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Abstract

This study was conducted in Soro District, Hadiya Zone of Southern
Ethiopia with the objective of assessing reproductive and productive
performances of local cows under farmer’s Management. Soro district
was selected based on high cattle population. A total of 200 households
owning cattle were selected randomly and the questionnaire was
administered. The mean cattle holding per household were 13.22 ± 1.70
in the district. The mean reported age at sexual maturity for local female
and male cattle were respectively 49.0 and 44.7 in Soro district. The
mean age at first calving, in months, for local female cattle in the study
area was 54.3. The mean daily milk production per cow was 1.20 liter of
milk per day. An average lactation length, peak milk yield, lactation milk
yield were 11.08, 1.76 and 328.61 respectively. Natural mating was the
familiar and major type of mating in the district. Shortage of feed, and
water, diseases, recurrent draught, infrastructures and other constraints
like land shortage, low capital, and shortage of extension services were
major cattle production constraints. Therefore, introduction of improved
forages and the proper utilization of crop residues should be emphasized
for improving reproductive and productive performances of the cattle
production in the area.

Keywords

Performances, Lactation, Purpose,
Milk yield, Livestock keeping

Introduction

In Africa, indigenous livestock breeds support the majority of smallholder rural farmers for whom these genetic resources
are important for improved nutrition, income and as investment assets. Africa’s indigenous animals are, therefore, vital to the
development of appropriate and sustainable agricultural systems in Africa and other tropical regions [1].

Ethiopia has diverse ecology favoring diversification of livestock resources. The livestock sector of Ethiopia has been
contributing considerable portion to the economy of the country and promising to rally round the economic development of
the country. At the level of the national economy, the livestock sector contributes 26 percent of the agricultural gross domestic
product (GDP) and 12 percent to the national GDP [2].

Apart from the large cattle population widely distributed throughout the country, the multiple production and service
functions of cattle are crucial in the livelihoods of farmers and pastoralists. They serve as sources of milk, meat, hide, draft
power and manure as well as contribute to nutrient recycling at the farm level. The reproductive performance of the breeding female is probably the single most important factor that is a prerequisite for sustainable dairy production system and influencing
the productivity [3]. However, only a small number of recognized cattle breed types have a fair description of their indications of
their level of production and reproduction attributes [4]. Performance record of local cows is essential for designing breeding and
management strategies, for sustainable utilization and conservation.

As cited in Ethiopia livestock master plan [5], dairy cattle breed improvement programs were then directed towards
crossbreeding. Hybrid-vigour is an important innovation that raises the potential for increasing milk production from local breeds.
Average milk production of crossbreed cattle per lactation is five times greater than that of local breed cattle. This increase in milk
production, due to crossbreeding, could result in a marketable surplus and increased sales of milk. However, the proportion of
crossbreed cattle compared to the total cattle population was still less than 2%.

In Ethiopia dairy production depends mainly on indigenous livestock genetic resources; more specifically on cattle and the
goats, camels and sheep. Cattle has the largest contribution (81.2%) of the total national annual milk output, followed by goats
(7.9%), camels (6.3%) and sheep (4.6%). Despite of its potential for dairy development, productivity of indigenous livestock genetic
resources in general is low, and the direct contribution it makes to the national is limited. The national cow milk production
estimated by CSA [6] is 4.06 billion liter (excludes milk suckled by calves); Estimated the total cow milk production to be around
1.77 billion liters. In general, milk production in Ethiopia is low. The average lactation period at country level is estimated to be
around 6 months. The average in daily milk yield per cow is about 1.85 litters [6].

Different local cows’ reproductive and productive performances have been undertaken in Ethiopia even if they have been
far from including all the indigenous cows. Local cows of Soro district in Hadiya zone, Ethiopia, which may have some acceptable
reproductive and productive performances, have rarely been found in literature and no studies have been conducted so far in
understanding their reproductive and productive performances. Therefore, the present study was conducted with the following
objectives:

• To evaluate the reproductive and productive performances of local cows in the study area under farmer’s management

• To identify factors affecting reproductive and productive performances of local cows in the study area.

Material and Methods

Description of the study area

The study was conducted in Soro district of Hadiya zone; Southern Ethiopia. The district is located at a distance of 32 km
from Hossana. Agro-ecologically, 8% of the district is highland (dega), 55% of the district is midland (woinedega) and 37% of the
district is lowland (kolla). The mean annual total rainfall is about 1260 mm and has average temperature of 19°c (Soro district
farming and crop production department, 2015).

Sample size and sampling method

Soro district was selected based on cattle population potential. The district was surveyed through single rapid exploratory
field visits for gathering available secondary information from the district experts of the livestock and fisheries department, and
the farmers’ representatives to define the sampling frame and to obtain the lists of households owning local lactating cows. The
district consists of a total of 46 rural kebeles. Ten rural kebeles were selected randomly. Individual households owning milking
cows were identified and listed in selected rural kebeles. Then twenty households maintaining such cattle were selected randomly
from each selected rural kebele so that total households under the study were two hundred (10 x 20 = 200).

Data collection methods

In each study area, a structured questionnaire that has a type of mixed questions with open ended and closed types was
administered. Development agents working in the district office of livestock and fisheries department, and rural kebeles were
recruited and trained on way of handling and administering the questionnaire. The focus areas of the questionnaire were milk
production and reproductive performances (lactation length (LL) and lactation milk yield (LMY) as milk production performance,
age at first calving (AFC) and calving interval (CI) as measures of reproductive performance), milking frequency, socioeconomic
background of respondent, available feed recourses, grazing system, and health of dairy cattle, constraints of reproductive
performance and milk production, milking and milk handling practices. The process of data collection was closely supervised by
the researchers.

Statistical analysis

The SPSS statistical computer software (SPSS, version 20) was used to analyze the survey data and descriptive statistics
(mean, standard error and frequency) were performed.

Results and Discussion

General socio-economic characteristics

Percent sex, educational background and mean age (years) of the respondents are presented in Table 1. The male
respondents were in larger proportions 73.3% in the study district. The largest percent (30%) of the respondents in the study area
were able to read and write. Similarly Yisehak et al. [7] in Dedo district reported the percentage (30%) for literacy. As indicated
in Table 1, majority of respondents in the study area had attended certain level of education. The mean age (years) of the
respondents in the study district was 42.92, which is similar with age of the respondents (41.00) reported by Yisehak et al. [7] in
three districts of Jimma zone of Western Ethiopia.

Descriptor

Soro

Sex of the respondents

N (200)

%

Male

147

73.3

Female

53

26.7

Educational level of the respondents

Illiterate

37

18.5

Read and write

60

30

Primary school

43

21.5

Secondary school

30

15

Diploma and above

30

15

Age of the respondents

Mean±SD

42.92±11.99

N=number of respondents, SD=Standard Deviation.

Table 1. Background of the respondents.

Family size and livestock holding

Mean ± SE for family size and livestock holding per house hold in the study area is presented in Table 2. The mean family
size in the study area was 5.72 ± 0.24. This result is in agreement with Tesfaye [8] in Metema district and Kedija et al. [9] in Meiso
district who reported mean family size of 5.7 ± 0.13. Family size depends on practices such as social and cultural perceptions
of the society. Having many children is thought as an asset for farming activities and being large in number in a household has
social prestige showing the strength of that family. Similarly, study by Tonamo et al. [10] in Essera district indicated that having many
wives is one of wealth indicators and commonly practiced type of marriage. The mean cattle holding per household was 13.22
± 1.70. The figure for district was larger than that of Tesfaye [8] with 12.25 ± 0.23 cattle per household in Northwestern Ethiopia
and smaller than that the reported figure (14.7 ± 0.55) by Ayantu et al. [11] in Horro district of Oromia region and (14.00 ± 0.58)
by Tonamo et al. [10] in Essera district of Southern region.

Descriptor

Mean±SE

Family size

5.72 ± 0.24

Livestock species

Cattle

13.22 + 1.7

Goats

3.73 ± 0.50

Sheep

3.05 ± 0.18

Donkey

1.33 ± 0.10

Chicken

7.56 ± 0.79

Horse

0.45 ± 0.06

Mule

0.32 ± 0.06

SE=standard error.

Table 2. Mean family size and livestock holding per household.

Purposes of keeping cattle

Farmers keep cattle for multiple purposes like milk, meat, blood, hides, and horns as source of income [12,13]. Socio-cultural
functions of cattle include their use as bride price and payment of fines in settling disputes in communal areas [14]. They are also
reserved for special ceremonial gatherings such as marriage feasts, weddings, funerals and circumcision. Cattle are given as gifts
to relatives and guests, and as starting capital for youth and newly married men. They are used to strengthen relationships with
in-laws and to maintain family contacts by entrusting them to other family members [15].

The people share many similarities with other people for having distinctive motive to keep cattle for different purposes.
They keep large size of herd considering it as a wealth, cultural and social security. The motive behind the society is to secure
the cultural title of ‘Tibima/Abegaz/Garad and Kumima’ which is attained in ascending order after achieving the first stage/title
“Tibima/Garad” of possession of at least 100 cattle and the second, “Kuma’’ title in which single individual can own more than
1000 cattle [16]. Due to this reason farmers in Soro district own larger number of livestock and the district has the largest livestock
population among all the districts of the zone.

The results of individual interviews with farmers in the study area show that cattle have multipurpose functions. The major
functions of cattle in the area are: draught power, milk/meat production, source of income, cultural purpose, social security and
manure. Similar report was recorded by Fasil and Workneh [4] on purposes of keeping cattle in Amhara region. Largest number
of respondents in the study area ranked milk and draught as primary purposes of keeping cattle. As shown in Table 3, 91.7%
of respondents in the study area keep cattle primarily for milk. Similarly Etafa et al. [17] reported that 99.4% of the respondents
Hararghe kept oxen primarily for draft power, while 86.6% of the respondents kept cows for sale of milk.

Purposes

Rank

N(200)

%

Index

Meat

1st

70

35

0.15

2nd

127

63.3

3rd

3

1.7

Milk

1st

183

91.7

0.18

2nd

17

8.3

3rd

-

-

Draught

1st

187

93.3

0.19

2nd

13

6.7

3rd

-

For social security

1st

30

15

0.1

2nd

63

31.7

3rd

107

53.3

Manure

1st

17

8.3

0.11

2nd

127

63.3

3rd

56

28.3

Selling for money

1st

80

56.7

0.16

2nd

73

36.7

3rd

47

6.7

Cultural

1st

43

21.7

0.1

2nd

40

20

3rd

117

58.3

N=number of respondents.

Table 3. Percent of respondents reporting major functions of cattle in the district.

Index= sum of (3 X number of household ranked first + 2 X number of household ranked second + 1 X number of household
ranked third) given for each function (purpose) divided by sum of (3 X number of household ranked first + 2 X number of household
ranked second + 1 X number of household ranked third) for all function (purpose).

Feed resources and feeding system

As per Ulfina et al. [18], inadequate supply of feed both in quantity and quality is the single most important problem for low
productivity of livestock. Based on interviews and focus group discussions made in the study district (Table 4), natural pasture for
communal/ individual grazing/ cut and carry system (35%), and crop residues (28.3%) were found to be the major feed sources
for cattle in the study district. Natural pasture that was utilized by either grazing or cutting, ‘enset’ and its byproducts were also
found to be feed sources for cattle in the district. Similarly Belay et al. [19] in Dandi district, Beriso et al. [20] in Aleta Chuko district
and Tonamo et al. [10] in Essera district reported that natural pastureland was the most dominating feed source for the cattle.

Sources of feed

Study district

Natural pasture

35

Established pasture and improved forages

6.7

Hay

10

Crop residue

28.3

House made leftover

8.3

Others (Enset and its byproducts)

11.7

Table 4. Major sources of feed in the district.

The availability of feed for cattle in the study area shows seasonality according to the respondents and focus group
discussions. Crop residues from crops are more important feed sources especially in the dry season when grazing pasture is less
covered. Conservation of different crop residues is a common practice in the district mostly when there are available sources
of crop residues in dry season. Communal and individual grazing lands throughout the study area in general, and established
pasture, in particular, in the district were reported as more useful sources of feed in the wet season before the major crops are
harvested. In the district, (highland), as mentioned above, ‘enset’ and its by products are good sources of feed for cattle in dry
season and also there are good practices of using established pasture. During focus group discussions and interview, utilization
of improved forages was also reported as sources of feed for cattle.

Reproductive performance

The reproductive performance of breeding female is the determinant of all forms of output and varies most in a population
[21]. The poor reproductive performance of animals can be related to inappropriate management practices (poor nutrition, disease,
etc.) and/or the genotype of the animals. As per Table 5, the mean reported age at sexual maturity (months) for female and male
local cattle were 49.0 and 44.7 in the district which is comparable with the mean reported age at sexual maturity of 45.7 and 49 months for Kereyu female and male cattle respectively by Shiferaw [22] but longer than the reported overall mean sexual maturity
of 39.6 months for female and 39.9 months for male of indigenous cattle breed of Oromia regional state by Workneh and Rowlands [23].

Performance parameters

District (Soro)

Mean

SD

Weaning age (male)

11.8

6.34

Age at sexual maturity (male)

44.7

9.16

Age at sexual maturity (female)

49.0

9.08

Age at first calving (month)

53.2

13.4

Reproductive life span (yr)

8.2

2.68

Lifetime calf-crop production (number)

5.6

2.29

Calving interval (month)

20.9

8.05

Life span of bull (yr)

7.9

2.13

Castration Age (male)

5.74

1.40

SD= Standard Deviation.

Table 5. Indicative reproductive performance of local cattle in the study area.

The reported mean age at first calving (AFC) in months for local female cattle in the study area was 53.2 months. This result
is comparable with the overall mean AFC of 54.1 months reported by Shiferaw [22] for Kereyu breeding female cattle. On-farm AFC
was reported for some indigenous cattle types by different authors. Takele [24] reported 54.1 months for Sheko breed whereas,
Dereje [25] reported 53.1 months for Raya –Sanga cattle. Similarly, Zewdu [26] also reported 54.7 and 53.4 months of AFC for
Wegera and Fogera cattle, respectively. The reported AFC in current study is longer than that of (51.24) reported by Beriso et al.
[20] in Aleta Chuko district for local cattle. The calving interval (CI) estimated for local cattle (20.9 months) was within the range of
the earlier estimates of CI for Ethiopian zebu cattle ranging from 12.2 to 26.6 months [27] even though longer than the reported
mean CI by Beriso et al. [20] which was 19.93 months for local cattle in Aleta Chuko district. The mean reported reproductive
lifespan (RLC) of local cattle breeding female in the study area was 8.2 year with associated lifetime calf crop production (LCP) of
5.9 calves which is strongly similar with result reported for Gojam highland zebu by Fasil. In fact, the mean reproductive period
(RLC) and LCP in the study area exceeded the figure for African cattle, which might be due to some interventions has been done in
aspects of management and veterinary services enabled animals to survive better in current conditions than previous conditions.
The mean and maximum LCP for most African cattle was reported to be 2.1 and 8 calves respectively [28].

The lifetime productivity of a cow is influenced by age at puberty, age at first calving and calving interval. The mean reported
reproductive lifespan of local cattle breeding bulls (LBB) 7.9 years in the district which is longer than that reported LB of 6.5 year
by Takele [24], for Sheko breeding bulls. The mean age at castration (CA) for local male animals in the study area was 5.74 years
that is comparable with the reported value (5.4 year) for kereyu cattle by Shiferaw [22] and to the reported value (5.7) for Sheko
male animals by Takele [24]. According to the farmers, oxen become docile and more powerful after castration in addition to control
of breeding and better price (Table 6).

Variables

Mean

SD

Milk production/day/cow (L)

1.20

0.41

Lactation length (month)

11.08

5.53

Peak milk yield (L)

1.76

0.69

Lactation milk yield (L)

328.61

100.99

SD= Standard Deviation.

Table 6. Productive performance of cows.

Milk production performance

In current study area, the mean daily milk production per cow was 1.20 liter of milk per day. An average lactation length,
peak milk yield (L), Lactation milk yield (L) were 11.08, 1.76 and 328.61 respectively. Indigenous breeds of cows are generally
considered as low milk producers. However, they are the major source of milk in Ethiopia that accounts for 97% of the total milk
production in the country. Milk yield has remained extremely low with average of 1.4 litre per day cow in Oromia regional state [23]
which is nearly similar with current study. Similarly for north Gonder indigenous cattle, the overall estimate lactation yield was 540
liters per head, which is very low due to poor genetic makeup, shortage of land and poor management conditions [29]. The lactation
length of local cow in mieso district is 7.29 month [9]. Average milk yield of cow by regions of Ethiopia is indicated in Table 7.

Region

Average Daily Milk Yield in Liters

Oromia

1.5

Amhara

2.13

SNNPR

1.65

Somalia

1.6

Afar

2.69

B/Gumuz

1.25

Gambella

2.11

Harari

2.09

Tigray

1.29

(Source: CSA, 2010).

Table 7. Average milk yield of cow by regions of Ethiopia.

Major cattle diseases

Diseases have numerous negative impacts on productivity of herds i.e. death of animals, loss of weight, slowdown of growth,
poor fertility performance, decrease in physical power and the likes. In current study biological, nutritional and physiological health
problems were reported to be among the major factors affecting cattle in the study area. Major animal diseases and parasites
were identified through group discussion involving key informant farmers, development agents and veterinary technicians. As
reported by Tajebe et al. [30] economic losses due to disease and parasites have quadruplet their effect further when factors such
as feed shortage, poor management practices and environmental factors are prevalent.

Drought and feed shortage were considered as the two major factors that predisposed the cattle for a variety of infectious
and non-infectious diseases. Most of the infectious diseases were reported to occur in dry season while the prevalence of parasitic
diseases increased at the beginning and at the end of the wet season. Cattle diseases reported in the studied district was common
but the intensity of prevalence for a disease type was different. The reported common and economically important diseases
throughout the study area were infectious diseases (anthrax, blackleg, pasteurellosis, brucellosis, contagious bovine pleura
pneumonia, lumpy skin disease and foot and mouth disease), external parasites (ticks and lice), internal parasites (fascioliasis)
and vector borne diseases (trypanosomiasis and babesiosis). In addition to these some metabolic diseases were also reported
but their occurrence was rare. Lumpy skin diseases and foot and mouth diseases were reported to be occurring widely throughout
the study area in the year of study.

During focus group discussions most of the participants reported that the farmers have their own hypodermic needles to
inject medicine to their cattle in case of disease outbreak. None of them have ever been trained or received prescriptions from
veterinarians. They explained that they commonly administer penicillin for acute diseases. Doses are quantified in terms of bottles
and may increase or decrease according to the number of animals suffering from diseases in a given herd, level of disease
severity and the amount of drug available for use. The same information was reported by Fasil in Amhara region.

Many of the veterinary clinics in the study area had shortage in terms of medical supplies and human power; and are
often distantly located as indicated during focus group discussions. They also revealed that control measures were vaccination,
deworming and spraying. Traditional methods of treatment for some diseases were also reported by farmers. Feeding red colored
‘enset’ leaf for cattle when there is placenta retention, branding the area around the ribs with hot iron and incising around the
shoulder for anthrax were some reported traditional treatment ways.

Outcomes of focus group discussions in Soro district revealed that the cattle are severely affected by trypanosomosis
especially in the kebeles located near Gibe river basin and the farmers purchase and administer deltametri for prevention of
tsetse fly in the area. Veterinary professionals during focus group discussion revealed that there was a problem of use of low dose
of medicine by farmers for cattle treatment which not only limits the effectiveness of the drugs but also develops drug resistance.
Soro district was also reported to be known by movement of cattle which could be the reason for high prevalence of disease in
the district.

Outcomes from group discussion in also revealed that there was production loss in the area due to high parasites infestation
during summer (kremt). Fascioliasis (Fasciola hepatica) was reported to be the cause for this production loss because animals
graze around a local lake in the area known for parasitic infestation. Deworming animals in early summer season was reported
to be the controlling method.

The district veterinary agent, farmers and extension workers during focus group discussion additionally revealed that the
most prevalent diseases in the area were mainly of parasitic diseases especially external parasitic diseases such as ticks, fleas
and lice for which the most commonly used treatment was diazinone. Internal parasites such as fascioliasis and cestodes were
also reported as common for which the treatment used was broad spectrum anthelmintic drugs like albendazole.

Breeding problems that affect herd productivity

Major breeding problems most frequently reported during focus group discussions and interviews that affect herd productivity
were late age at first calving, postpartum anoestrus, long calving interval, breed problem, seasonality, heat detection problems,
animal health problems, inadequate AI services and shortage of skilled man power. Environmental factors such as unavailability
of feed both in quantity and quality, diseases and parasitic burden contribute much to these problems. Abortion and calving
difficulty were also reported as breeding problems. Tonamo et al. [10] in Essera district reported that inaccessibility to AI services,
difficulty of getting inseminator, fear about the small size of local cows to carry the pregnancy and deliver the offspring of improved
breeds and lack of awareness were problems limiting the success of breeding in the district.

It was reported that there are animals with postpartum and ante partum anoestrus problem. Animals having this problem
may have onset of estrus in cycle; and be mated by breeding bulls but they don’t conceive. This could be due to the development
of cyst in the uterus that gives a wrong perception that such animals are pregnant. Due to this reason animals show signs of estrus
again after completing one cycle of estrus. Farmers reported that they overcome such a problem by using traditional treatment
method of cutting the cyst by sharp blade. By inserting their finger to the uterus, they check for the presence or absence of cyst [31].

Conclusion and Recommendations

Milk production in Soro district is subsistence type despite of its great role in consumption and income generation.
Indigenous local zebu cattle with unknown breed are dominant cattle population in the area with low milk production potential.
Improving such low milk production potential of local breed through AI service is constrained by animal factor, lack of awareness
among farmers, inadequate AI service and feed shortage. Milk production in the study area is also constrained by shortage of
grazing land, disease and parasites, shortage of land for improved forage production, inadequate veterinary service, and low milk
production potential of cow.

From the result of this study, it can be concluded that lower reproductive performances were recorded, namely age at sexual
maturity of both female and male, estimated age at first calving, number of calves born by cow and calving interval of a cow when
compare to the various previous.

Based on the above conclusions the following recommendations were forwarded:

• Feed shortage in terms of quality and quantity was among the major constraints of cattle production in the study area
which need to be addressed. Therefore, introduction of improved forages and the proper utilization of crop residues should
be emphasized for improving the productivity of the cattle production in the area.

• The association of production and reproduction performances of the local cattle need to be determined through correlation
studies and regular monitoring of the population so that suitable stock can be selected showing all the favorable attributes.
Disease prevention and control strategies particularly for tse-tse fly and other prevalent diseases as well as drug
administration and distributions should be emphasized. Hence the veterinary services in the area need to be strengthened.

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Aaknowledgment

The authors are grateful to those who participated in focus group discussions and key informants who cooperated with them
in supplying relevant information in addition to their hospitality during the period of data collection. Friends and colleagues, too
many to list here were heartily acknowledged. Funding from Ethiopian ministry of education (Wachemo University) is also duly
acknowledged.

Workneh A, et al. Current state of knowledge on characterization of farm animal genetic resources in Ethiopia. Farm animal biodiversity in Ethiopia: status and prospects. Proceedings of the 11th annual conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) August 28-30, 2003. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 2004;Pp:1-22.