when cooking vessels are destroyed and the troops
abandon their camp, it is clear that they are determined to pursue their enemy
to the limit.

Constant whispering and
murmuring among the men indicate a general dissatisfaction in the army.

If the commanding officer has to
resort to offering rewards and bribes to push his men on, the army must near the
end of its tether.

If the commanding officer has to
resort frequently to punishment, his army is in dire distress.

If he has to act without
consistency, first bullying and then entreating his men, it is evident that his
army greatly lacks order and discipline.

When the enemy sends envoys with lavish compliments, it indicates that
they desire peace.

When the enemy appears greatly
provoked and yet do nothing, neither attacking nor retreating, great caution and
vigilance need to be exercised.

The strength of an army does not
lie in mere numbers. Advance does not depend on valour alone. The general who is
able to use all available forces to best advantage and to anticipate enemy moves
correctly will surely be successful.

He who fails to plan ahead and
also underestimates the enemy is sure to be defeated.

When men are ruled by punishment
instead of affection and respect for their superiors, they will not obey
whole-heartedly and cannot be trusted. On the other hand, men who do have
affection and regard for their leader but who nevertheless will not accept
discipline cannot be trusted either.

An army which is amenable to
kind treatment as well as discipline will be invincible.

Discipline must be enforced with
fairness and consistency to win the complete support and obedience of the
troops.

A leader who commands the
obedience and confidence of his men can make them do almost anything he wishes,
for the common good.

10.
Terrain

Generally, there are the
following types of terrain:

1. Accessible

2. Difficult

3. Indifferent

4. Restricted

5. Precipitous

6. Extensive

Accessible Terrain affords
free and easy access to both combatants, so that he who first occupies the high
sunny ground and protects his supply route has the advantage.

Difficult Terrain makes
exit easier than entry. On this type of ground, surprise is an important factor.
The enemy can be defeated if caught unprepared. However, if you are not
successful at the first attempt, it might be difficult, even disastrous, to try
a second attack.

Indifferent Terrain makes
it disadvantageous for either party to make the first move. On this kind of
ground, do not be lured forwards. Instead, pretend to retreat and then attack
the enemy when they have left their position. In this way victory might be
possible.

On Restricted Terrain with
mountainous slopes and narrow passes, try to be the first to occupy the passes
which should then be strongly guarded against the approach of the enemy. Should
the enemy reach the passes first, attack or retreat will depend on how strongly
they are guarded.

On Precipitous or Mountainous
Terrain try to be the first to occupy the sunny side of the steep hills or
mountains, there to await the enemy. If the enemy should be there first, do not
pursue them but try instead to entice them into leaving their position.

On Extensive Terrain the
chances of the two parties are even, and it is difficult, even disadvantageous,
for either side to attack first.

The above principles regarding
the six types of terrain and how leaders should deploy their troops in each
circumstance should be clearly understood.

An army may be destroyed by:

(1) Flight

(2) Insubordination

(3) Collapse

(4) Ruin

(5) Disorganisation

(6) Rout.

These six calamities are not due
to natural causes but to the fault of the generals.

Other conditions being equal, a
concentrated force will put to Flight a divided force.

Insubordination results from
strong men having weak officers.

However, strong officers leading
weak men will result in the Collapse of an army.

If officers are resentful and
disobedient, and challenge the enemy without the consent of their superiors, the
entire army may face Ruin.

When the leader is weak and
lazy, orders are not clear, the duties of officers and men are not distinctly
outlined and everything is done in a slovenly manner, the entire army will be Disorganised.

If a general fails to know the
enemy, pits a small force against a large force, matches weakness against
strength, has no reliable vanguards, the result will be a complete Rout.

These principles regarding the
causes of defeat and the responsibilities of the general should be clearly
understood.

Advantageous terrain can help to
win a battle, but the test of superior leadership lies in the ability to
estimate and subdue enemy forces, to correctly assess the difficulties and
dangers ahead.

He who applies these principles
correctly will win and he who fails to do so will lose.

If he is sure of victory, a general should attack, even against his
sovereign’s orders.

If he is sure of defeat, a
general should not engage in combat, even though his sovereign orders him to
attack.

Neither because he wants to
achieve fame when he orders an advance, nor because he fears personal disgrace
when he orders a retreat, but always acting for the welfare of his soldiers and
the benefit of his sovereign---such a general is the greatest treasure of the
State.

A
general who cares for his men as for his own children will be followed
faithfully through the gravest dangers. He will have their support to the death.

However, if he is
over-indulgent and does not know how to exercise authority, or if he is
over-solicitous and cannot command obedience, his men will be like spoilt
children, disobedient and disorderly, of no use at all.

A general who knows the strength
of his own army but not the strength of the enemy has only a fifty per cent
chance of victory.

If a general knows the strength
of both the enemy army and his own, but is unaware of the difficulties of the
terrain, his chances of victory are again halved.

The adept in warfare,
once embarked on action, are able to cope with any kind of situation.

Thus, it may be said, “When one
has a thorough knowledge of both the enemy and oneself, victory is assured. When
one has a thorough knowledge of both heaven and earth, victory will be
complete.”

11.
Positions

In warfare there are generally
nine types of Positions, as follows:

1. Dissentious

2. Facile

3. Critical

4. Open

5. Commanding

6. Serious

7. Fearful

8. Beleaguered

9. Desperate.

When a leader is fighting in his
own territory, he is said to be in a Dissentious Position.

When he is fighting in enemy
territory but has not penetrated far, he is said to be in a Facile Position.

When he is fighting for
territory which would be advantageous for either side to possess, he is said to
be in a Critical Position.

When he is fighting on ground
which is equally accessible to both parties, he is in an Open Position.

When he is fighting in territory
which occupies an important position in relation to several other states, so
that control of that position would lead to control of the whole country, he is
said to be in a Commanding Position.

When he has carried the fighting
deep into hostile country and left in his rear many fortified enemy cities, he
is in a Serious Position.

When he is fighting in
mountainous forests, dangerous passes, marshy land or other difficult terrain,
he is in a Fearful Positions.

When he is fighting in country
which is accessible only by narrow and tortuous paths which can be guarded
easily by just a small force, or when he is hemmed in between narrow passes and
strong enemy fortresses, he is said to be in a Beleaguered Position.

When he reaches the stage that
all means of escape have been cut off and his only chance of survival lies in
swift, hard fighting, he is in a Desperate Position.

In a Dissentious Position do not be the first to attack. Instead, try
to inspire your men with a unity of purpose.

In a Facile Position keep your
troops in close contact, but do not stop advancing.

In a Critical Position rush
forward your reserve forces, but do not lay siege.

In an Open Position strengthen
your defences rather than attempt a blockade.

In a Commanding Position use
diplomacy to form strong ties with your allies.

In a Serious Position protect
your supply routes but at the same time forage on the enemy.

In a Fearful Position, advance
as swiftly as possible.

In a Beleaguered Position the
way of retreat may be blocked and you must rely on stratagem.

In a Desperate Position, fight
to the death. There is no alternative.

A skilful general is able to
prevent his enemy from uniting, coordinating, reinforcing or rallying their
forces.

When enemy forces are scattered,
prevent them from reuniting. If they manage to regroup, try to create disorder.

Advance only when it is
advantageous to do so. Otherwise, remain where you are.

To the question, “What can be
done if a large and well organised army invades?” the answer is, “Try to
seize whatever the enemy prize most and they can be made amenable.”

Speed is essential in warfare.
You must move faster than the enemy, appear where unexpected and attack when
they are unprepared.

When fighting in hostile
country, bear in mind the following principles:

The farther you penetrate, the
more united your forces become and consequently, the more difficult to defeat.

If the land is fertile, proper
foraging will secure adequate provisions for the whole army.

An army which is properly fed
and spared unnecessary toil is able to conserve its energy and carry out orders
swiftly and efficiently, thus surprising the enemy.

If an army is placed in a
position from which there is no escape, the men will prefer death to disgrace.

If an army is placed in a
position from which there is no escape without the strong risk of death, both
officers and men will do their utmost.

Truly desperate men lose all
fear of death; men conscious of the inevitable will stand firm; men
deep in hostile country will fight stubbornly; men aware that they cannot afford
to stop will fight all the harder.

Under such circumstances the
soldiers are alert, willing, loyal and trustworthy, even when not under the
close surveillance of their commanding officers. They will be free from
superstitious fears and will not deviate from the path of duty, even if it leads
to death. They will shun personal gain, even though no one is usually averse to
wealth, and they will not be afraid to die, though life is precious. Upon being
ordered into action men may moan and complain, but once they find themselves in
a desperate situation they will be as courageous as the heroes of old (Zhu and
Cao Gui).

The skilful in battle act with
speed and coordination, moving like the snake in Chang Mountain. If
wounded in the head, it attacks with its tail; if wounded in the tail, it
attacks with its head. If wounded in the middle, it attacks with both head and
tail.

Can an army act with such speed
and coordination? Can soldiers be made to cooperate with each other? The answer
is “Yes”. For example, the people of Wu State and Yue State had long been
enemies. If some of them had been in the same boat in a storm, they would have
cooperated for their common safety, just as the left and right hands come to
help each other. However, when not confronted with a common danger, they did not
trust each other, although they might ostentatiously disarm themselves,
tethering war horses and burying chariots.

It is necessary to enforce
strict discipline to make the army act in unison.

It is necessary to adapt to the
terrain so that the army might have the greatest advantage in all circumstances.

A skilful leader is able to make
his men obey him as easily and willingly as if he led them by the hand.

A general must remain calm and inscrutable, upright and strict. He
should keep the army in ignorance of his plans, by deception if necessary, and
frequently alter his tactics so that no one can be sure of his intentions.
He should often change his plans and routes so that no one can anticipate his
movements. The time to attack should be decided suddenly, as one might
unexpectedly kick away the ladder by which one has ascended. Only after the army
has penetrated deep into enemy territory may he reveal his plans. When he wants
to make a determined drive, burning boats and breaking cooking utensils behind
him, he should be like a shepherd driving his flock hither and thither without
the “sheep” knowing their final destination.

He must lead when there are
dangers ahead, and be
victorious in spite of these dangers.

He must not fail to understand
thoroughly the appropriate action to be taken in dealing with the nine different
kinds of Situations discussed earlier in this chapter. He must comprehend and be
able to employ the full range of offensive and defensive tactics and take into
account the vagaries of human nature.

The deeper an army penetrates
into enemy territory, the more united the invading force will be. If an invading
army is stopped too near the boundary, dissension is likely to appear among the
soldiers.

It is a proven fact that, if
attacked, soldiers will defend themselves; if hard pressed they will fight; if
desperate they will do anything.

Do not enter in to an alliance
with any other State sovereign unless you fully know his plans.

Do not engage in battle before
you are fully aware of the layout of the land---its mountains, passes, lakes,
rivers, etc.

You need guides to take full
advantage of the terrain.

If a sovereign fails to grasp
these principles, he will not be a leader among the States.

If he wishes to be Emperor of
many States, he must know how to avoid having to face the full force of an enemy
more powerful than he is. If they are of an equal strength, he must be able to
prevent the enemy from joining forces with their allies.

He should not fight against an
alliance of enemy States, and he should not let any one State become unduly
powerful in the Empire. He must try to win the confidence of those who can
serve his purpose and also inspire fear in the hearts and minds of his enemies. In
this way, he will be able to capture cities and overthrow enemy States.

If he does not reveal his plans
beforehand, his soldiers will not be sure what rewards or orders are in store,
and they will follow him as one man.

Sometimes he must give orders
without explaining his plans. He must show his men how to gain a certain
objective without informing them of possible dangers.

If an army finds itself in a
desperate position it will struggle to survive. When threatened with death men
will fight hard for their lives. Only when they are beset with dangers will they
do their utmost to turn defeat into victory.

In the conduct of warfare it is
essential to be able to anticipate the enemy’s plans.

When an army is able to make a
concentrated attack, however distant the enemy, they can be defeated. It takes
skill and ingenuity to succeed.

After very careful plans have
been finalised, the soldiers should be isolated so that enemy spies and
emissaries cannot get to them.

Every safeguard must be taken to
keep secret the war plans which are deliberated in the ancestral temple, so that
they may be executed successfully.

However, when there is any
chance of learning enemy secrets, it must be seized at once.

Secretly forestall the enemy
by seizing first whatever they most prize.

Do not be inflexible in the
conduct of a war. Vary your plans according to the conditions and the enemy. Let
a decisive victory be your sole objective.

At the beginning, when enticing
the enemy into combat, appear as shy as a young maiden. Then move as swiftly as
a hare to catch the enemy while they are still unprepared.

12. Fire

Fighting with fire may take five
forms:

(1) Burning men

(2) Burning stores

(3) Burning baggage trains

(4) Burning arsenals

(5) Destroying supply routes.

To wage war successfully with
fire you need manpower and suitable weather as well as incendiary materials.

The dry season is the best time
for warfare by fire and the best days to start a fire are when there is a strong
wind caused by the four different positions of the moon.

To use any of the five forms of
incendiarism to best advantage one should act as follows:

Attack as soon as the fire has
taken a hold of the enemy camp.

If the fire fails to startle and
confuse the enemy, hold back your attack.

When the fire has burned out,
exercise discretion as to whether the enemy should be pursued.

If it is possible to start a
fire outside, do not waste time trying to infiltrate the enemy camp to start a
fire. The important thing is that the fire should be started at a favourable
moment.

When attacking the enemy with
fire, do not advance against the direction of the wind.

A wind which commences in the
daytime will last, but one that starts blowing at night will soon stop.

One must not only know the five
forms of incendiarism in warfare but also the appropriate measures in
anticipation of them.

Those who attack with fire must
have perspicacity, while those who attack with water must have strength.

By means of water you can cut
off the enemy’s supply route but you cannot rob them of their possessions.

After victory has been gained
those who have rendered good service should be rewarded. Otherwise no one will
have the incentive to do his utmost and the results would be calamitous.

It may be said that what a wise
sovereign has planned a good general must execute.

Do not resort to war unless there is some definite advantage to be
gained, and there is strong assurance of victory.

Do not fight unless the
situation is so critical that there is no other alternative.

A sovereign should not start a
war in a fit of anger; a general should not engage in battle out of spite.

The decision to wage war should
be based on an objective consideration of possible gain. An angry man may be
placated and his feelings changed; an aggrieved man may be calmed down; but a
State, once destroyed, cannot be restored and a man killed cannot be brought
back to life.

Therefore, a wise sovereign
should hesitate starting a war, while a good general should remain constantly
alert in war. This will ensure peace State and the safety of the army.

13.
Spies

It is expensive, both for the
government and the people, to raise an army of one hundred thousand men and to
campaign over a distance of one thousand li. Each day as much as
thousands of taels of silver may be spent. The life of every class of
people is disrupted and hordes are forced to toil on the road. As many as seven
hundred thousand families may find it impossible to pursue their ordinary
occupations

A commander shows extreme lack
of consideration for his men if he is too stingy to buy information from spies
and thereby prolongs a war for years when victory might have been secured in a
single day. Such a person cannot be a good leader or general, and is of no use
to his sovereign.

Advance information about the
enemy will enable a wise sovereign or a good general to win more victories and
achieve greater success.

This information cannot be
obtained by offering prayers to the gods and spirits, by inductive thinking or
by deductive calculation; but only from men who have a thorough knowledge of
enemy conditions.

Hence there is a great need of
espionage and of spies, who may take S different forms:

(1) Local Spies

(2) Inside Spies

(3) Converted Spies

(4) Doomed Spies

(5) Missionary Spies.

When all five kinds of spies are
employed without the knowledge of the enemy, they can work wonders and be of
invaluable assistance to the sovereign.

Local spies are
recruited from among the inhabitants of the country, Inside Spies from
among discontended officials of the enemy, and Converted Spies from the
men whom the enemy has sent to do espionage work. Doomed Spies are those
who purposely supply false information and are then denounced to the enemy by
anonymous colleagues. Missionary Spies are those who are sent ostensibly
on some mission but whose secret purpose is to bring back useful information.

In the whole army none should be more favourably regarded, liberally
rewarded and clothed in secrecy than the spies.

Only the clever can be
successful spies. Only the wise can pick the right men to do this work. Only
with subtlety and ingenuity can the results of espionage be fully utilised.

An ingenious person can obtain
secret information about anyone and anything.

If anyone reports the findings
of a spy before they are made public, both the informant and the spy
should be put to death.

In order to attack an army,
storm a city or assassinate an individual, one must first send spies to obtain
information regarding the commanding officers, their assistants, the servants
and porters.

Every effort should be made to
discover enemy spies who should then be well treated and bribed so that they may
become Converted Spies, willing to work against their former masters.

With the help of Converted Spies
one can recruit the services of Local Spies and Inside Spies. Furthermore,
Converted Spies are in a position to identify and denounce Doomed Spies who have
purposely passed on false information. Finally, it is through the assistance of
Converted Spies that Missionary Spies are able to work according to plan.

The common goal of all five
different kinds of spies is to obtain information about the enemy. The surest
way to obtain this information is through Converted Spies, and so they should be
treated with special generosity.

In ancient times the Yin (late
Shang) Dynasty rose to power because of Yi Zhi, an official of the Xia Dynasty;
and the Zhou Dynasty rose to power because of Lu Ya, an official of the Yin
Dynasty.

It takes a wise leader to employ
as spies men of the highest calibre only, with whose assistance success is sure.
Spies are very important, for their information determines how a war should be
conducted.