Multitemporal satellite image based on 2006 (drought), 2007 (flood) and 2009 (normal). Bright colors represent significant changes in land cover from year to year; dull-gray colors indicate little change in land cover. The broad maroon-purple zone shows the extent of high water in 2007; black and dark blue show perennial water bodies. CBWA - Cheyenne Bottoms Wildlife Area; TCN - The Nature Conservancy. Adapted from Aber, Pavri and Aber (2012, fig. 16-20).

Beginning in 2002, we started research at Cheyenne Bottoms in cooperation with the Nature Conservancy. Our primary methods are various forms of remote sensing—satellite imagery and aerial photography, combined with ground observations. Specifically we have developed techniques and utilized low-height kite and blimp aerial photography to acquire vertical and oblique views that depict the landscape in great detail. Our goal is to document, analyze, and understand climatic and human impacts on this dynamic wetland environment (Aber, Aber and Penner 2016).

The following kite aerial photographs were taken in mid-May 2005. At this time, the marshes contained substantial water, and wetland vegetation was greening up nicely. The images are arranged to provide full 360° panorama of the Nature Conservancy marsh complex at Cheyenne Bottoms.

Great bulrush (Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani), also known as softstem bulrush and grey club-rush. Bulrushes are among the most beneficial emergent wetland plants (Whitley et al. 1999). They may form dense thickets along the margins of water bodies. The seeds are particularly valuable for ducks; bulrush provides nesting habitat, and it binds wet soils quite effectively.

Blunt spike rush (Eleocharis obtusa). Spike rushes are quite common in and diagnostic of wetland environments in temperate regions around the world. They provide shelter for fish, amphibians and insects, and are a food resource for many wetland birds and mammals.

Common cattail (Typha latifolia) and narrow-leafed cattail (Typha angustifolia) have hybridized in the Cheyenne Bottoms vicinity. Among the most common wetland plants worldwide, cattails are invasive in the Great Plains and can displace more desirable wetland plants.

Cattails are considered undesirable for wetland marshes in the central Great Plains. Cattails generate persistent seed banks and may quickly colonize disturbed wetland soils. Furthermore cattail expands rapidly through clonal growth (Gucker 2008). In some situations, cattail is considered a weedy or invasive plant. Their expansion converts open marsh and mud-flat habitats into dense overgrown thickets, which are unattractive for migrating shorebirds and waterfowl. Cattails may slow or stop the spread of other wetland plants by secreting chemicals that inhibit germination of seeds.

Upon the demise of cattails in early spring 2004, the Nature Conservancy began an experiment in cattail control. Three treatments were applied to different sections of dead cattail thatch. Some areas were mowed, some were burned, and some were left untreated. Since heavy rain refilled the marshes in June 2004, wet weather continued to support regrowth of wetland vegetation through 2005. Bulrush and spike rush spread rapidly to replace cattail in many portions of the marsh, and some small stands of cattail are beginning to come back as well. This resulted in a mosaic of emergent wetland vegetation during the summer 2005.

Dry mudflats with cattle tracks (left foreground) and residual water pools (right side) are typical in late summer. Cattle graze on wet meadow in left background. Image date Aug. 2005.

The winter and spring of 2006 were unusually warm and dry. Temperature exceeded 95°F (35°C) already in April, and little precipitation fell through the month of June. As a consequence, Nature Conservancy marshes were completely dry, the state wildlife area had little water, and most inlet creeks and canals were dry. This signaled the beginning of another drought.

View toward northeast over Nature Conservancy marshes. The dry channel of Deception Creek and its delta are visible in upper left portion of scene. Vegetation has spread over dry mudflats in lower left corner. Image date May 2006.

View toward northwest with Hoisington in the far background. All mudflats are dry and vegetation displays limited growth in this scene. Image date May 2006; compare with May 2005 pictures above.

In August of 2006, heavy thunderstorms rumbled across central Kansas, resulting in significant runoff in the vicinity of Great Bend. Flood water was directed via canals and ditches into the state wildlife area of Cheyenne Bottoms, but no recharge happened for marshes in the Nature Conservancy portion of the bottoms. Dry conditions continued there into autumn.

In October 2006, the Nature Conservancy began a systematic effort to control marsh vegetation in mudflats and thickets. Mechanical means were employed; herbicides could not be used for sensitive wetland habitat. Dry mudflats were plowed (disked) in order to remove opportunistic weeds, such as bull thistle and cocklebur. Thickets were mowed to cut down the standing thatch of cattails, bulrush, and other emergent wetland plants. The idea was to simulate heavy buffalo grazing on the dry marsh environment.

View toward northwest with Hoisington in the far background. The marsh is completely dry and substantial portions have been plowed or mowed. Image date Oct. 2006.

The winter and spring of 2007 were wet. Repeated, heavy rains resulted in flooding of Cheyenne Bottoms in May, when water spread over large portions of the state wildlife area and Nature Conservancy marshes. Marshes were filled to overflowing, and sites that had been dry for many years were inundated. Long-time local residents claim they have never seen so much water in the bottoms. In order to reach our primary study site, we had to drive through water with a 4WD vehicle. The following superwide-angle images document the extent of open water in the Nature Conservancy marshes in mid May. The direction toward the center of each view is indicated.

View westward

View toward NW

View northward

View toward NE

Heavy rains continued through the month of June. The combined May and June rain exceeded 20 inches (50 cm), which set a historical record. Virtually the whole of the state wildlife area was flooded, and about 20% of Nature Conservancy land was inundated (source NC 2007). Considerable damage occurred to roads and drainage structures, but nesting waterfowl was attracted in record numbers. Our field efforts were suspended for the remainder of the year because of impassable roads in study areas.

Standard view toward the north in early May 2008. Extensive open water remains in the marsh complex. Emergent marsh vegetation is mostly dormant at this time of year.

Standard view toward the northeast in early May 2008. Deception Creek and its small delta are visible in the left background.

Wide-angle view toward the northeast in mid June 2008. Emergent marsh vegetation is active and consists mainly of bulrush with small patches of cattail.

Wide-angle view toward the southeast in mid June 2008. Nature Conservancy marshes in foreground and flooded pools of the state wildlife area in the background.

In June, we conducted the first field tests of a new color-infrared digital camera. The Tetracam Agricultural Digital Camera is designed to photograph green, red, and near-infrared portions of the spectrum, specifically 0.52 to 0.92 µm wavelength. The camera employes a special lens to transmit near-infrared radiation, and blue light is excluded. The resulting pictures are false-color images: green appears as blue, red is shown as green, and near-infrared is red.

Color-infrared photography was initially developed during World War II for camouflage detection. Important scientific applications include vegetation, soil, and water resources. In this format, vegetation appears bright pink and red, because photosynthetically active (green) plants strongly reflect near-infrared radiation. Water bodies, in contrast, strongly absorb near-infrared energy, regardless of water depth or turbidity.

Upon launching the Tetracam camera rig, the crew takes a self portrait. Active vegetation appears in pink and red colors; vegetation is highly reflective for near-infrared, so is much brighter than normal and appears somewhat fuzzy. Note that vehicles and fence poles are sharply defined.

View over Nature Conservancy marsh in central Kansas. Water bodies are quite dark in color-infrared format, although some sun glint is visible in the foreground.

The Kansas Wetland Education Center (KWEC) is under development as a joint venture between the Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks and Fort Hays State University. Located on the southeastern edge of the state wildlife area, construction was delayed because of flooding in 2007. The building began to take shape in the spring of 2008. It openned officially in the spring of 2009.

Overview of KWEC looking toward the southeast. Highway K-156 crosses the foreground, and a picnic area is visible in lower right portion. Outlet canal of the State Wildlife Area is toward upper right side. Photo date May 2008.

Closer view of KWEC showing the semi-circular plan of the building and the demonstration marsh behind the building. Photo date May 2008.

Our final visit in 2008 took place in late September, when water level still remained high following a relatively wet and cool summer. Color-visible (left) and color-infrared (right) views over Nature Conservancy marsh toward the northeast with delta of Deception Creek in the upper left portion (Aber et al. 2009).

Azolla is a small aquatic fern, commonly called mosquito fern, fairy moss or water fern, typically described as a delicate, mosslike plant that floats or is stranded on the edge of quiet water bodies such as ponds, marshes and ditches. It often grows in large floating mats composed of masses of tiny ferns. Color varies from gray-green to bright red-purple; the reddish color is intensified by exposure to sunlight, especially in winter. Several common names include mosquito fern, water fern, fairy moss, water velvet, duckweed fern, and floating fern.

We have not recognized Azolla before in Nature Conservancy marshes; see for example the Sept. 2008 picture just above, in which Azolla is not visible anywhere. How it was transported into this environment is not known. Azolla spores could be carried on the feet of waterfowl and shorebirds coming northward during their spring migration. The historic flood of 2007 (see above) may have washed in spores or plant fragments from other sources either within or outside Cheyenne Bottoms. Still other means of dispersal are possible. In any case, the bloom of Azolla in 2009 is remarkable.

It's not possible to predict the long-term consequences of Azolla in Nature Conservancy marshes at this time. On the beneficial side, Azolla is considered a good food source for waterfowl and provides cover for small invertebrates, which could enhance the value of these marshes for migrating waterfowl. On the other hand, Azolla spreads rapidly by vegetative reproduction and may form extensive mats. It should never be introduced intentionally, as it quickly may overspread a water body and become quite a nuissance.

Wide-angle view toward the northwest with Hoisington in the background. The new observation tower, built in 2009, can be seen in the lower right portion, and students operate the kite and camera from the lower right corner of this scene.

Looking toward the southeast with pools of the state wildlife area in the background. A large smoke plume drifts southward from a controlled burn on the northern side of the state wildlife area.

Ground photographs

Marsh vegetation. Left: cattle ate cattail down to stumps the previous fall (foreground), but did not graze on bullrush (behind). Right: algae is among the first plants to thrive in the early spring conditions.

Controlled burning in the state wildlife area. Fires are set to remove dead vegetation thatch, which returns nutrients to the soil, allows new vegetation to grow up rapidly in the spring, and restricts woody vegetation from becoming established.

On a return visit in mid-October, we conducted kite aerial photography with a new Canon EOS Rebel XS 1000D camera with a 10.1-megapixel sensor and a wide-angle lens. We added a 0.7X auxiliary lens to create a focal length of 12.6 mm (20 mm film equivalent) for superwide-angle views.

Superwide-angle overviews

View to northwest

View northward

View to northeast

View to southeast

Our aerial and ground observations revealed that emergent vegetation had spread over parts of the marsh area, and the Azolla bloom of the previous year had dissipated into small patches along the marsh edge. We also observed plenty of wildlife, especially frogs and snakes.

Emergent vegetation covers substantial areas of the marsh, and the maroon color of Azolla is hardly visible. Left: view toward northwest with Hoisington in the background. Right: view toward northeast showing the small delta of Deception Creek and grazing cattle.

American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana). Left: adult frog sits in a patch of Azolla. Right: Plains gartersnake (Thamnophis radix) has caught a small bullfrog; the snake already has swallowed the entire right hind leg of the frog, which has ceased to struggle.

Panoramic image looking to northeast at center, east toward right, north toward left. Assembled from two wide-angle shots.

View westward

View northward

View to southeast

Left: JSA and SWA setting up to conduct kite aerial photography next to the observation tower. Note cattle grazing on wet meadow in background. Right: closeup vertical shot of cattails growing in the marsh. Note muddy water from recent runoff.

Left: view northward with the delta of Deception Creek at scene center. Right: looking to the northwest with Blood Creek in the left background.

Left: looking toward the southeast with the state wildlife area in the distance. Right: closer shot of kite flyers on TNC nature trail (lower left corner). Cattail growth is similar to late May of the previous year (see above).

Hot, dry weather extended through late spring and early summer. We returned in July to check on marsh conditions. The pools of April were completely dry mudflats, and cattail growth had reached 8 feet (2½ m) in places. Cattail and bulrush thickets had spread over substantial portions of the marsh area, and across the dry mudflats the common weed velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti) had sprouted in scattered groups.

July 2012 overviews of TNC marsh

View westward

View to northwest

View northward

View to northeast

Compare with April 2012 pictures above.

Drought conditions in central Kansas had reached the severe level by early July (see drought monitor), as evidenced by nearby rivers—Arkansas River immediately south of Cheyenne Bottoms and Cow Creek to the east. Both recorded exceptionally low flows during June resulting from lack of runoff and increased upstream irrigation. On Walnut Creek at Albert, a short distance west of Cheyenne Bottoms, stream flow has been essentially zero for the past year with the exception of two brief runoff events in mid April and early June (USGS 2012). The state of Kansas is beginning to restrict junior water rights in some areas as a consequence of low stream flows (see AP story).

Close-up aerial views

Left: delta of Deception Creek and dry creek channel in upper center of view. Kite flyers in lower right corner. Right: looking to the northwest over dry mudflat and cattail/bulrush thickets. The bright green plant in the mudflat is velvetleaf.

Thickets of emergent wetland vegetation: bulrush (left) and cattail (right). Although the surface of the mudflat is dry; roots reach moisture below and sustain the plants.

November 2012 overviews of TNC marsh

View to northwest

View northward

View to northeast

Drought conditions continued through the autumn of 2012, and most vegetation had gone dormant by the time of our visit in early November. We were surprised to find numerous cattle trails criss-crossing the cattail thickets and vehicle tracks across the dry mud flats. The vehicle tracks resemble artistic scrollwork as viewed from above.

Closer oblique views

Left: vehicles tracks in mud flat form intricate loops and circles. Right: dry delta of Deception Creek in left background with various cattail thickets, meadows and dry marshes in foreground and to right.

Left: cattle trail through cattail thicket in the main marsh area. Right: sparse emergent vegetation beginning to appear on the adjacent meadow.

The 2011-13 drought came to an abrupt end with heavy rains and regional flooding beginning in late July through mid-August. TNC marshes were inundated with high water that recharged soil moisture and filled the pools. Kite aerial photography was conducted on September 6, about three weeks after peak flooding, under extremely hot conditions (99 °F) to document the effects of flooding and post-flood recovery.

The gauging station on Walnut Creek at Albert, approximately 15 miles (24 km) west of Cheyenne Bottoms, is typical of central Kansas flooding. Peak discharge exceeded 460 cubic feet per second on August 12. Chart obtained from USGS. See also 2013 drought summary.

Left: view toward the northwest with Hoisington on the left horizon.
Right: looking toward the northeast with many pools in the distance.

Left: view to the southeast. Extent of flooding marked by a ribbon of debris (wrack) around the edge of the wet meadow.
Right: close-up shot of the marsh margin showing newly emergent bulrush and spike rush (A) and cattails (B).

Left: close-up shot of dead thatch with newly emergent vegetation growing up through water.
Right: sun glint shows water across the marsh surface next to the observation tower.

Prolonged dry conditions followed by sudden inundation and then draining of excess water quickly brought about a diverse combination of wetland vegetation. In less than one month, typical emergent, floating and submerged wetland plants had reestablished along with remnants of drought weeds. The mix of plant species and dead thatch is evident in the following ground pictures.

Spiny cocklebur (Xanthium spinosum L.) is a particularly nasty weed that flourished around the marsh margin during the drought. The seed pods now have opened to disperse a multitude of seeds to blow in the wind.

Left: limit of high water is marked by flood-washed debris, known as wrack, consisting mainly of bulrush and cattail fragments. Note lush, green wet meadow in background. Right: Close-up view of wrack with numerous crayfish and snail shells.

Heavy, repeated rains arrived in June, and TNC marshes were refilled with muddy runoff. We conducted kite aerial photography immediately after these runoff events. Emergent vegetation responded rapidly, although considerable dead thatch and wrack remained in the marsh complex. Mosquitos, dragonflies and other insects were abundant in wet meadows, and crayfish chimneys occupied the pool margins.

Late June status

Left: looking toward the northwest with Hoisington in the background. Right: shot toward the northeast showing the delta of Deception Creek at top center of view. Note muddy water around the creek inlet.

Left: view to the southeast with the state wildlife area in the distance. Right: looking toward the southwest showing Blood Creek and TNC barn in the right background.

Left: close-up shot of the main marsh and pool full of muddy water. Compare with April picture (above the eggs). Right: newly built crayfish chimney at pool margin. Little is known about crayfish species or population.

Continued rains lessened drought conditions across most of the region during the summer and early autumn—see drought monitor. TNC marshes, pools, and streams were filled to capacity, wetland vegetation was thriving in marshes and wet meadows, and numerous waterfowl were resting on their fall migrations at the end of October.

Late October status

Panoramic view looking to the northwest at scene center.
Assembled from four wide-angle shots.

Autumn foliage colors in the marsh complex. Left: looking toward the northeast with Deception Creek and its inlet to the pool and green fields of winter wheat in the background. Right: view eastward with the state wildlife area in the right far background.

Mosquito fern (Azolla sp.) experienced a major bloom in the autumn of 2009. Since then, it had been nearly absent in the marsh complex during the drought period 2011-13. Once again, mosquito fern is evident on kite aerial photographs in shallow water along the pool margin and in small patches within protected cattail thickets. Its maroon-purple color adds a distinctive appearance to fall foliage in the marsh complex.

Mosquito fern bloom

Close-up aerial shots of mosquito fern which appears maroon-purple color in these two views along the pool margin.

Ground pictures of mosquito fern floating on shallow water protected by cattail and bulrush. Comb is 5 inches long.

Panorama looking toward the northeast and east.
Deception Creek enters from left side.

During the past two years, drought conditions in central Kansas have diminished from extreme and exceptional categories. By the beginning of June 2015, in fact, drought was completely gone in the Cheyenne Bottoms vicinity (see drought monitor). May of 2015 was exceptionally wet across the southern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain regions (see statewide precipitation). In fact, May 2015 was the wettest month for the whole United States since records began in 1895 (NOAA 2015). High water continued into June, and by the middle of the month lush emergent wetland vegetation had spread across much of the marsh complex.

Mid-May conditions

Overviews toward the northeast (left) and northwest (right). Note high water level and lush vegetation in the marsh complex.

Central portion of the marsh complex showing extensive cattail thickets. Cattail coverage has recovered to the level that existed at the beginning of our long-term observations in 2002.

Left: close-up shot of the marsh margin with wet meadow and Blood Creek in the background. Right: ground view of marsh margin with muddy water from recent runoff.

Left: Foxtail barley (Hordeum jubatum) grows in clumps around the marsh margin and in the wet meadow. Right: muddy field vehicle. Access roads were barely passable to 4wd.

Mid-June conditions

View to northwest

View northward

View to northeast

A return visit in early September revealed pools still full of water and distinct variations in late-summer emergent vegetation of the marsh complex. During the past two wet years, emergent wetland vegetation has recovered and spead over substantial portions of the marsh complex, and mosquito fern (Azolla sp.) has appeared again.

Close-up shots. Left: hint of maroon color on water surface suggests another bloom of mosquito fern is underway. White specks are large white birds wading in shallow water, and cattle graze in the background. Right: flock of large white birds, perhaps cattle egrets, taking off from a pool.

The expansion of cattail thickets that began in 2010 was briefly arrested during the drought of 2012-13, but since has renewed and filled in many portions of the Nature Conservancy marsh complex. This, in turn, has greatly reduced the area of open pools and mud flats on which migrating shorebirds and waterfowl depend.

May conditions

Panoramic overview looking toward the north and west.
Extensive thickets of emergent vegetation and full pools.

Views toward the northeast (left) and east (right) demonstrate full pools, wet meadows, and emergent marsh vegetation. Water shows high content of suspended sediment from recent influx of Deception Creek.

October conditions

Views toward the west (left) and northeast (right) display full pools and vegetation going into autumn senescence in early October.

Close-up oblique (left) and vertical (right) shots of the cattail thicket that has grown up during the past few years. A distinct patchy pattern is evident, which may reflect growth patterns as cattail filled in the former open pool.

Left: looking toward the northwest with Hoisington in the far background. Blood Creek enters from the left side. Right: view northward with mostly dormant marsh vegetation in the foreground. Pools are filled with muddy water from recent runoff.

Left: looking toward the northeast. Deception Creek flows into the pool at top center of scene. Note the patchy appearance of dormant marsh vegetation. Right: view to the southeast with the state wildlife area in the distance.

The primary reason for our visit was to test a new color-infrared camera and radio-controlled rig for kite aerial photography. The Sony A6000 was modified by Arrow Consulting for B/G/NIR imagery. In other words, the red band is replaced by near-infrared which appears red in the image. Active vegetation reflects green light moderately and near-infrared strongly. This combination produces orange in this false-color format. In the early spring, emergent wetland vegetation is just starting to green up.

Color-infrared imagery

Looking toward the northwest (left) and north (right). Fields of winter wheat are prominent (bright orange) in the background, but there are only small patches of active vegetation in the marsh complex. Compare with normal-color images above.

View toward the northeast showing the small delta of Deception Creek (left). Emergent marsh vegetation has expanded considerably during the past several years and reduced the size of the remaining pool. Right: sun glint in lower right corner reveals shallow water beneath a cover of dead thatch.