Automation

Automation is the use of computers and robots to automatically control and
operate machines or systems to perform work normally done by humans.
Although ideas for automating tasks have been in existence since the time
of the ancient Greeks, the development of automation came during the
Industrial Revolution of the early eighteenth century. Many of the
steam-powered devices built by James Watt, Richard Trevithick, Thomas
Savery, Thomas Newcomen, and their contemporaries were simple examples of
machines capable of taking over the work of humans. Modern automated
machines can be subdivided into two large categories: open-loop machines
and closed-loop machines.

Open-loop machines

Open-loop machines are devices that are started, go through a cycle, and
then stop. A common example is the automatic dishwashing machine. Once
dishes are loaded into the machine and a button pushed, the machine goes
through a predetermined cycle of operations: pre-rinse, wash, rinse, and
dry. Many of the most familiar appliances in homes today (microwave ovens,
coffeemakers, CD players) operate on this basis.

Larger, more complex industrial operations also use open-cycle operations.
For example, in the production of a car, a single machine may be
programmed to place a side panel in place on the car and then weld it in a
dozen or more locations. Each of the steps involved in this
process—from placing the door properly to each of the different
welds—takes place according to instructions programmed into the
machine.

Closed-loop machines

Closed-loop machines are devices that are capable of responding to new
instructions at some point in their operation. The instructions may come
from a human operator or from some part of the operation itself. The
ability of a machine to self-correct by using some part of its output (for
example, measurements) as input (new instructions determined by those
measurements) is known as feedback.

One example of a closed-loop operation is the machine used in the
manufacture of paper. Paper is formed when a mixture of pulpy fibers and
water is emptied onto a conveyer belt. The water drains off, leaving the
pulp on the belt. As the pulp dries, paper is formed. The rate at which
the pulpy matter is added to the conveyer belt can be automatically
controlled by a machine.

A sensing device at the end of the conveyor belt is capable of measuring
the thickness of the paper and reporting back to the pouring machine on
the condition of the product. If the paper becomes too thick, the sensor
can tell the pouring machine to slow the rate at which the pulpy mixture
is added to the belt. If the paper becomes too thin, the sensor can tell
the machine to increase the rate at which the material is added.

Words to Know

Closed-loop machine:
Machine that can respond to new instructions during its operation and
make consequent changes in that operation.

Feedback mechanism:
Ability of a machine to self-correct its operation by using some part
of its output as input.

Feedforward mechanism:
Ability of a machine to examine the raw materials that come to it and
then decide what operations to perform.

Open-loop machine:
Machine that performs some type of operation according to a
predetermined program and that cannot adjust its own operation.

Other types of closed-loop machines contain sensors, but are unable to
make necessary adjustments on their own. Instead, sensor readings are sent
to human operators who monitor the machine's operation and input
any changes needed. Still other closed-loop machines have feedforward
mechanisms. Machines of this type examine the raw materials that come to
them and then decide what operations to perform. Letter-sorting machines
in post offices are of this type. The machine sorts a letter by reading
the zip code on the address and then sending the letter to the appropriate
subsystem.

The role of computers in automation

Since the 1960s, the nature of automation has undergone dramatic changes
as a result of the development of computers. For many years, automated
machines were limited by the amount of feedback data they could collect
and interpret. Thus, their operation was limited to a relatively small
number of alternatives. A modern computer, however, can analyze a vast
number of sensory inputs from a system and decide which of many responses
it should make.

Artificial intelligence.
Present-day computers have made possible the most advanced forms of
automation: operations that are designed to replicate human thought
processes. The enormous capability of a computer makes it possible for an
automated machine to analyze many more options, compare options with each
other, consider possible outcomes for

An automated machine is able to perform tasks that could be dangerous
or difficult for humans.
(Reproduced by permission of

The Stock Market

.)

various options, and perform basic reasoning and problem-solving steps not
contained within the machine's programmed memory. At this point,
the automated machine can be said to be approaching the types of mental
functions normally associated with human beings, that is, to have
artificial intelligence.

The human impact of automation

The impact of automation on individuals and societies has been profound.
On one level, many otherwise dangerous, unpleasant, or time-consuming
tasks are now being performed by machines. The transformation of the
communications industry is one example of the way in which automation has
made life better for the average person. Today, millions of telephone
calls that would once have had to go through human operators are now
handled by automatic switching machines.

Automated systems also make it much easier for people to work in
nontraditional settings. They may be able to stay home, for example, and
do their jobs by communicating with other individuals and machines by
means of highly automated communications systems.

However, automation has also had some negative effects on employment. When
one machine can do the work of ten workers, most or all of those people
will be out of a job. In many cases, those workers will have to be
retrained—often learning newer and higher skills—before they
can be reemployed.