Beinn Bhreagh

The second and larger home, Beinn Bhreagh Hall (known locally as "The Point") was built in 1893 on the Beinn Bhreagh Estate of Alexander Graham & Mabel Bell at Baddeck, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia.

The peninsula was known to the Mi'kmaq as "Megwatpatek", roughly translated to "Red Head" due to the reddish sandstone rocks at the tip of the peninsula. The name "Beinn Bhreagh"—meaning "Beautiful Mountain" in Scottish Gaelic—is thought to have been given to the peninsula by Dr. Bell, who purchased approximately 242.8 hectares (600 acres) to form the estate in the late 1880s.

In July 2005, the Nova Scotia Civic Address Project review changed the status of Beinn Bhreagh from a "generic locality" to a "community".[1]

Wealthy from his successful invention and marketing of the telephone, inventor Alexander Graham Bell and his wife Mabel undertook a cruising vacation in 1885 along the coast of eastern North America with their intended destination being Newfoundland, in order to view a mining operation that Mabel's father had invested in. Along the way, due to the accidental grounding of their passenger boat, they serendipitously discovered Cape Breton's Bras d'Or Lake and were enthralled by their surroundings.

Its landscape, climate, and Scottish traditions and culture were reminiscent of his birthplace in Edinburgh, Scotland. The Bells lived increasingly on Beinn Bhreagh from about 1888 until Dr. Bell's death in 1922, initially only in the summer and then later often year-round.

Bell constructed a laboratory and boatyard on this property, conducting experiments in powered flight and hydrofoil technology, among many other things. Some of his most notable accomplishments at Beinn Bhreagh included the first manned flight of an airplane in the British Commonwealth (by the AEA Silver Dart) in 1909, plus the HD-4, a hydrofoil boat designed by Frederick Walker Baldwin and Dr. Bell, and built at Beinn Bhreagh. Designed as a submarine chaser and powered by aircraft engines, their vessel set a world watercraft speed record of 71 miles per hour (114 km/h) in 1919, which remained unbroken for many years.

Dr. Bell and his wife Mabel were both buried atop Beinn Bhreagh mountain, on the estate, overlooking Bras d'Or Lake. The 242.8-hectare (600-acre) estate owned by the Bells is on the peninsula at the end of Beinn Bhreagh Road. It is now owned by their many descendants and not open to the public, nor is it visible from Beinn Bhreagh Road. Dr. and Mrs. Bell's first residence on Beinn Bhreagh, the "Lodge", was built in 1888. The second and larger home, Beinn Bhreagh Hall (known locally as "The Point") was built in 1893. Both are visible from Baddeck, across Baddeck Bay. For more information and pictures of the estate, visit the Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site, a national park system unit and museum managed by Parks Canada, which contains many objects donated to the nation by Dr. Bell's descendants. The museum was designated a National Historic Site in 1952, while Being Bhreagh Hall was named a National Historic Site in 2018.[2][3]

1.
Nova Scotia
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Nova Scotia is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces, and one of the four provinces which form Atlantic Canada. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province, with an area of 55,284 square kilometres, including Cape Breton, as of 2016, the population was 923,598. Nova Scotia is the second most-densely populated province in Canada with 17.4 inhabitants per square kilometre, Nova Scotia means New Scotland in Latin and is the recognized English language name for the province. In Scottish Gaelic, the province is called Alba Nuadh, which simply means New Scotland. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province in area after Prince Edward Island, the provinces mainland is the Nova Scotia peninsula surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, including numerous bays and estuaries. Nowhere in Nova Scotia is more than 67 km from the ocean, Nova Scotia has many ancient fossil-bearing rock formations. These formations are rich on the Bay of Fundys shores. Blue Beach near Hantsport, Joggins Fossil Cliffs, on the Bay of Fundys shores, has yielded an abundance of Carboniferous age fossils, wassons Bluff, near the town of Parrsboro, has yielded both Triassic and Jurassic age fossils. Nova Scotia lies in the mid-temperate zone, since the province is almost surrounded by the sea, the climate is closer to maritime than to continental climate. The winter and summer temperature extremes of the climate are moderated by the ocean. However, winters are cold enough to be classified as continental – still being nearer the freezing point than inland areas to the west. The Nova Scotia climate is in ways similar to the central Baltic Sea coast in Northern Europe. This is in spite of Nova Scotia being some fifteen parallels south, areas not on the Atlantic coast experience warmer summers more typical of inland areas, and winter lows a little colder. The province includes regions of the Mikmaq nation of Mikmaki, the Mikmaq people inhabited Nova Scotia at the time the first European colonists arrived. In 1605, French colonists established the first permanent European settlement in the future Canada at Port Royal, the British conquest of Acadia took place in 1710. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 formally recognized this and returned Cape Breton Island to the French, present-day New Brunswick then still formed a part of the French colony of Acadia. The British changed the name of the capital from Port Royal to Annapolis Royal, in 1749, the capital of Nova Scotia moved from Annapolis Royal to the newly established Halifax. In 1755 the vast majority of the French population were removed in the Expulsion of the Acadians

2.
Alexander Graham Bell
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Alexander Graham Bell was a Scottish-born scientist, inventor, engineer, and innovator who is credited with patenting the first practical telephone. Bells father, grandfather, and brother had all been associated with work on elocution and speech and his research on hearing and speech further led him to experiment with hearing devices which eventually culminated in Bell being awarded the first U. S. patent for the telephone in 1876. Bell considered his most famous invention an intrusion on his work as a scientist. Many other inventions marked Bells later life, including groundbreaking work in optical telecommunications, hydrofoils, and aeronautics. Although Bell was not one of the 33 founders of the National Geographic Society, he had a influence on the magazine while serving as the second president from January 7,1898. Alexander Bell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on March 3,1847, the family home was at 16 South Charlotte Street, and has a stone inscription marking it as Alexander Graham Bells birthplace. He had two brothers, Melville James Bell and Edward Charles Bell, both of whom would die of tuberculosis and his father was Professor Alexander Melville Bell, a phonetician, and his mother was Eliza Grace. Born as just Alexander Bell, at age 10, he made a plea to his father to have a name like his two brothers. To close relatives and friends he remained Aleck, as a child, young Bell displayed a natural curiosity about his world, resulting in gathering botanical specimens as well as experimenting even at an early age. His best friend was Ben Herdman, a neighbour whose family operated a flour mill, young Bell asked what needed to be done at the mill. In return, Bens father John Herdman gave both boys the run of a workshop in which to invent. From his early years, Bell showed a sensitive nature and a talent for art, poetry, with no formal training, he mastered the piano and became the familys pianist. Despite being normally quiet and introspective, he revelled in mimicry and he also developed a technique of speaking in clear, modulated tones directly into his mothers forehead wherein she would hear him with reasonable clarity. Bells preoccupation with his mothers deafness led him to study acoustics and his family was long associated with the teaching of elocution, his grandfather, Alexander Bell, in London, his uncle in Dublin, and his father, in Edinburgh, were all elocutionists. His father published a variety of works on the subject, several of which are well known, especially his The Standard Elocutionist. The Standard Elocutionist appeared in 168 British editions and sold over a quarter of a million copies in the United States alone, in this treatise, his father explains his methods of how to instruct deaf-mutes to articulate words and read other peoples lip movements to decipher meaning. Bells father taught him and his brothers not only to write Visible Speech but to any symbol. Bell became so proficient that he became a part of his fathers public demonstrations, as a young child, Bell, like his brothers, received his early schooling at home from his father

3.
Victoria County, Nova Scotia
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Victoria County is a county in Nova Scotia, Canada. The shire town and largest municipality is the village of Baddeck, named after Queen Victoria, it was established by statute in 1851. Cape Breton County was divided into two counties in that year, with Victoria County being subdivided at that time. The county is 2,768 square kilometers in size, 80% of which is covered by forest and the remainder largely by water. 4% from its 2011 population of 7,115. With a land area of 2,857.74 km2, with a land area of 2,854.01 km2, it had a population density of 2. 3/km2 in 2016. The countys population has declined over the last ten years and has also aged. Half of the labour force does not have a high school diploma. Villages Baddeck Reserves Wagmatcook 1 County municipality and county subdivisions Municipality of the County of Victoria Victoria, B 71% of the workforce is employed in the services sector. An additional 18% are employed in the resources industry, a category that includes both forestry and fishing. Just 11% are employed in manufacturing, less than half of the levels seen in the 1960s, the county is administered by a county government which is incorporated as the Municipality of the County of Victoria. The county is governed by eight councillors and a warden who oversee the work of a Chief Administrative Officer, the federal Electoral Riding is Sydney—Victoria. Victoria County contains the half of the Cape Breton Highlands National Park, as well as the Cabot Trail. The county also contains St. Paul Island, known as the Graveyard of the Gulf of St. Lawrence for its many shipwrecks during the age of sail

4.
Cape Breton Island
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Cape Breton Island is an island on the Atlantic coast of North America and part of the province of Nova Scotia, Canada. Its name may derive from Capbreton near Bayonne, or more probably from the word Breton, the French adjective form of the proper noun Bretagne, the 10,311 km2 island accounts for 18. 7% of the Nova Scotias total area. Although physically separated from the Nova Scotia peninsula by the Strait of Canso, the island is east-northeast of the mainland with its northern and western coasts fronting on the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, its western coast also forms the eastern limits of the Northumberland Strait. The eastern and southern coasts front the Atlantic Ocean, its eastern coast also forms the limits of the Cabot Strait. Its landmass slopes upward from south to north, culminating in the highlands of its northern cape, one of the worlds larger salt water lakes, Bras dOr, dominates the islands centre. The island is divided into four of Nova Scotias eighteen counties, Cape Breton, Inverness, Richmond and their total population at the 2016 census numbered 132,010 Cape Bretoners, this is approximately 15% of the provincial population. Cape Breton Island has experienced a decline in population of approximately 2.9 since the 2011 census, the island has five reserves of the Mikmaq Nation, Eskasoni, Membertou, Wagmatcook, Waycobah, and Potlotek/Chapel Island. Eskasoni is the largest in population and land area. Cape Breton Islands first residents were likely Archaic maritime natives, ancestors of the Mikmaq, John Cabot reportedly visited the island in 1497. However, historians are unclear as to whether Cabot first visited Newfoundland or Cape Breton Island and this discovery is commemorated by Cape Bretons Cabot Trail, and by the Cabots Landing Historic Site & Provincial Park, near the village of Dingwall. In about 1521–22, the Portuguese under João Álvares Fagundes established a colony on the island. As many as two hundred settlers lived in a village, the name of which is not known, located according to historians at what is now present day Ingonish on the islands northeastern peninsula. This Portuguese colonys fate is unknown, but it is mentioned as late as 1570 and these Scottish triumphs, which left Cape Sable as the only major French holding in North America, did not last. Charles I’s haste to make peace with France on the terms most beneficial to him meant the new North American gains would be bargained away in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. The French quickly defeated the Scots at Baleine, and established the first permanent settlements on Île Royale, present day Englishtown and these settlements lasted almost continuously until Nicolas Denys left in 1659. Île Royale was vacant for more than fifty years until the communities along with Louisbourg were established in 1713, known as Île Royale to the French, the island also saw active settlement by France. The French also built the Louisbourg Lighthouse in 1734, the first lighthouse in Canada, in addition to Cape Breton Island, the French colony of Île Royale also included Île Saint-Jean, today called Prince Edward Island. Louisbourg itself was one of the most important commercial and military centres in New France, Louisbourg was captured by New Englanders with British naval assistance in 1745 and by British forces in 1758

5.
Bras d'Or Lake
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Bras dOr Lake /brəˈdɔːr/ is an inland sea, or large body of partially fresh/salt water in the centre of Cape Breton Island in the province of Nova Scotia, Canada. Bras dOr Lake is sometimes referred to as the Bras dOr Lakes or the Bras dOr Lakes system, however, Canadian author and yachtsman Silver Donald Cameron describes Bras dOr Lake as A basin ringed by indigo hills laced with marble. Islands within a sea inside an island, the Bras dOr is also connected to Atlantic Ocean via the Strait of Canso by means of a lock canal completed in 1869—the St. Peters Canal, at the southern tip of the lake. There are several competing explanations of the origin of the name Bras dOr, however, on the maps of 1872 and earlier, the lake is named Le Lac de Labrador, and this is more likely the true derivation of the present name. The literal meaning of Labrador is Laborer, in a paper prepared by the late Dr. Patterson for the Nova Scotia Historical Society he says he believed the name Bras dOr came from the Breton form of Bras deau arm of water or of the sea. The Mikmaq Nation named it Pitupok, roughly translated as salt water. With an area of approximately 1,099 square kilometres, the extents of Bras dOr Lake measures roughly 100 km in length and 50 km in width. The Washabuck Peninsula and Boisdale Hills divide the lake into northern and southern basins, the maximum depth of Bras dOr Lake of 287 metres is found in the St. Andrews Channel. This area was designated the Bras dOr Lake Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO in 2011, the Barra Strait is crossed by highway and railway bridges running between the Washabuck Peninsula and the Boisdale Hills. Although salinity varies throughout the system, it approximates a one third fresh, two-thirds sea water mixture. Partly for this reason, the lakes were designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, Bras dOr Lake is home to an array of wildlife with successful lobster and oyster fisheries, as well as the pursuit of other marine species. The lakes largely undeveloped shorelines have resulted in significant concentrations of bald eagle populations, a renowned summer vacation destination, the area around the Bras dOr Lake has become popular with recreational boaters. St. Peters Marina is one of the largest marinas in the Bras dOr and has full boating services, Baddeck is home to two marinas, two full service boatyards and the Bras dOr Yacht Club. Ben Eoin, in the East Bay, has a 75-slip marina with full services which opened in May 2013, the community operated Barra Strait Marina in Grand Narrows reopened in 2012. Sailing Yacht Racing is a long traditions in the Bras dOr, with the yacht clubs around lake hosting annual Regattas. Regatta Week hosted by the Bras dOr Yacht Club has been a tradition for over 100 years. Race the Cape is an International Sailing Federation – Off Shore Special Regulations Category 4 Race, there are both Spinnaker and Non-Spinnaker Divisions. While there are more than 20 launch ramps for trailered boats spread throughout the lake, ocean-going ships presently enter the lake at the Great Bras dOr and via the St. Patricks Channel to a gypsum quarry at Little Narrows

6.
Baddeck
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Baddeck is a village in Victoria County, Nova Scotia, Canada. This village is seventy-eight kilometres west of Sydney and it is Victoria Countys shire town and is situated on the northern shore of Bras dOr Lake on Cape Breton Island. According to some historians the name Baddeck is derived from the Mikmaq term Abadak which has been translated as place with an island near, Baddeck became a tourist destination with the 1874 publication of Baddeck, And That Sort of Thing, a travel story written by Charles Dudley Warner. Tourism grew even more following the construction of the Cabot Trail in 1932, with Baddeck being situated at the start, while the village population is just over 700 people, local hotels feature over 600 rooms. Baddeck is home to the Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site, Baddeck features the world-class Bell Bay Golf Club, a lake-front resort, numerous hotels/motels, restaurants, small shops, and a small airport in the foothills above the town. The local branch of the Royal Canadian Legion is open to the public, serving as a watering hole, Baddeck is one of several Cape Breton communities that plays host to the Celtic Colours festival each fall. The music festival features hundreds of Celtic musicians from Cape Breton, in the spring, the village hosts the Cabot Trail Relay Race, a 298 km relay race around the Cabot Trail. During the tourist season Baddeck hosts a community market every Wednesday, featuring local produce, foods. Baddeck has a history stretching back to early Mikmaq, French, the village was incorporated in 1908. Baddeck was home to Alexander Graham Bell and was witness to the first flight in the commonwealth by Bells Silver Dart in 1909, among the most notable is Gilbert H. Grosvenor Hall, the towns former post office. The building was constructed between 1885 and 1886 and was designed by Thomas Fuller, Chief Architect of Canada and co-designer of Ottawas first Parliament buildings, the Victoria County Court House, constructed in 1889, is designed in a classical revival style. Marks Masonic Lodge was built in 1898, in a style featuring Masonic symbols. Alexander Graham Bells Beinn Bhreagh estate is located 3 km southeast of the forming the southeastern shore of Baddeck Bay. The Kidston Island Lighthouse, built in 1912, can be accessed by ferry in the summer months. Baddeck had a relationship with its most famous resident, Alexander Graham Bell. In 1885 the Bell family had a vacation in Baddeck, returning in 1886, Bell started building an estate on a point across from Baddeck, overlooking Bras dOr Lake. Bell would spend his final, and some of his most productive, years in residence in both Washington, D. C. where he and his family resided for most of the year. Both Mabel and Alec became immersed in the Baddeck community and were accepted by the villagers as their own

7.
Mi'kmaq
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The Mikmaq or Migmaq are a First Nations people indigenous to Canadas Maritime Provinces and the Gaspé Peninsula of Quebec. They call their national territory Mikmaki, others today live in Newfoundland and the northeastern region of Maine. The nation has a population of about 40,000, of whom nearly 11,000 speak Mikmaq, once written in Mikmaq hieroglyphic writing, it is now written using most letters of the Latin alphabet. After implementation of the Indian Act, the Grand Council took on a more spiritual function, the Grand Council was made up of chiefs of the seven district councils of Mikmaki. On September 26,2011 the Government of Canada announced the recognition of Canadas newest Mikmaq First Nations Band, the new band, which is landless, has accepted 25,000 applications to become part of the band. The number of applications received by the deadline on November 30,2012 exceeded 100,000, as of January 2013. The deadline was extended to January 31,2014, and then to February 10,2014 and its members are recognized as Status Indians, joining other organized Mikmaq bands recognized in southeast Canada. Until the 1980s, Micmac remained the most common spelling in English, although still used, for example in Ethnologue, this spelling has fallen out of favour in recent years. Most scholarly publications now use the spelling Mikmaq, and it has been adopted by media as the spelling Micmac is now considered to be colonially tainted, the Mikmaq prefer to use one of the three current Mikmaq orthographies when writing the language. Lnu is the term the Mikmaq use for themselves, their autonym, various explanations exist for the origin of the term Mikmaq. The Mikmaw Resource Guide states that Mikmaq means the family, The definite article the suggests that Mikmaq is the undeclined form indicated by the letter m. When declined in the singular it reduces to the forms, nikmaq - my family, kikmaq - your family. Other hypotheses include the following, The name Micmac was first recorded in a memoir by de La Chesnaye in 1676. Professor Ganong in a footnote to the word megamingo, as used by Marc Lescarbot, the Micmacs, then, must have thought of themselves as the Red Earth People, or the People of the Red Earth. Others seeking a meaning for the word Micmac have suggested that it is from nigumaach, my brother, my friend, members of the Mikmaq historically referred to themselves as Lnu, but used the term níkmaq as a greeting. The French initially referred to the Mikmaq as Souriquois and later as Gaspesiens or Mickmakis, the British originally referred to them as Tarrantines. According to ethnologist T. J. Brasser, with a climate unfavorable for agriculture and their weakly developed leadership did not extend beyond hunting parties. The Mikmaq lived in a cycle of seasonal movement between living in dispersed interior winter camps and larger coastal communities during the summer

8.
Scottish Gaelic
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Scottish Gaelic or Scots Gaelic, sometimes also referred to as Gaelic, is a Celtic language native to Scotland. A member of the Goidelic branch of the Celtic languages, Scottish Gaelic, like Modern Irish and Manx, developed out of Middle Irish. The 2011 census of Scotland showed that a total of 57,375 people in Scotland could speak Gaelic at that time, the census results indicate a decline of 1,275 Gaelic speakers from 2001. A total of 87,056 people in 2011 reported having some facility with Gaelic compared to 93,282 people in 2001, only about half of speakers were fully literate in the language. Nevertheless, revival efforts exist and the number of speakers of the language under age 20 has increased, Scottish Gaelic is neither an official language of the European Union nor the United Kingdom. Outside Scotland, a group of dialects collectively known as Canadian Gaelic are spoken in parts of Atlantic Canada, mainly Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. In the 2011 census, there were 7,195 total speakers of Gaelic languages in Canada, with 1,365 in Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island where the responses mainly refer to Scottish Gaelic. About 2,320 Canadians in 2011 also claimed Gaelic languages as their mother tongue, with over 300 in Nova Scotia, aside from Scottish Gaelic, the language may also be referred to simply as Gaelic. In Scotland, the word Gaelic in reference to Scottish Gaelic specifically is pronounced, outside Ireland and Great Britain, Gaelic may refer to the Irish language. Scottish Gaelic should not be confused with Scots, the Middle English-derived language varieties which had come to be spoken in most of the Lowlands of Scotland by the modern era. Prior to the 15th century, these dialects were known as Inglis by its own speakers, from the late 15th century, however, it became increasingly common for such speakers to refer to Scottish Gaelic as Erse and the Lowland vernacular as Scottis. Today, Scottish Gaelic is recognised as a language from Irish. Gaelic in Scotland was mostly confined to Dál Riata until the 8th century, when it began expanding into Pictish areas north of the Firth of Forth, by 900, Pictish appears to have become extinct, completely replaced by Gaelic. An exception might be made for the Northern Isles, however, however, though the Pictish language did not disappear suddenly, a process of Gaelicisation was clearly underway during the reigns of Caustantín and his successors. By a certain point, probably during the 11th century, all the inhabitants of Alba had become fully Gaelicised Scots, by the 10th century, Gaelic had become the dominant language throughout northern and western Scotland, the Gaelo-Pictic Kingdom of Alba. Its spread to southern Scotland, was even and totalizing. Place name analysis suggests dense usage of Gaelic in Galloway and adjoining areas to the north and west as well as in West Lothian, less dense usage is suggested for north Ayrshire, Renfrewshire, the Clyde Valley and eastern Dumfriesshire. In south-eastern Scotland, there is no evidence that Gaelic was ever widely spoken, the area shifted from Cumbric to Old English during its long incorporation into the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria

9.
History of Nova Scotia
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For military history, see Military history of Nova Scotia Nova Scotia is a Canadian province located in Canadas Maritimes. The region was occupied by Mikmaq. During the first 150 years of European settlement, the colony was made up of Catholic Acadians. This time period involved six wars in which the Mikmaq along with the French, during Father Le Loutres War, the capital was moved from Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia to the newly established Halifax, Nova Scotia. The warfare ended with the Burying the Hatchet Ceremony, after the colonial wars, New England Planters and Foreign Protestants settled Nova Scotia. After the American Revolution, the colony was settled by Loyalists, during the nineteenth century, Nova Scotia became self-governing in 1848 and joined the Canadian Confederation in 1867. The colonial history of Nova Scotia includes the present-day Canadian Maritime provinces and northern Maine, in 1763 Cape Breton Island and St. Johns Island became part of Nova Scotia. In 1769, St. Johns Island became a separate colony, Nova Scotia included present-day New Brunswick until that province was established in 1784. The oldest evidence of humans in Nova Scotia indicates the Paleo-Indians were the first, natives are believed to have been present in the area between 11,000 and 5,000 years ago. The Mikmaq are a First Nations people, indigenous to the Maritime Provinces, míkmaw is the singular form of Míkmaq. In 1616 Father Biard believed the Mikmaq population to be in excess of 3,000, however, he remarked that, because of European diseases, including smallpox and alcoholism, there had been large population losses in the previous century. At the time of contact with the French they were expanding from their Maritime base westward along the Gaspé Peninsula /St, Lawrence River at the expense of Iroquioian Mohawk tribes, hence the Mikmaq name for this peninsula, Gespedeg. They were amenable to limited French settlement in their midst, with the complete loss by France during the Seven Years War of its North American territories, the Mi’kmaq lost their primary ally. The Mi’kmaq continued to suffer a collapse and with the influx of Planters in the 1760s and Loyalists in the 1780s. Later on the Mikmaq also settled Newfoundland as the unrelated Beothuk tribe became extinct, giovanni Cabotos voyage received financial backing by Italian banking houses in London and the Bardi family banking firm of Florence. With financing secure and patent issued by Henry VII to Caboto, upon landing on 24 June 1497, Caboto raised the Venetian and Papal banners, claiming the land for the King of England and recognising the religious authority of the Roman Catholic Church. After this landing, Cabot spent some weeks discovering the coast, Cabotos expedition is believed to be the first by Europeans to mainland North America since the Vikings five hundred years before. Historian Alwyn Ruddock who worked on Caboto and his era for 35 years suggested Fr, Nova Scotia was further explored by the Portuguese explorer João Álvares Fagundes as he searched south of his fishing settlements in Newfoundland

10.
Bluenose
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Bluenose was a fishing and racing schooner built in 1921 in Nova Scotia, Canada. Nicknamed the Queen of the North Atlantic, she was commemorated by a replica, Bluenose II. The name Bluenose originated as a nickname for Nova Scotians from as early as the late 18th century, designed by William Roué, the vessel was intended for both fishing and racing duties. Intended to compete with American schooners for speed, the design that Roué originally drafted in Fall 1920 had a length of 36.6 metres which was 2.4 metres too long for the competition. Sent back to redesign the schooner, Roué produced a revised outline, the accepted revisal placed the inside ballast on top of the keel to ensure that it was as low as possible, improving the overall speed of the vessel. One further alteration to the design took place during construction. The bow was raised by.5 metres to more room in the forecastle for the crew to eat. The alteration was approved of by Roué, the change in increased the sheer in the vessels bow, giving the schooner a unique appearance. The design that was accepted and later built was a combination of the designs of both Nova Scotian and American shipbuilders had been constructing for the North Atlantic fishing fleet. The vessel was constructed of Nova Scotian pine, spruce, birch and oak, Bluenose had a displacement of 258 tonnes and was 43.6 metres long overall and 34.1 metres at the waterline. The vessel had a beam of 8.2 metres and a draught of 4.85 metres, the schooner carried 930 square metres of sail. Bluenoses mainmast reached 38.4 metres above deck and the schooners foremast reached 31.3 metres and her mainboom was 24.7 metres and the schooners foreboom was 9.9 metres. The vessel had a crew of 20 and her hull was painted black, the vessel cost $35,000 to build. Bluenose was constructed by Smith and Rhuland in Lunenburg, Nova Scotia, the schooners keel was laid in 1920. The Governor General the Duke of Devonshire drove a spike into the timber during the keel-laying ceremony. She was launched on 26 March 1921, and christened by Audrey Smith, Bluenose was completed in April 1921 and performed her sea trials out of Lunenburg. On 15 April, the departed to fish for the first time. Bluenose, being a Lunenburg schooner, used the dory trawl method, Lunenburg schooners carried eight dories, each manned by two members of the crew, called dorymen

11.
Port-Royal National Historic Site
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Not to be confused with Port-Royal Port-Royal National Historic Site is a National Historic Site located on the north bank of the Annapolis Basin in the community of Port Royal, Nova Scotia. The site is the location of the Habitation at Port-Royal, the Habitation at Port-Royal was established by France in 1605 and was that nations first successful settlement in North America. Port-Royal served as the capital of Acadia until its destruction by British military forces in 1613, France relocated the settlement and capital 8 km upstream and to the south bank of the Annapolis River, the site of the present-day town of Annapolis Royal. This interest had been increasing since the publication of Quietly My Captain Waits, the government agreed, after much persuasion, to have the replica built on the original site. Construction took place from 1939-1941 and was based on a set of plans for the original Habitation that had been recently discovered in France. This was the first National Historic Site to have a structure built. Today, the replica of the Habitation is considered a milestone in the heritage movement. Operated by Parks Canada, it is open to the public as a unit of the park system, staffed by historical interpreters in period costumes. Costumed interpreters provide demonstrations of such historic early 17th century activities as farming, building, cooking, fur trading, Port-Royal was founded after the French nobleman Pierre Du Gua de Monts who spent a disastrous winter in Île-Saint-Croix. He was accompanied by Samuel de Champlain, Louis Hébert and Jean de Biencourt de Poutrincourt et de Saint-Just. Champlain would note in his journals, that the bay was of size, he believed it an adequate anchorage for several hundred ships of the French Royal Fleet. As such, he would name the basin Port-Royal, the Royal Port, this was, for many years, Poutrincourt asked King Henri IV to become the owner of the Seigneurie which encompassed the settlement. Nestled against the North Mountain range, they set about constructing a log stockade fortification called a habitation, with assistance from members of the Mikmaq Nation and a local chief named Membertou, coupled with the more temperate climate of the fertile Annapolis Valley, the settlement prospered. Marc Lescarbots The Theatre of Neptune in New France, the first work of theater written and it was arguably the catalyst for the Order of Good Cheer. In 1607, Dugua had his fur trade monopoly revoked by the Government of France, the Habitation was left in the care of Membertou and the local Mikmaq until 1610 when Sieur de Poutrincourt, another French nobleman, returned with a small expedition to Port-Royal. Poutrincourt converted Membertou and local Mikmaq to Catholicism, hoping to gain assistance from the government. As a result, Jesuits became financial partners with Poutrincourt, although this division within the community. In May,1613 the Jesuits moved on to the Penobscot River valley and in July, Argall returned in November that same year and burned the Habitation to the ground while settlers were away nearby

12.
Siege of Port Royal (1710)
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After the French surrender, the British occupied the fort in the capital with all the pomp and ceremony of having captured one of the great fortresses of Europe, and renamed it Annapolis Royal. The siege was the third British attempt during Queen Annes War to capture the Acadian capital, the conquest was a key element in the framing of the North American issues in French-British treaty negotiations of 1711–1713. It resulted in the creation of a new colony—Nova Scotia—and introduced significant questions concerning the fate of both the Acadians and the Mikmaq who continued to occupy Acadia, Port Royal was the capital of the French colony of Acadia almost since the French first began settling the area in 1604. It consequently became a point for conflict between English and French colonists in the next century. It was destroyed in 1613 by English raiders led by Samuel Argall, in 1690 it was captured by forces from the Province of Massachusetts Bay, although it was restored to France by the Treaty of Ryswick. With the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession in 1702, acadias governor, Jacques-François de Monbeton de Brouillan, had, in anticipation of war, already begun construction of a stone and earth fort in 1701, which was largely completed by 1704. Following a French raid on Deerfield on the Massachusetts frontier in February 1704, led by Benjamin Church, they raided Grand Pré and other Acadian communities. English and French accounts differ on whether Churchs expedition mounted an attack on Port Royal, Churchs account indicates that they anchored in the harbour and considered making an attack, but ultimately decided against the idea, French accounts claim that a minor attack was made. When Daniel dAuger de Subercase became governor of Acadia in 1706, he went on the offensive and he also encouraged privateering from Port Royal against English colonial shipping. The privateers were highly effective, the English fishing fleet on the Grand Banks was reduced by 80 percent between 1702 and 1707, and some English coastal communities were raided. English merchants in Boston had long traded with Port Royal, in spring of 1707, he authorized an expedition against Port Royal. This expedition made two attempts to take Port Royal, for a variety of reasons, both attempts failed despite the expeditions significant numerical superiority. In the following years, France failed to any significant support, while the British mobilized larger. Samuel Vetch, a Scots businessman with ties, went to London in 1708. She authorized a great enterprise to conquer all of Acadia and Canada in 1709 that was aborted when the military support failed to materialize. Vetch and Francis Nicholson, an Englishman who had served as colonial governor of Maryland and Virginia, returned to England in its aftermath. They were accompanied by four Indian chiefs, who caused a sensation in London, Nicholson and Vetch successfully argued on behalf of colonial interests for British military support against Port Royal. In addition to 400 marines brought over from England, four New England provinces raised militia regiments, Massachusetts Bay provided 900, Rhode Island 180, Connecticut 300, and New Hampshire 100

13.
History of Halifax (former city)
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Halifax, Nova Scotia was originally inhabited by the Mikmaq Peoples. The first European settlers to arrive in the future Halifax region were French, in the early 1600s, the British settled Halifax in 1749, which sparked Father Le Loutres War. To guard against Mikmaq, Acadian, and French attacks on the new Protestant settlements, British fortifications were erected in Halifax, Bedford, Dartmouth, and Lawrencetown. St. Margarets Bay first got settled by French-speaking Foreign Protestants at French Village, Nova Scotia who migrated from Lunenburg, all of these regions were amalgamated into the Halifax Regional Municipality in 1996. While all of the regions of HRM developed separately over the last 250 years, the City of Halifax was an incorporated city in Nova Scotia, Canada, which was established as the Town of Halifax in 1749, and incorporated as a city in 1842. The city was the capital of Nova Scotia and shire town of Halifax County and it was also the largest city in Atlantic Canada. The Town of Halifax was founded by the Kingdom of Great Britain under the direction of the Board of Trade under the command of Governor Edward Cornwallis in 1749, the British founding of Halifax initiated Father Le Loutres War. During the war, Mikmaq and Acadians raided the capital region 13 times, Halifax was founded below a drumlin that would later be named Citadel Hill. The outpost was named in honour of George Montague-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax, in its early years, Citadel Hill was used as a command and observation post, before changes in artillery that could range out into the harbour. After a protracted struggle between residents and the Viceroys of Nova Scotia, the City of Halifax was incorporated in 1842, the area is administered as two separate community planning areas by the regional government for development, Halifax Peninsula and Mainland Halifax. It forms a significant part of the Halifax urban area, residents of the former city are called Haligonians. The Halifax area has been territory of the Mikmaq since time immemorial, before contact they called the area around the Halifax Harbour Jipugtug, meaning Great Harbour. There is evidence that bands would spend the summer on the shores of the Bedford Basin, examples of Mikmaq habitation and burial sites have been found from Point Pleasant Park to the north and south mainland. Despite the Conquest of Acadia in 1710, no attempts were made by Great Britain to colonize Nova Scotia, aside from its presence at Annapolis Royal. The peninsula was dominated by Catholic Acadians and Mikmaq residents, the British founded Halifax in order to counter the influence of the Fortress of Louisbourg after returning the fortress to French control as part of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. The first European settlement in the HRM was an Acadian community at present-day Lawrencetown and these Acadians joined the Acadian Exodus when the British established themselves on Halifax Peninsula. The establishment of the Town of Halifax, named after the British Earl of Halifax, the establishment of Halifax marked the beginning of Father Le Loutres War. The war began when Edward Cornwallis arrived to establish Halifax with 13 transports, by unilaterally establishing Halifax the British were violating earlier treaties with the Mikmaq, which were signed after Father Rales War

14.
Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755)
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The Bay of Fundy Campaign occurred during the French and Indian War when the British ordered the Expulsion of the Acadians from Acadia after the Battle of Fort Beauséjour. The Campaign started at Chignecto and then moved to Grand Pré, Rivière-aux-Canards, Pisiguit, Cobequid. Approximately 7,000 Acadians were deported to the New England colonies, the British Conquest of Acadia happened in 1710. Over the next years the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance to Britain. During this time period Acadians participated in militia operations against the British, such as the raids on Dartmouth. The Acadians also maintained vital supply lines to the French Fortress of Louisbourg, prior to the expulsion, the British retrieved the Acadians weapons and boats in the Bay of Fundy region and arrested their deputies and priests. After the fall of Fort Beauséjour, the first wave of the expulsion of the Acadians began in the region of Chignecto, under the direction of Colonel Robert Monckton, on August 10, Lieutenant-Colonel John Winslow seized four hundred unsuspecting men who were at Fort Cumberland. He also imprisoned 86 Acadians within Fort Lawrence, the number of prisoners was one third of the men of the region, many of the others fled the region. The prisoners were kept in the fort until transports arrived to deport them, the wives and children joined them upon departure. Almost a month after the expulsion began, on September 2, Boishébert organized the Mi’kmaq and Acadian resistance in the region, almost one month later, on October 1, the Acadian prisoners at Fort Lawrence escaped. Joseph Broussard was one of the escapees, on October 13, a convoy of eight transports, carrying on board approximately 1782 prisoners, left Chignecto Basin escorted by three British men–of–war. The Acadians of Chignecto were considered the most rebellious, as a result, they were sent the furthest from Acadia, to South Carolina and Georgia. Upon leaving, Monckton began burning the Acadian villages to prevent the Acadians return, on November 15,1755, British officer John Thomas burned the village of Tentatmar, destroying in the process the church and ninety-seven other buildings. On August 15, under orders from Monckton, Captain Thomas Lewis, the British chose to destroy these villages first in the expulsion because they were the gateway Acadians used to provide cattle and produce to Louisbourg. Toward this end, Willard assembled the men of Tatamagouche in an Acadian home and he ensured that all the guns in the village were confiscated, and then notified the Acadian men that they were being taken prisoner. Willard immediately began to destroy the shipments of Acadian cattle and produce that were on vessels to be sent to Louisbourg, on August 16, Lewis burned twelve homes and the chapel. Willard continued to burn four houses and several barns in the morning of August 17. Captain Lewis went with 40 men to Remsheg where he captured three families and burned several buildings, Lewis returned to Fort Cumberland on August 26 with the Acadian male prisoners

15.
Siege of Louisbourg (1758)
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The British government realized that with the Fortress of Louisbourg under French control, there was no way that the Royal Navy could sail up the St. Lawrence River for an attack on Quebec unmolested. Pitt assigned the duty of capturing the fortress to Major General Jeffrey Amherst, amhersts brigadiers were Charles Lawrence, James Wolfe and Edward Whitmore, and command of naval operations was assigned to Admiral Edward Boscawen. As they had in 1757, the French planned to defend Louisbourg by a large naval build-up, however, the French fleet sailing from Toulon was blockaded in Cartagena by a British force, and a relief force was defeated at the Battle of Cartagena. After this the French abandoned their attempt to reinforce Louisbourg from the Mediterranean, British forces assembled at Halifax, Nova Scotia where army and navy units spent most of May training together as the massive invasion fleet came together. After a large gathering at the Great Pontack, on 29 May the Royal Navy fleet departed from Halifax for Louisbourg, the fleet consisted of 150 transport ships and 40 men-of-war. Housed in these ships were almost 14,000 soldiers, almost all of whom were regulars, the force was divided into three divisions, Red, commanded by James Wolfe, Blue, commanded by Charles Lawrence and White commanded by Edward Whitmore. On 2 June the British force anchored in Gabarus Bay,3 miles from Louisbourg, however, unlike the previous year, the French navy was unable to assemble in significant numbers, leaving the French squadron at Louisbourg outnumbered five to one by the British fleet. Drucour ordered trenches to be prepared and manned by some 2,000 French troops, along with other defences, such as an artillery battery, at Kennington Cove. Weather conditions in the first week of June made any landing impossible, however, conditions improved, and at daybreak on 8 June Amherst launched his assault using a flotilla of large boats, organized in 7 divisions, each commanded by one of his brigadiers. French defenses were successful and after heavy losses, Wolfe ordered a retreat. However, at the last minute, a boatload of light infantry in Wolfes division found a rocky inlet protected from French fire, Wolfe redirected the rest of his division to follow. Outflanked, the French retreated rapidly back to their fortress, continuing heavy seas and the difficulty inherent to moving siege equipment over boggy terrain delayed the commencement of the formal siege. In the meantime, Wolfe was sent with 1,220 picked men around the harbour to seize Lighthouse Point, after eleven days, on 19 June, the British artillery batteries were in position and the orders were given to open fire on the French. The British battery consisted of seventy cannons and mortars of all sizes, within hours, the guns had destroyed walls and damaged several buildings. On 21 July a mortar round from a British gun on Lighthouse Point struck a 74 gun French ship of the line, LEntreprenant, a stiff breeze fanned the fire, and shortly after the LEntreprenant caught fire, two other French ships had caught fire. LEntreprenant exploded later in the day, depriving the French of the largest ship in the Louisbourg fleet, the next major blow to French morale came on the evening of 23 July, at 10,00. A British hot shot set the Kings Bastion on fire, the Kings Bastion was the fortress headquarters and the largest building in North America in 1758. Its destruction eroded confidence and reduced morale in the French troops, most historians regard the British actions of 25 July as the straw that broke the camels back

16.
Province House (Nova Scotia)
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The building is Canadas oldest house of government. Standing three storeys tall, the structure is considered one of the finest examples of Palladian architecture in North America, Province House was built on the same location as the previous Governors House, erected by Edward Cornwallis in 1749. Province House was opened for the first time on February 11,1819, one of the smallest functioning legislatures in North America, Province House originally housed the executive, legislative and judicial functions of the colony, all in one building. The Supreme Court of Nova Scotia held its sessions in Province House, most notably, Joseph Howe, a journalist and later Premier of Nova Scotia, was put on trial on a charge of criminal libel on March 2,1835 at Province House. On January 20,1842, English author Charles Dickens attended the opening of the Nova Scotia Legislature and he said that it was like looking at Westminster through the wrong end of a telescope. During 1848, Province House was the site for the first form of government in the British Empire outside the United Kingdom. The building is located in downtown Halifax on a block bordered by Hollis, Granville, George, led by the efforts of Joseph Howe, the Anti-Confederation Party won a resounding majority in the first election held after Nova Scotia joined the Confederation of Canada on 1 July 1867. It is also a Provincially Registered Property under provincial heritage legislation, Province House is the home of the House of Assembly, Nova Scotias elected legislative assembly. The first event was marked by the creation of the Dingle Tower, the celebration was entitled Democracy 250. On October 2,1758, the Nova Scotia House of Assembly met for the first time in a modest wooden building at the corner of Argyle and it was an assembly of twenty-two men, who came together to deliberate as a parliament on questions affecting the colony. With voting limited to Protestant, free-land holding males, it was a modest beginning and it was the first elected assembly of its kind in what eventually became Canada. On 31 January 1837, Simon dEntremont and Frederick A. Robicheau became the first Acadians elected to the House of Assembly, almost forty-three years later, on 1 February 1961, Gladys Porter is the first woman elected to the Assembly. In 1993, Wayne Adams is elected the first Black member of the Assembly, the Nova Scotia legislature was the third in Canada to pass human rights legislation. The Legislative Library, located on the floor between the Red Chamber and Legislative Assembly, was originally the home of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia. The Supreme Court chamber was the site of Joseph Howes 1835 trial for seditious libel, on 2 March 1835, newspaper editor Joseph Howe defended himself at trail in the present-day library for seditious libel by civic politicians in Nova Scotia. Many scholars consider Howes success in case a landmark event in the evolution of press freedom in Canada. The Red Chamber was formerly the place of the Nova Scotia Council and later the Legislative Council. The Legislative Council was appointed by the governor and was abolished in 1928, now the room is used for receptions and other meetings

17.
Hector (ship)
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Hector was a ship famous for having been part of the first significant migration of Scottish settlers to Nova Scotia in 1773. The replica of the ship is located at the Hector Heritage Quay. In 1762 the earliest of the Fuadaich nan Gàidheal forced many Gaelic families off their ancestral lands, the first ship loaded with Hebridean colonists arrived on St. -Johns Island in 1770, with later ships following in 1772, and 1774. In 1773 a ship named The Hector landed in Pictou, Nova Scotia, with 189 settlers, in 1784 the last barrier to Scottish settlement – a law restricting land-ownership on Cape Breton Island – was repealed, and soon both PEI and Nova Scotia were predominantly Gaelic-speaking. It is estimated more than 50,000 Gaelic settlers immigrated to Nova Scotia and her famous voyage took place in 1773 with a departure date around the second week of July, carrying 189 Highlanders who were immigrating to Nova Scotia. The vessels owner, Mr. John Pagan, along with Dr. John Witherspoon, Pagan and Witherspoon hired John Ross as a recruiting agent for settlers willing to immigrate to Pictou with an offer of free passage,1 year of free provisions, and a farm. The settlers were recruited at Greenock and at Lochbroom with the majority being from Lochbroom, the settlers that boarded Hector were poor, obscure, illiterate crofters and artisans from Northern, who spoke Gaelic. The school teacher, William McKenzie was one of the few passengers on the Hector to speak both Gaelic and English, Hector was an old ship and in poor condition when she left Europe. The arduous voyage to Pictou took 11 weeks, with a gale off Newfoundland causing a 14-day delay, dysentery and smallpox claimed 18 lives amongst the passengers. The vessel arrived in Pictou Harbour on September 15, landing at Browns Point, the years free provisions never materialized for the passengers of Hector. They had to hurry to build shelter without those provisions before winter set in, during the late 1980s and early 1990s, heritage officials in Nova Scotia sought to commemorate the Hectors contribution to Nova Scotias Scottish history. The Hector Heritage Quay, along with the Ship Hector Company Store were opened on the Pictou waterfront in the ensuing years. The marine architect firm J. B. McGuire Marine Associates Ltd. was commissioned to research the particulars of the original Hector, after several years of construction, the replica Hector was launched with great fanfare and media coverage on September 17,2000. The date had been delayed due to weather on the 16th. The Quay, opened May to October, offers a three story interpretive centre, along with blacksmith, carpentry, and rigger shops. Year built, before 1750 Location, Netherlands Deck length overall,25.9 m Beam,6.7 m Gross tonnage,200 Number of masts,3 Owner, Mr. John Pagan, a merchant in Greenock, Scotland Boudreau, Michael. A Rare and Unusual Treat of Historical Significance, The 1923 Hector Celebration, journal of Canadian Studies 28, 28-48. Bumsted, J. M. Scottish Emigration to the Maritimes, 1770-1815, Scotland Farewell, The People of the Hector

18.
Battle of Fort Cumberland
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The Battle of Fort Cumberland was an attempt by a small number of militia commanded by Jonathan Eddy to bring the American Revolutionary War to Nova Scotia in late 1776. With minimal logistical support from Massachusetts and four to five hundred volunteer militia and Natives, Eddy attempted to besiege, in retaliation for the role of locals who supported the siege, numerous homes and farms were destroyed, and Patriot sympathizers were driven out of the area. The successful defense of Fort Cumberland preserved the integrity of the British Maritime possessions. Nova Scotia was generally poorly defended in the stages of the American Revolutionary War. Although some reinforcements had reached Halifax by early 1776, the frontiers of the province were only lightly defended, Fort Cumberland was located on the Isthmus of Chignecto, which connects modern mainland Nova Scotia with New Brunswick. The area was important in earlier conflicts between the French colony of Acadia and British-controlled Nova Scotia. Originally built by the French in 1750 as Fort Beauséjour, Fort Cumberland was in deplorable condition, won from the French in the Battle of Fort Beauséjour in 1755, the fortifications had been minimally garrisoned by the British after the Seven Years War and abandoned in 1768. Arriving at the fort in the summer of 1776, Colonel Goreham, but Goreham had not been adequately provisioned and his men lacked everything from victuals to uniforms. Furthermore, the locals were sympathetic to the Patriot cause. Jonathan Eddy was a Massachusetts-born resident of Cumberland County, Nova Scotia and he and John Allan, both of whom served in the provincial assembly, were the prime movers of Patriot activity in the area, which was one of several hotbeds of agitation in Nova Scotia. Patriots in these communities were in contact with other. Eddy believed that military assistance from the Thirteen Colonies, he might be able to bring down the strongly Loyalist administration of Nova Scotia. Early in 1776, Eddy went to Massachusetts in an attempt to interest political and military leaders there in supporting action in Nova Scotia, Eddy returned empty-handed to Nova Scotia in June 1776, only to learn that Goreham had put a price on his head. Eddy returned to Massachusetts in August and it also allowed Eddy to engage in recruiting in the District of Maine. Eddy left Boston in September and sailed to Machias, where he recruited about 20 men, on October 13, this party sailed from Machias for Passamaquoddy Bay. Coincidentally, John Allan, who was working on a plan for military action. The two parties met at sea, where Allan attempted to dissuade Eddy from his plan, informing him that the Mikmaq would not help him, Allan extracted a promise from Eddy to wait at Campobello while he went to Machias to meet with the council there. When the Machias council learned of how little native support there was, Eddy persisted, and left Campobello, having added nine Passamaquoddy recruits to his band

19.
Birchtown, Nova Scotia
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Birchtown is a community and National Historic Site in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, located near Shelburne in the Municipal District of Shelburne County. Founded in 1783, it is famous as the largest settlement of Black Loyalists and it was the largest free settlement of ethnic Africans in North America in the eighteenth century. The community was named after British Brigadier General Samuel Birch, an official who assisted in the evacuation of Black Loyalists from New York, Birchtown was first settled by Stephen Blucke, who has been referred to as the true founder of the Afro-Nova Scotian community. Birchtown was the settlement area of the African Americans known as Black Loyalists who escaped to the British lines during the American War of Independence. These were Africans who escaped slavery and fought for the British during the war. The majority of Nova Scotian settlers who immigrated to the new colony of Sierra Leone in 1792 were such African Americans who had lived first in Birchtown. Most Birchtown blacks entered Nova Scotia through the town of Port Roseway. Many of these African-American settlers were recorded in the Book of Negroes and they were issued passports which established their freedom, these were signed by General Birch, and became known as General Birch Certificates. The core of the settlement were five companies of the Black Pioneers who were Black Americans who helped the British forces during the American War of Independence, more than two thirds of the Blacks who immigrated to Canada were from the American South. Birchtown was acknowledged as being the largest settlement of free African Americans in the world by newspapers in New York City, birchtowns population grew further in July 1784 when free Blacks who lived in Shelburne were attacked by whites in the Shelburne Riots. Many blacks, such as the clergyman David George, fled to Birchtown for safety, poor land, inadequate supplies, harsh climate, discrimination and broken promises of assistance led many Birchtown residents to petition the British Government for a remedy, led by Thomas Peters. As a result of grievances, many Birchtown residents chose to accept Britains offer. The majority of blacks who left for Sierra Leone were from Birchtown, of the blacks who left for Sierra Leone,600 were from the Birchtown and Digby areas,220 were from Preston,200 were from New Brunswick, and 180 were from the Annapolis-Digby area. Fifty-five had been born into slavery in Virginia, although the population of Birchtown was greatly reduced by the migration to Sierra Leone, many settlers remained. They formed the basis of the Black Nova Scotian population of Shelburne County today. Employment opportunities in the town of Shelburne attracted many families to move to Shelburne in later years. Birchtown stayed as a rural community of a few hundred based on farming, fishing. A two-room schoolhouse was built in 1829, a new eight-room school was built in 1959

20.
Capture of USS Chesapeake
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The Chesapeake was captured in a brief but intense action in which over 80 men were killed. This was the only action of the war in which there was no preponderance of force on either side. Chesapeake suffered early in the exchange of gunfire, having her wheel and fore topsail halyard shot away, Lawrence himself was mortally wounded and was carried below. The American crew struggled to carry out their captains last order, but the British boarding party overwhelmed them. The battle was intense but of short duration, lasting ten to fifteen minutes. Shannons Captain Philip Broke was severely injured in fighting on the forecastle, Chesapeake and her crew were taken to Halifax, Nova Scotia, where the sailors were imprisoned, the ship was repaired and taken into service by the Royal Navy. She was sold at Portsmouth, England in 1819 and broken up, surviving timbers were used to build the nearby Chesapeake Mill in Wickham and can be seen and visited to this day. Shannon survived longer, being broken up in 1859 and he had dispart sights fitted to his 18-pounder long guns, which improved aiming as they compensated for the narrowing of the barrels from the breech to the muzzle. The carronades were similarly treated, but the screws on these cannon were marked in paint. As the decks of contemporary ships curved upwards towards the stern and bows, fire from the whole battery could also be focused on any part of an enemy ship. Broke drilled his crew to a high standard of naval gunnery, he regularly had them fire at targets. Often these drills would be made into competitions to see which gun crew could hit the target and how fast they could do so. He even had his gun fire at targets blindfold to good effect. This constituted an early example of director firing. In addition to these gunnery drills, Broke was fond of preparing hypothetical scenarios to test his crew, for example, after all hands had been drummed to quarters, he would inform them of a theoretical attack and see how they would act to defend the ship. Though the use of cutlasses in training was avoided a method of training called singlestick was regularly practised. It soon developed quickness of eye and wrist, many of the crew became very expert. Commander Lawrence of the United States Navy returned from a successful war cruise having defeated the sloop HMS Peacock and he was promoted to captain for his victory, and received orders to take command of USS Chesapeake

21.
Libel trial of Joseph Howe
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The Libel trial of Joseph Howe was a court case heard 2 March 1835 in which newspaper editor Joseph Howe was charged with seditious libel by civic politicians in Nova Scotia. Howes victory in court was considered monumental at the time, in the first issue of the Novascotian following the acquittal, Howe claimed that the press of Nova-Scotia is Free. Scholars, such as John Ralston Saul, have argued that Howes libel victory established the basis for the freedom of the press in Canada. Historian Barry Cahill writes that the trial was significant in colonal legal history because it was a long delayed replay of the Zenger case. During the year 1834, Howe was starting to attract attention to due to his strong independent viewpoints in his editorials in the Novascotian. Howe had eventually reached his point and in late 1834 wrote in the Novascotian that he was going to start a campaign in the interest of bringing to light the wrongful actions of government. On January 1,1835, the piece of this campaign was published in the Novascotian. This letter accused the magistrates of, reprehensible irresponsibility, incompetence, specifically, in the letter Joseph Howe accused Halifax politicians and police of pocketing £30,000 over a thirty-year period. The crime of seditious libel had only been defined 200 years prior to the time of Howes trial and was seen by many as a crime as it could be as broad or as specific as the court chose. The trial took place in the present day library of Province House, Howe represented himself in the trial as no lawyer would defend him. Howe used as the basis of his argument the Libel Act 1792 and he presented for six and a quarter hours addressing the jury, citing case after case of civic corruption. He spoke eloquently about the importance of freedom, urging jurors to leave an unshackled press as a legacy to your children. Even though the judge instructed the jury to find Howe guilty, the victory of Howe in the court was considered monumental at the time. In the first issue of the Novascotian following the acquittal, Howe claimed that the press of Nova-Scotia is Free, beck asserts that the idea that Howes trial contributed to the freedom of the press in Canada is a, myth that has little basis in fact. In fact, eight years after the trial, Howes successor at the Novascotian Richard Nugent was charged, Nugent was imprisoned due to his inability to pay damages. Lyndsay M. Campbell argues that the trial did eventually change the law, Howe was the first in Nova Scotia to argue intent before a jury. Campbell also notes that while Howes defence did not persuade the presiding judge, Howe changed how the law was perceived by both the legal profession and by the general public. The timing of the trial was crucial to the effect it had on Canada

22.
Chesapeake Affair
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The Chesapeake Affair was an international diplomatic incident that occurred during the American Civil War. On December 7,1863 Confederate sympathizers from Canada’s Maritime Provinces captured the American steamer Chesapeake off the coast of Cape Cod, the expedition was planned and led by Vernon Guyon Locke of Nova Scotia and John Clibbon Braine. George Wade of New Brunswick killed one of the American crew, the Confederacy had claimed its first fatal casualty in New England waters. The Confederate sympathisers had planned to re-coal at Saint John, New Brunswick and then south to Wilmington. Instead, the captors experienced difficulties at Saint John, which required them to further east and re-coal in Halifax. American forces violated British sovereignty by trying to arrest the captors in Nova Scotian waters, Wade and others were able to escape through the assistance of prominent Nova Scotian and Confederate sympathiser William Johnston Almon. The Chesapeake Affair was one of the most sensational international incidents that occurred during the American Civil War, the incident briefly threatened to bring Great Britain into the war against the North. The practice of slave-owning was outlawed in Nova Scotia by the Slavery Abolition Act 1833, when the war began most Canadians were overtly sympathetic to the North. At the beginning of the American Civil War approximately 20,000 Canadians, almost half of them Maritimers, went to fight, there were also strong family ties across the border. As the war went on, relations between Britain and the North became strained for numerous reasons and sympathy turned toward the South, Britain declared itself neutral during the war, which led to increased trade that went through Halifax to both Northern and Southern ports. Nova Scotia’s economy thrived throughout the war and this trade created strong ties between Halifax and merchants from both the North and South. In Halifax the main agent for the Confederacy was Benjamin Wier and Co. – a company that flew the Confederate flag outside its office. The informal headquarters for the Confederates was located at Waverley Hotel,1266 Barrington Street, at the same time, Halifax became the leading supplier of coal and fish to the North. While trade with the South was flourishing, the North created a blockade to prevent supplies getting to the South. Hundreds of Blockade runners would use the port of Halifax to ship their goods between Britain and the Confederate States, much of the coal and other fuels used to run Confederate steamers went through Halifax. The Confederates arranged various attacks on the south from Canada, such as the raid on St. Albans, the plan to kill President Abraham Lincoln was made in the St. Lawrence Hall hotel in Montreal, Quebec. The Chesapeake affair was a plan created in St. John, New Brunswick by Confederate sympathisers to capture an American ship, Locke had arranged for Braine and sixteen Confederate sympathisers from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick to board the Chesapeake as normal passengers while in New York. While en route to Maine, on the night of December 7, just off the coast of Cape Cod, Braine, in the exchange of gunfire that transpired the ship’s second engineer was killed and three others wounded

23.
Antigonish Movement
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A group of priests and educators, including Father Jimmy Tompkins, Father Moses Coady, Rev. Hugh MacPherson and A. B. MacDonald led this movement from a base at the Extension Department at St. Francis Xavier University in Antigonish, Nova Scotia. The credit union systems of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and PEI owe their origins to the Antigonish Movement, the Coady International Institute at St. F. X. has been instrumental in developing credit unions and in asset-based community development initiatives in developing countries ever since. As educators and priests, the leaders of the Antigonish Movement were primarily concerned with human, the title of Moses Coady’s only book – Masters of Their Own Destiny – encapsulates this desire to see ordinary Nova Scotians achieve economic and social freedom. However Coady argued that for reasons we consider it good pedagogy. That we may more readily attain the spiritual and cultural towards which all our efforts are directed, ordinary Nova Scotians he argued, had only themselves to blame for their poverty and vulnerability. They had permitted money and business to become mysterious forces outside of their control, fishers and farmers for example, were exploited by marketing middlemen. If they took the time to understand their circumstances and took the risks of co-operative action, they could achieve security and on that foundation greater freedom. The origins of co-operatives in Nova Scotia go back to a store in Stellarton. Co-operative creameries and fruit-growers co-ops were established by farmers to free them from exploitative middleman in the 1890s, many early co-ops failed due to poor management, domination by a few individuals and a lack of ongoing education. However, the British Canadian Co-operative Society, a store in Sydney Mines, Nova Scotia. By 1917 it has 1,220 members and over $500,000 in sales and that year, it organized a conference on co-ops. The conference, which featured Ontario co-operative pioneer George Keen as keynote speaker, renewed local energy, Father Jimmy Tompkins played a key role in concocting the intellectual dynamite that was later set off in almost every village in the Maritimes. Tompkins began teaching at St. F. X. in 1902, British Workers Educational Associations, the Danish Folk High Schools, and Swedish Discussion Circles particularly interested him. And in Canada, the University of Saskatchewans agricultural program, and Quebecs agricultural colleges and credit unions, caught his attention. Tompkins had trouble making his case with the administration, and in 1922, St. F. X. sent Tompkins into exile as village priest in Canso. This did not slow the determined priest down, however, beginning in 1924 Tompkins organized the first of a series of annual conferences bringing together farmers, educators, students, priests and rural development experts. In 1928, seeking a permanent organization, some of the leaders in this group launched a campaign that raised $100,000

24.
Anti-Confederation Party
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Anti-Confederation was the name used in what is now Atlantic Canada by several parties opposed to Canadian Confederation. The Anti-Confederation parties were opposed by the Confederation Party. In 1867 in Nova Scotia, Anti-Confederates won 36 out of 38 seats in the provincial legislature, the Anti-Confederation Party was opposed by the Confederation Party of Charles Tupper. Prominent Anti-confederates included the noted shipbuilder William D. Lawrence, Alfred William Savary, federally, in the 1867 federal election, the Anti-Confederate party won 18 of Nova Scotias 19 seats in the Canadian House of Commons. Howe won the seat in Hants County, Nova Scotia. Britain, however, refused to allow Nova Scotia to secede, while many anti-confederationists threatened to secede and join the United States, Howe was a pragmatist and ultimately accepted Confederation as a fact. He was soon persuaded to join the Cabinet of Sir John A. Macdonald, there was also an Anti-Confederation Party in New Brunswick led by Albert J. Smith, whose coalition of Conservatives and Reformers won the 1865 election. It was, however, soundly defeated in the 1866 election by the Confederation Party led by Peter Mitchell, the legislature that resulted from that election approved Confederation by a margin of 38 to 1. In the 1867 federal election the Anti-Confederates won five of New Brunswicks fifteen seats in the Canadian House of Commons, while in Nova Scotia and elsewhere, opponents of confederation were predominantly Liberals and supporters were predominantly Tories, in New Brunswick the debate blurred party lines. Tilley later joined the government of Sir John A. Macdonald, both Anti-Confederate and Confederate forces were mixtures of Tories and Reformers. By 1870, the Confederate and Anti-Confederate parties had dissolved and were replaced by the old Liberal, joseph Howe, The Briton Becomes Canadian 1848–1873. Kingston & Montreal, McGill-Queens University Press

25.
1869 Saxby Gale
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The Saxby Gale was the name given to a tropical cyclone which struck eastern Canadas Bay of Fundy region on the night of October 4–5,1869. Much of the devastation was attributed to a 2-metre storm surge created by the storm coincided with a perigean spring tide. The Saxby Gale storm surge produced a level which gave Burntcoat Head, Nova Scotia. It is also thought to have formed the long beach that connects Partridge Island, Nova Scotia. Sailing ships in various harbors were tossed about and/or broken up against wharves, farmers trying to rescue livestock from fields along shorelines drowned after dykes were breached, over 100 people were killed in the Maritimes alone. The gale destroyed miles of the newly completed Windsor and Annapolis Railway along the Minas Basin near Horton and Wolfville, the storm was given the name Saxby in honor of Lieutenant Stephen Martin Saxby, Royal Navy, who was a naval instructor and amateur astronomer. Many newspapers took up Saxbys warning in the coming days, in a monthly weather column published October 5,1869, in Halifaxs The Evening Express, amateur meteorologist Frederick Allison relayed Lt. Saxbys warning for a devastating storm the following week. Despite the warning, many throughout the United Kingdom, Canada, Newfoundland. Lt. Saxbys predictions were considered quite lunatic at the time, some believed that his predictions were founded upon astrology, which was not the case

26.
William D. Lawrence (ship)
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William D. Lawrence was a full-rigged sailing ship built in Maitland, Nova Scotia, along the Minas Basin and named after her builder, the merchant and politician William Dawson Lawrence. William Lawrence was an opponent of Canadian Confederation which he predicted would bring ruin to Nova Scotias flourishing shipbuilding industry. Initially planning to build a vessel, he deliberately increased the size of William D. Lawrence to create a landmark vessel for the provinces shipping industry before it declined. The vessel defied critics who claimed that a vessel of its size would be unmanageable. After several profitable years, the ship was sold to Norwegian owners in 1883 and she was stranded in the English Channel in 1891 and converted to a barge, later sinking in Dakar, Africa. The ship has also commemorated by the Canada Post with a postage stamp. The vessels achievement is commemorated in Maitland by a National Historic Site monument at the home of her builder, Lawrence House. Maitland celebrates the launch of William D. Lawrence every September at a festival called Launch Days

27.
Beinn Bhreagh
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Beinn Bhreagh is the name of the former estate of Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, in Victoria County, Nova Scotia, Canada. It refers to a peninsula jutting into Cape Breton Islands scenic Bras dOr Lake approximately 3 km southeast of the village of Baddeck, the peninsula was known to the Mikmaq as Megwatpatek, roughly translated to Red Head due to the reddish sandstone rocks at the tip of the peninsula. In July 2005, the Nova Scotia Civic Address Project review changed the status of Beinn Bhreagh from a locality to a community. Along the way, due to the grounding of their passenger boat. Its landscape, climate, and Scottish traditions and culture were reminiscent of his birthplace in Edinburgh, the Bells lived increasingly on Beinn Bhreagh from about 1888 until Dr. Bells death in 1922, initially only in the summer and then later often year-round. Bell constructed a laboratory and boatyard on this property, conducting experiments in powered flight and hydrofoil technology, Bell, and built at Beinn Bhreagh. Designed as a chaser and powered by aircraft engines, their vessel set a world watercraft speed record of 71 miles per hour in 1919. Dr. Bell and his wife Mabel were both buried atop Beinn Bhreagh mountain, on the estate, overlooking Bras dOr Lake, the 242. 8-hectare estate owned by the Bells is on the peninsula at the end of Beinn Bhreagh Road. It is now owned by their descendants and not open to the public. Dr. and Mrs. Bells first residence on Beinn Bhreagh, the second and larger home, Beinn Bhreagh Hall was built in 1893. Both are visible from Baddeck, across Baddeck Bay, the Museum was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1952. Alexander Graham Bells father-in-law, Gardiner Greene Hubbard was the first president of the National Geographic Society, perhaps as a result, both Beinn Bhreagh or Baddeck, the nearest town, are prominently displayed in National Geographic maps of the area, despite their relatively small size

28.
Halifax Explosion
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The Halifax Explosion was a maritime disaster in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, on the morning of 6 December 1917. SS Mont-Blanc, a French cargo ship laden with explosives, collided with the Norwegian vessel SS Imo in the Narrows. A fire on board the French ship ignited her cargo, causing an explosion that devastated the Richmond district of Halifax. Approximately 2,000 people were killed by blast, debris, fires and collapsed buildings, the blast was the largest man-made explosion prior to the development of nuclear weapons, releasing the equivalent energy of roughly 2.9 kilotons of TNT. Mont-Blanc was under orders from the French government to carry her cargo of explosives from New York via Halifax to Bordeaux. At roughly 8,45 am, she collided at low speed – approximately one knot – with the unladen Imo, the resulting fire aboard the French ship quickly grew out of control. Approximately 20 minutes later at 9,04,35 am, nearly all structures within an 800-metre radius, including the entire community of Richmond, were obliterated. A pressure wave snapped trees, bent iron rails, demolished buildings, grounded vessels, hardly a window in the city proper survived the blast. Across the harbour, in Dartmouth, there was widespread damage. A tsunami created by the blast wiped out the community of Mikmaq First Nations people who had lived in the Tufts Cove area for generations, Relief efforts began almost immediately, and hospitals quickly became full. Rescue trains began arriving from across eastern Canada and the north-eastern United States, construction of temporary shelters to house the many people left homeless began soon after the disaster. The initial judicial inquiry found Mont-Blanc to have responsible for the disaster. There are several memorials to the victims of the explosion in the North End, the community of Dartmouth lies on the east shore of Halifax Harbour, while Halifax is on the west shore. After 1906, the Canadian Government took over the Halifax Dockyard from the Royal Navy and this dockyard later became the command centre of the Royal Canadian Navy upon its founding in 1910. Just before the First World War, the Canadian government began to make a determined, costly effort to develop the harbour, the outbreak of the war brought Halifax back to prominence. The population of Halifax/Dartmouth had increased to between 60,000 and 65,000 people by 1917, convoys carried soldiers, men, animals and supplies to the European theatre of war. The two main points of departure were in Nova Scotia at Sydney in Cape Breton and Halifax, Hospital ships brought the wounded to the city, and a new military hospital was constructed in the city. The success of German U-boat attacks on crossing the Atlantic Ocean led the Allies to institute a convoy system to reduce losses while transporting goods

29.
Local Council of Women of Halifax
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The Local Council of Women of Halifax is an organization in Halifax, Nova Scotia devoted to improving the lives of women and children. One of the most significant achievements of the LCWH was its 24-year struggle for right to vote. The core of the trained and progressive leadership was five women, Anna Leonowens, Edith Archibald, Eliza Ritchie, Agnes Dennis. Halifax business man George Henry Wright left his home in his will to the LCWH, educator Alexander McKay also was a significant supporter of the Council. In 1851 women were excluded from the vote in Nova Scotia, in 1870, Hannah Norris began to mobilize women into the public sphere through establishing the Woman’s Baptist Missionary Aid Society across the Maritimes. Following Frances Willards visit to Halifax in 1878, Nova Scotia women organized local unions, in 1884, the WCTU successfully lobbied for married women’s property legislation. In 1891 the WCTU officially endorsed the suffrage cause, the first major organization to support womens suffrage. Edith Archibald became the leader of the Maritime chapter of the WCTU the following year, two years later, in 1893, Edith Archibald and others made the first official attempt to have a suffrage bill for women property holders passed in Nova Scotia. The bill was passed by the legislature but quashed by Attorney General James Wilberforce Longley, the year following the defeat of the first suffrage bill, the Local Council was established in 1894 as the local chapter of the National Council of Women of Canada. On August 30,1894, the committee met for the first time at Government House. Emma MacIntosh serving as the first president, between 1892 and 1895, thirty-four suffrage petitions were presented to the Nova Scotia legislature, and six suffrage bills were introduced, the final one in 1897. On 22 February 1917 the LCWH presented a petition endorsed by forty-one womens organizations. When the Liberal Premier ignored the issue, irate members introduced a private member bill and its defeat marked the birth of the Nova Scotia Equal Franchise League in the spring of 1917. Veer, “Feminist Forebears, The Womans Christian Temperance Union in Canadas Maritime Provinces, prohibition and the Social Gospel in Nova Scotia. Mothers of the Municipality, Women, Work and Social Policy in Post-1945 Halifax edited by Judith Fingard, the Ritchie Sisters and Social Improvement in Early 20th Century Halifax. Journalof the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society, Vol.13,2010

30.
William Davis Miners' Memorial Day
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Davis Day originated in memory of William Davis, a coal miner who was killed during a mining strike near the town of New Waterford. In commemoration of Davis sacrifice, the United Mine Workers of America designated the day in his honour, Davis Day was renamed District Memorial Day in 1938 and in 1970, the date was changed to the second Monday in June. In 1974 this was reverted, with the name and the date being restored. For the remainder of the 20th century, the pledge of never working on June 11 was maintained and they did not proceed past first reading. In 2008 a private bill to officially designate June 11 as William Davis Miners Memorial Day was introduced and passed

31.
Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
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It was founded in 1957 by Joseph Rotblat and Bertrand Russell in Pugwash, Nova Scotia, Canada, following the release of the Russell–Einstein Manifesto in 1955. Rotblat and the Pugwash Conference won jointly the Nobel Peace Prize in 1995 for their efforts on nuclear disarmament, International Student/Young Pugwash groups have existed since founder Cyrus Eatons death in 1979. The Russell–Einstein Manifesto, released July 9,1955, called for a conference for scientists to assess the dangers of weapons of mass destruction. Cyrus Eaton, an industrialist and philanthropist, offered on July 13 to finance and host the conference in the town of his birth, Pugwash and this was not taken up at the time because a meeting was planned for India, at the invitation of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. With the outbreak of the Suez Crisis the Indian conference was postponed, aristotle Onassis offered to finance a meeting in Monaco instead, but this was rejected. Eatons former invitation was taken up, the first conference was held at what became known as Thinkers Lodge in July 1957 in Pugwash, Nova Scotia. Cyrus Eaton, Eric Burhop, Ruth Adams, Anne Kinder Jones, many others were unable to attend, including co-founder Bertrand Russell, for health reasons. Pugwashs main objective is the elimination of all weapons of mass destruction and this is the main modus operandi of Pugwash. Officers include the president and secretary-general, formal governance is provided by the Pugwash Council, which serves for five years. There is also a committee that assists the secretary-general. Jayantha Dhanapala is the current president, Paolo Cotta-Ramusino is the current Secretary General. The four Pugwash offices, in Rome, London, Geneva, there are approximately fifty national Pugwash groups, organized as independent entities and often supported or administered by national academies of science. The International Student/Young Pugwash groups works with, but are independent from, pugwashs first fifteen years coincided with the Berlin Crisis, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, and the Vietnam War. Pugwash played a role in opening communication channels during a time of otherwise-strained official and unofficial relations. It provided background work to the Partial Test Ban Treaty, the Non-Proliferation Treaty, the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, the Biological Weapons Convention, former US Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara has credited a backchannel Pugwash initiative with laying the groundwork for the negotiations that ended the Vietnam War. Mikhail Gorbachev admitted the influence of the organisation on him when he was leader of the Soviet Union, in addition, Pugwash has been credited with being a groundbreaking and innovative transnational organization and a leading example of the effectiveness of Track II diplomacy. In 1980, the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence received a report that the Pugwash Conference was used by Soviet delegates to promote Soviet propaganda, traditional Nuclear Disarmament, US-Russia nuclear disarmament, nuclear weapons in Europe,2. India and Pakistan nuclear relations, the effects of US India nuclear deal,4, regional security in regions where nuclear weapons exist or risks of nuclear proliferation are significant,1

32.
Springhill mining disaster
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These entities merged in 1884 to form the Cumberland Railway & Coal Company Ltd. which its investors sold in 1910 to the industrial conglomerate Dominion Coal Company Ltd. Following the third disaster in 1958, the operator Dominion Steel & Coal Corporation Ltd. then a subsidiary of the A. V, roe Canada Company Ltd. shut its mining operations in Springhill, and they were never reopened. Some of the victims were 10 to 13 years old, rescue efforts throughout that afternoon and evening were made easier by the lack of fire in No.1 and No. The song La Mine by the French Canadian folk group Le Vent du Nord on their 2009 album La part du feu relates to the 1891 explosion. The flow of air disturbed the dust on the train cars. Before the train reached the surface, several cars broke loose,4, derailing along the way and hitting a power line, causing it to arc and ignite the coal dust at the 5, 500-foot level. Heroically, Drägermen and barefaced miners entered the 6, 100-foot-deep No.4 to aid their colleagues,39 miners died, and 88 were rescued. Media coverage of the 1956 explosion was largely overshadowed by the Soviet invasion of Hungary and the Suez Crisis, nevertheless, Canadian and local media gave extensive coverage to the 1956 disaster. After the rescue effort, the connected No.4 and No.2 collieries were sealed for several months to deprive the fires of oxygen, in January 1957, the bodies of the remaining casualties were recovered from the pit, and No.4 colliery closed forever. The 1958 bump, which occurred on October 23,1958, was the most severe bump in North American mining history. The 1958 bump devastated the people of Springhill for the casualties suffered, it also devastated the town. It is not exactly known what causes a bump and it could be the result of coal being totally removed from a bedrock unit or stratum. The resulting geological stresses upon overlying strata may cause the pillars to suddenly and catastrophically disintegrate, No.2 colliery was one of the deepest coal mines in the world. Sloping shafts 14,200 feet in length led to a vast labyrinth of galleries more than 4,000 feet below the surface. On October 23 a small bump occurred at 7,00 pm during the shift, it was ignored. However, just over an hour later, at 8,06 pm, the bump spread as three distinct shock waves, resembling a small earthquake throughout the region, alerting residents on the surface over a wide area to the disaster. Dräger teams and teams of barefaced miners entered No.2 colliery to begin the rescue effort and they encountered survivors at the 13, 400-foot level walking or limping toward the surface. Miners not saved by being either in side galleries or some other shelter were immediately crushed during the bump,75 survivors were on the surface by 4,00 am on October 24,1958

33.
Nova Scotia Human Rights Commission
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The Nova Scotia Human Rights Commission was established in Nova Scotia, Canada in 1967 to administer the Nova Scotia Human Rights Act. The Nova Scotia Human Rights Commission is the first commission in Canada to engage a restorative dispute resolution process, the Commission is an arms-length independent agency of government accountable to the Nova Scotia Department of Justice for budgetary issues. It is also a violation to retaliate against someone who files a complaint or expresses an intention to complain or to retaliate against someone who assists in making a complaint. In the early sixties direct involvement of premier Robert Stanfield along with William Pearly Oliver were instrumental in laying the foundation in Nova Scotia for the establishment of the Commission, originally the mandate of the Commission was primarily to address the plight of Black Nova Scotians. In 1940, Dr. William Oliver volunteered for the Department of Education to improve the condition of ethnic minorities in Nova Scotia, after five years, he was hired on with the Department. The following year,1946, the Viola Desmond case galvanized the civil movement in Nova Scotia. ”In 1955 the Fair Employment Practices Act was passed followed by the Equal Pay Act of 1956. Premier Robert Stanfield came to power in 1956 and made Human Rights, particularly for Black Nova Scotians, in 1959, the assembly passed the Fair Accommodation Practices Act to guard against discrimination in public spaces. Stanfield reports that, Clearly more than a declaration of equality was required, more than the passage of Laws against discrimination would be necessary before Blacks achieved real equality and clearly years of concerted effort would be necessary. In 1962, Premier Stanfield created and led the Interdepartmental Committee on Human Rights. The mandate of the committee was to encourage the work of Dr. William Oliver in the black communities, the government established the Education fund for Negros in 1965. While Premier Stanfield went into politics in 1967, he. Others who supported the development of the Human Rights Commission were Donald Oliver, Gus Wedderburn, Carrie Best. The first employee of the Commission was Gordon Earle. The Commission quickly introduced wide-ranging legislation amendments to the Human Rights Act, “making the Nova Scotia legislation the strongest and most comprehensive of its kind in Canada. ”The Commission provided funds for William Oliver’s newest organization, the Black United Front and sponsored a two-day workshop with activist Saul Alinsky. In 1967, the Commissions explicit purpose was to challenge discrimination on racial, religious, there are currently 23 permanent staff members. The NSHRC staff work in three regions of the province, including the office in Halifax and two regional offices located in Sydney and Digby. Three units carry out the operational and administrative functions, 1) the CEOs office or unit which includes in-house legal counsel, 2) The Dispute Resolution unit takes complaints, collects information and assists the parties to resolve them. The human rights officers also make recommendations to the Commissioners for further dispute resolution in the form of a board or inquiries or dismissal of a complaint, the director and CEO is a non-voting commissioner

34.
Treaty Day (Nova Scotia)
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Treaty Day is celebrated by Nova Scotians annually on October 1 in recognition of the Treaties signed between the British Empire and the Mikmaq people. The first treaty was signed in 1725 after Father Rales War, the final treaties of 1760-61, marked the end of 75 years of regular warfare between the Mikmaq and the British. The treaty making process of 1760-61, ended with the Burying the Hatchet ceremony, the treaties were only formally recognized by the Supreme Court of Canada once they were enshrined in the Canadian Constitution in 1982. The first Treaty Day occurred in 1986, the year after the Supreme Court upheld the Peace Treaty of 1752 signed by Jean-Baptiste Cope and Governor Peregrine Hopson. Since that time there have been numerous decisions that have upheld the other treaties in the Supreme Court. The day October 1 was chosen because the Treaty of 1752 designated October 1 as the date on which the Mi’kmaw people would receive gifts from the Crown to “renew their friendship and submissions. ”The purpose of Treaty Day is also to public awareness about the Mi’kmaw culture. In return, they offered their own friendship and a tolerance of limited British settlement, the intent of the treaties began to erode with the arrival of the New England Planters and United Empire Loyalists. This migration into the region created significant economic, environmental and cultural pressures on the Mikmaq, in response, the British offered charity or, the word most often used by government officials, relief. And relief always came with strings attached, the Mikmaq must give up their way of life and begin to settle on farms and their children were to be sent for education to British schools. Gabriel Sylliboy was the first Mikmaq elected as Grand Chief and the first to fight for treaty recognition - specifically, the Treaties did not gain legal status until they were enshrined into the Canadian Constitution in 1982. R. v. Simon overruled R. v. Syliboy which had held that aboriginal peoples had no capacity to enter into treaties, a variety of non-land rights cases, anchored on the Constitution Act 1982, have also been influential. Every October 1, Treaty Day is now celebrated by Nova Scotians, “Empire, the Maritime Colonies, and the Supplanting of Mi’kma’ki/Wulstukwik, 1780-1820. ”Amerindian Power in the Early Modern Northeast, A Reappraisal. ”William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series,61, 77-106. Treaties on Trial, History, Land and Donald Marshall Junior

35.
Westray Mine
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The Westray Mine was a coal mine in Plymouth, Nova Scotia, Canada. Westray was owned and operated by Curragh Resources Incorporated, which obtained both provincial and federal government money to open the mine, and supply local electrical power utilities with coal. It opened in September 1991, but closed eight months later when it was the site of a methane explosion on May 9,1992. The week-long attempts to rescue the miners were widely followed by national media until it was there would be no survivors. About a week later, the Nova Scotia government ordered an inquiry to look into what caused one of Canadas deadliest mining disasters. The report stated that the mine was mismanaged, miners safety was ignored, a criminal case against two mine managers went to trial in the mid-1990s, but ultimately was dropped by the crown in 1998, as it seemed unlikely that a conviction could be attained. Curragh Resources went bankrupt in 1993, partially due to the disaster, the mine was dismantled and permanently sealed in November 1998. Following the closure of the last working mine in the 1970s, the timing was perfect, politically, since the region had elected a fledgling leader of the federal opposition, Brian Mulroney, in a 1983 by-election in Central Nova. Following the election of a federal Conservative-led government, Elmer MacKay became a Tory political heavyweight in the riding, provincially, the area was also home to Conservative premier Donald Cameron. Money was made available to Toronto company Curragh Resources for establishing a mine, a 0.75 mi rail spur was built off the CN Rail main line at Stellarton which crossed the East River of Pictou to the mine site in Plymouth. On September 11,1991, the mine was opened to great fanfare, but immediately problems began to surface. The Labour Ministry gave Currough Inc. a special permit to use methods to tunnel until they reached the coal seam. Legere was not aware that the continued to use these methods. Accusations were made by workers of company cutbacks in safety training and equipment and of negligent. Miners complained about working in coal dust. In November 1991, coal miner Carl Guptill made safety complaints to Labour Ministry inspectors, but they were not investigated, on Saturday, May 9,1992, methane gas and subsequent coal dust explosions at 5,18 a. m. It was Canadas worst mining disaster since 1958, when a bump at another Nova Scotia coal mine in Springhill claimed the lives of 75 miners. In the wake of the explosion, Canadian and international media coverage descended upon the tiny hamlet of Plymouth, coverage gripped Canadians for several days as teams of dragermen searched the debris-strewn depths of the mine for survivors

36.
Mi'kmaq-Nova Scotia-Canada Tripartite Forum
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The Mikmaq-Nova Scotia-Canada Tripartite Forum was established in 1997 to provide the Mikmaq, Nova Scotia and Canada a place to resolve issues of mutual concern. The Forums vision is to develop Mikmaw communities and foster relationships with other Nova Scotians. On February 23,2007, the Mikmaq-Nova Scotia-Canada Framework Agreement was created for the Made-in-Nova Scotia Process, the Framework Agreement confirms each partys commitment to work to resolve Mikmaq rights issues through negotiation in a spirit of reconciliation. The intent of the Agreement is to, Enhanced legal clarity on rights issues, Improved relations, on August 31,2010, the Assembly of Nova Scotia Mikmaq Chiefs signed an historic agreement with the Governments of Canada and Nova Scotia. The Mikmaq-Nova Scotia-Canada Consultation Terms of Reference lays out a process for the parties to follow when governments wish to consult with the Mikmaq, in 1982, the first Mi’kmaq operated school opened in Nova Scotia. By 1997, all education for Mi’kmaq on reserves were given the responsibility for their own education, there are now 11 band run schools in Nova Scotia. Now Nova Scotia has the highest rate of retention of students in schools in the country. More than half the teachers are Mi’kmaq, from 2011 to 2012 there was a 25% increase of Mi’kmaq students going to university. Atlantic Canada has the highest rate of students attending university in the country

37.
Viola Desmond
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Viola Irene Desmond was a Canadian Black Nova Scotian businesswoman who challenged racial segregation at a film theatre in New Glasgow, Nova Scotia in 1946. She refused to leave an area of the Roseland Theatre and was unjustly convicted of a minor tax violation used to enforce segregation. Desmonds case is one of the most publicized incidents of discrimination in Canadian history. In 2010, Desmond was granted a pardon, the first to be granted in Canada. The government of Nova Scotia also apologized for prosecuting her for tax evasion, in 2016, the Bank of Canada announced that Desmond will be the first Canadian woman to be featured on the front of a banknote. She is slated to appear on the $10 bill in 2018, Viola Desmond was born on July 6,1914, one of ten children of James Albert and Gwendolin Irene Davis. Viola grew up with parents who were active in the community in Halifax, despite the fact that her mother was white and her father black. Growing up, Desmond noted the absence of professional hair- and skin-care products for black women, upon finishing her training, Viola Desmond returned to Halifax to start her own hair salon. Her clients included Portia White and a young Gwen Jenkins, later the first black nurse in Nova Scotia. In addition to the salon, Desmond set up The Desmond School of Beauty Culture so that women would not have to travel as far as she did to receive proper training. Catering to women from Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Quebec, students were provided with the skills required to open their own businesses and provide jobs for other black women within their communities. Each year as many as fifteen women graduated from the school, Desmond also started her own line of beauty products, Vis Beauty Products which she marketed and sold herself. Viola Desmond joined her husband Jack Desmond in a barbershop and hairdressing salon. While on a trip to sell her beauty products, Viola went to New Glasgow in 1946. While driving through New Glasgow on November 8,1946, Viola Desmonds car broke down, to pass the time while waiting, she went to see The Dark Mirror at the Roseland Film Theatre. Desmond bought a ticket, asking for a seat on the main floor, as she took a seat on the main floor, she was told by the manager that she did not have the ticket for that seat. She returned to the booth, where she was informed that it was against their policy to give a main floor seat ticket to a black person. Desmond returned to the floor and refused to sit in the balcony designated exclusively for blacks in the segregated Roseland Theatre

38.
Military history of Nova Scotia
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Nova Scotia is a Canadian province located in Canadas Maritimes. The region was occupied by Mikmaq. During the first 150 years of European settlement, the colony was made up of Catholic Acadians, Maliseet. During the latter years of this time period, there were six colonial wars that took place in Nova Scotia. During these wars, Acadians, Mikmaq and Maliseet from the region fought to protect the border of Acadia from New England and they fought the war on two fronts, the southern border of Acadia, which New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine. The other front was in Nova Scotia and involved preventing New Englanders from taking the capital of Acadia, Port Royal, during the French and Indian War, Halifax was established as the British Headquarters of the North American Station. As a result, Nova Scotia was active throughout the American Revolution, during the Victorian Era, Nova Scotians also played prominent roles in the Crimean War and the Indian Mutiny. The province also participated in the Northwest Rebellion and the Second Boer War, during the twentieth century the province produced numerous heroes who fought in World War I and World War II. There was a number of Nova Scotians who also participated in the Spanish Civil War, the Korean War. The first European settlement in Nova Scotia was established in 1605, the French, led by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Monts established the first capital for the colony Acadia at Port Royal, Nova Scotia. Other than a few trading posts around the province, for the next seventy-five years, Port Royal remained the capital of Acadia and later Nova Scotia for almost 150 years, prior to the founding of Halifax in 1749. The English made six attempts to conquer the capital of Acadia which they finally did in the Siege of Port Royal in 1710, over the following fifty years, the French and their allies made six unsuccessful military attempts to regain the capital. From 1629 to 1632, Nova Scotia briefly became a Scottish colony, Sir William Alexander of Menstrie Castle, Scotland claimed mainland Nova Scotia and settled at Port Royal, while Ochiltree claimed Ile Royale and settled at Baleine, Nova Scotia. There were three battles between the Scottish and the French, the Raid on St. John, the Siege of Baleine as well as Siege of Cap de Sable, Nova Scotia was returned to France via the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. The French quickly defeated the Scottish at Baleine and established settlements on Ile Royale at present day Englishtown and these two settlements remained the only settlements on the island until they were abandoned by Nicolas Denys in 1659. Ile Royale then remained vacant for more than fifty years until the communities were re-established when Louisbourg was established in 1713, Acadia was plunged into what some historians have described as a civil war between 1640 and 1645. The war was between Port Royal, where Governor of Acadia Charles de Menou dAulnay de Charnisay was stationed, and present-day Saint John, New Brunswick, Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour was stationed. In the war, there were four major battles, La Tour attacked dAulnay at Port Royal in 1640

39.
Military history of the Acadians
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Some other Acadians provided military intelligence, sanctuary, and logistical support to the resistance movement. The Acadian militias achieved effective resistance for more than 75 years, while Acadian militia was briefly active during the American Revolution, the militias were dormant throughout the nineteenth century. After confederation, Acadians eventually joined the Canadian War efforts in World War I, the most well-known colonial leaders of these militias were Joseph Broussard and Joseph-Nicolas Gautier. The first war to influence the Acadians is now known as King Williams War, the crews of the French privateer Pierre Maisonnat dit Baptiste were primarily Acadian. The Acadians resisted during the Raid on Chignecto, colonel Benjamin Church and four hundred men arrived offshore of Beaubassin on September 20. When they came ashore, the Acadians and Mi’kmaq opened fire on them, Church lost a lieutenant and several of his men. They managed to get ashore and surprise the Acadians, many fled while one confronted Church with papers showing they had signed an oath of allegiance in 1690 to the English King. Church was unconvinced, especially after he discovered the proclamation heralding the French success at Pemaquid posted on the church door. On October 18 Church and his troops arrived opposite the capital of Acadia, in the Siege of Fort Nashwaak, Pierre Maisonnat dit Baptiste was there to defend the capital. Baptiste joined the Maliseet from Meductic for the duration of the siege, there was a fierce exchange of gun fire for two days, with the advantage going to the better sited French guns. The New Englanders were defeated, having suffered eight killed and seventeen wounded, the French lost one killed and two wounded. After the Siege of Pemaquid, dIberville led a force of 124 Canadians, Acadians, Mi’kmaq and they destroyed almost every British settlement in Newfoundland, killed more than 100 British and captured many more. They deported almost 500 British colonists to Britain or France, during Queen Annes War, the members of the Wabanaki Confederacy from Acadia raided Protestant settlements along the Acadia/ New England border in present-day Maine in the Northeast Coast Campaign. Mi’kmaq and Acadians resisted the New England retaliatory Raid on Grand Pré, Piziquid, the raid was led by Benjamin Church who was fired on by the local militia, who had gathered in the woods along the banks. According to Church, on the first day of the raid, Church had a small cannon on his boat, which he used to fire grape shot at the attackers on the shore, who withdrew, suffering one Mi’kmaq killed and several wounded. Church was unable to come ashore, having withdrawn from the village, the next morning the Acadian and Mi’kmaq militia waited in the woods for Church and his men to arrive. At the break of day, the New Englanders again set off toward the village, the largest body of defenders fired on the raiders right flank from behind trees and logs, but their fire was ineffective and they were driven off. Acadians joined the French privateer Pierre Maisonnat dit Baptiste as crew members in his victories over British vessels, Acadians also fought alongside the Confederacy and French soldiers to protect the capital in the Siege of Port Royal and the final Conquest of Acadia

40.
Military history of the Mi'kmaq people
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The Mikmaq militias deployed effective resistance for over 75 years before treaties were created and the Burial of the Hatchet Ceremony took place. In the nineteenth century, the Mikmaq boasted that, in their contest with the British, leadership on both sides of the conflict employed standard colonial warfare, which included scalping non-combatants. After confederation, Mi’kmaq warriors eventually joined the Canadian War efforts in World War I, the most well-known colonial leaders of these militias were Chief Jean-Baptiste Cope and Chief Étienne Bâtard. According to Jacques Cartier, the Battle at Bae de Bic happened in the spring of 1534,100 Iroquois warriors massacred a group of 200 Mi’kmaq camped on Massacre Island in the St. Lawrence River. Bae de Bic was an annual gather place for the Mi’kmaq along the St. Lawrence, Mi’kmaq scouting parties notified the village that the Iroquois attack the evening before the morning attack. They evacuated 30 of the infirm and elderly and about 200 Mi’kmaq vacated their encampment on the shore and they took cover in a cave on the island and covered the entrance with branches. The Iroquois arrived at the village in the morning. Finding it vacated, they divided into search parties but failed to find the Mi’kmaq until the morning of the next day, the Mi’kmaq warriors defended the tribe against the first Iroquois assault. Initially, after many had been wounded on both sides, with the tide, the Mi’kmaq were able to repulse the assault. The Mikmaq prepared a fortification on the island in preparation for the assault at low tide. The Iroquois were again repulsed and retreated to the mainland with the rising tide, by the following morning, the tide was again low and the Iroquois made their final approach. They had prepared arrows that carried fire which burned down the fortification, twenty Iroquois were killed and thirty wounded in the battle. The Iroquois divided into two companies to return to their canoes on the Bouabouscache River, the Mi’kmaq and Maliseet militia ambushed the first company of Iroquois to arrive at the site. They killed ten and wounded five of the Iroquois warriors before the company of Iroquois arrived. The Mikmaq/ Maliseet militia stole of the Iroquois canoes, leaving twenty wounded behind at the site,50 Iroquois went to find their hidden provisions. Unable to find their supplies, at the end of the day returned to the camp. The following morning, the 38 Iroquois warriors left their camp, ten of the Mi’kmaq/ Maliseet stayed with the canoes and provisions while the remaining 15 pursued the Iroquois. The Mi’kmaq/ Maliseet militia pursued the Iroquois for three days, killing eleven of the wounded Iroquois stragglers, shortly after the Battle at Bouabouscache River, the retreating Iroquois set up camp on the Riviere Trois Pistoles to build canoes to return to their village

41.
Black Nova Scotians
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Black Nova Scotians are Black Canadians or Afro-Indigenous peoples whose ancestors were brought as slaves in the 17th and 18th centuries. The next migration were the arrival of slaves that fled the Colonial United States as slaves or freemen, and later settled in Nova Scotia, Canada during the 18th and early 19th centuries. As of the 2011 Census of Canada,20,790 black people live in Nova Scotia, most in Halifax, though a number of Black Nova Scotians have migrated to Toronto. Before the immigration reforms of the 1960s, Black Nova Scotians formed 37% of the total Black Canadian population, the first black person in Nova Scotia arrived with the founding of Port Royal in 1605. Black people were brought as slaves to Nova Scotia during the founding of Louisbourg. The first major migration of blacks to Nova Scotia happened during the American Revolution, at the same time, educational opportunities began to develop with the establishment of Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts in Nova Scotia. The decline of slavery in Nova Scotia happened in part by local judicial decisions in keeping with those by the British courts of the late 18th century. The next major migration of blacks happened during the War of 1812, the opportunities for Black Nova Scotians began to open in the 19th century with the creation of institutions such as the Royal Acadian School and the Cornwallis Street Baptist Church. The first recorded instance of a presence in Canada was that of Mathieu de Costa. He arrived in Nova Scotia sometime between 1603 and 1608 as a translator for the French explorer Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Monts, the first known black person to live in Canada was a slave from Madagascar named Olivier Le Jeune. Of the 10,000 French living at Louisbourg and on the rest of Ile Royale,216 were slaves, over 90 per cent of the slaves were blacks from the French West Indies. When Halifax, Nova Scotia was established, numerous British people brought slaves, for example, shipowner and trader Joshua Mauger sold slaves at auction there. There are numerous newspaper advertisements for run-away slaves, of the 3000 inhabitants of the city in 1750,400 were labelled servants, some of whom were slaves. In 1767, of the 13,374 people in what is now the present-day Maritimes,104 of them were black and 54 lived in Halifax. The end of the American War of Independence led the Black Loyalists to flee what was becoming the United States of America, many being relocated in the British colony of Nova Scotia, Canada. Following Dunmores Proclamation, the British authorities in American colonies promised freedom to the slaves of the rebelling Americans. Large numbers of enslaved people took advantage of opportunity and they made their way over to the British side. Approximately three thousand black Loyalists sailed to Nova Scotia between April and November 1783, travelling on both Navy vessels and British chartered private transports and this group was largely made up of tradespeople and labourers

42.
Telephone
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A telephone, or phone, is a telecommunications device that permits two or more users to conduct a conversation when they are too far apart to be heard directly. In 1876, Scottish emigrant Alexander Graham Bell was the first to be granted a United States patent for a device that produced clearly intelligible replication of the human voice and this instrument was further developed by many others. The telephone was the first device in history that people to talk directly with each other across large distances. Telephones rapidly became indispensable to businesses, government, and households, the essential elements of a telephone are a microphone to speak into and an earphone which reproduces the voice in a distant location. Until approximately the 1970s most telephones used a dial, which was superseded by the modern DTMF push-button dial. The receiver and transmitter are usually built into a handset which is held up to the ear, the dial may be located either on the handset, or on a base unit to which the handset is connected. The transmitter converts the sound waves to electrical signals which are sent through the network to the receiving phone. The receiving telephone converts the signals into audible sound in the receiver, telephones permit duplex communication, meaning they allow the people on both ends to talk simultaneously. The first telephones were connected to each other from one customers office or residence to another customers location. Being impractical beyond just a few customers, these systems were replaced by manually operated centrally located switchboards. For greater mobility, various systems were developed for transmission between mobile stations on ships and automobiles in the middle 20th century. Hand-held mobile phone]s was introduced for personal service starting in 1973, by the late 1970s several mobile telephone networks operated around the world. In 1983, the Advanced Mobile Phone System was launched, offering a standardized technology providing portability for users far beyond the residence or office. These analog cellular system evolved into digital networks with better security, greater capacity, better regional coverage, the public switched telephone network, with its hierarchical system of many switching centers, interconnects telephones around the world for communication with each other. With the standardized international numbering system, E.164, each line has an identifying telephone number. Although originally designed for voice communications, convergence has enabled most modern cell phones to have many additional capabilities. Since 1999, the trend for mobile phones is smartphones that integrate all mobile communication, a traditional landline telephone system, also known as plain old telephone service, commonly carries both control and audio signals on the same twisted pair of insulated wires, the telephone line. The control and signaling equipment consists of three components, the ringer, the hookswitch, and a dial, the ringer, or beeper, light or other device, alerts the user to incoming calls

43.
Mabel Gardiner Hubbard
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Mabel Gardiner Hubbard, was the daughter of Boston lawyer Gardiner Greene Hubbard, who was the first president of the Bell Telephone Company. As the wife of Alexander Graham Bell, an eminent scientist, from the time of Mabels courtship with Graham Bell in 1873, until his death in 1922, Mabel became and remained the most significant influence in his life. Mabel Gardiner Hubbard was born on November 25,1857 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, to Gardiner Greene Hubbard and Gertrude Mercer McCurdy. She suffered a bout of scarlet fever close to her fifth birthday in 1862 while visiting her maternal grandparents in New York City. Mabel was the inspiration for her fathers involvement in the founding of the first oral school for the deaf in the United States, having been educated in both the United States and in Europe, she learned to both talk and lip-read with great skill in multiple languages. In support of her parents efforts to increase funding for deaf education, described as strong and self-assured, she became one of Graham Bells pupils at his new school for the deaf, and later evolved into his confidant. They married on July 11,1877 in the Cambridge home of her parents, Mabel also bore two sons, Edward and Robert, both of whom died shortly after birth leaving their parents bereft. After Alecs death in 1922, Mabel slowly lost her sight and grew increasingly consigned to the care of her daughters and her ashes were interred with Alexanders grave exactly one year, to the hour, after his burial. Today, they rest together near the top of their beautiful mountain of their estate overlooking Bras dOr Lake, Mabel was the indirect source of her husbands early commercial success after his creation of the telephone. Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876 made Bells newly invented telephone a featured headline worldwide, Bell also won a second Gold Medal for Visible Speech, for his additional display at the exposition, helping to propel him to international fame. Ironically, Bell, who was then a teacher, hadnt even planned on exhibiting at the fair due to his heavy teaching schedule. He went there only at the insistence of Mabel, his then-fiancée. Mabel had understood Bells reluctance to go to the exhibition and display his works and she secretly bought his train ticket to Philadelphia, packed his bag, and then took the unknowing Bell to Bostons train station where she told her shocked fiancé that he was going on a trip. When Bell started to argue, Mabel turned her away from him. The Bell Telephone Company was organized on July 9,1877 by Mabels father Gardiner Greene Hubbard who owned 1,387 of the 5,000 issued shares and had the title of trustee, Mabels husband Alexander Bell owned 1,497 shares. But Bell immediately transferred all but 10 of his shares as a gift to his new bride Mabel. A short time later, just prior to leaving for a honeymoon of Europe. This made Gardiner Hubbard the de facto president and chairman of the Bell Telephone Company, however Mabel strongly believed that a heavier-than-air vehicle could be designed to fly, and she provided the inspiration and financing of about $20, 000CAD to that end, a significant amount in 1907

44.
Cruising (maritime)
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Cruising by boat is a lifestyle that involves living for extended time on a vessel while traveling from place to place for pleasure. Cruising generally refers to trips of a few days or more, boats were almost exclusively used for working purposes prior to the nineteenth century. The modern conception of cruising for pleasure was first popularised by the Scottish explorer and he was introduced to the canoes and kayaks of the Native Americans on a camping trip in 1858, and on his return to the United Kingdom constructed his own double-ended canoe in Lambeth. The boat, nicknamed Rob Roy after a relative of his, was built of lapstrake oak planking. He cruised around the waterways of Britain, Europe and the Middle East and wrote a book about his experiences. In 1866, Macgregor was a force behind the establishment of the Royal Canoe Club. The first recorded regatta was held at on 27 April 1867, the latter part of the century saw cruising for leisure being enthusiastically taken up by the middle class. The author Robert Louis Stevenson wrote An Inland Voyage in 1877 as a travelogue on his trip through France. Stevenson and his companion, Sir Walter Grindlay Simpson travelled in two Rob Roys along the Oise River and witnessed the Romantic beauty of rural Europe. The Canadian-American Joshua Slocum was one of the first people to carry out a long-distance sailing voyage for pleasure, despite opinion that such a voyage was impossible, Slocum rebuilt a derelict 37-foot sloop Spray and sailed her single-handed around the world. His book Sailing Alone Around the World was a classic adventure, other cruising authors have provided both inspiration and instruction to prospective cruisers. Key among these during the post World War II period are Electa and Irving Johnson, Miles and Beryl Smeeton, Bernard Moitessier, Peter Pye, the development of ocean crossing rallies, most notably the ARC, have encouraged less experienced sailors to undertake ocean crossings. These rallies provide a group of crossing the same ocean at the same time with safety inspections, weather information. Many cruisers are long term and travel for many years, the most adventurous among them circle the globe over a period of three to ten years, many others take a year or two off from work and school for shorter trips and the chance to experience the cruising lifestyle. Blue-water cruising is more involved and inherently more dangerous than coastal cruising, before embarking on an open-ocean voyage, planning and preparation will include studying charts, weather reports/warnings, almanacs and navigation books of the route to be followed. In addition, the needs to be well trained at working together. Finally, the sailor must be prepared for dealing with harsh situations. There have been many well-documented cases where sailors had to be rescued simply because they were not sufficiently prepared or lacked experience for their venture, Sailing near the coast gives a certain amount of safety

45.
Newfoundland (island)
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Newfoundland is a large Canadian island off the east coast of the North American mainland, and the most populous part of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It has 29 percent of the land area. The island is separated from the Labrador Peninsula by the Strait of Belle Isle and it blocks the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River, creating the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, the worlds largest estuary. Newfoundlands nearest neighbour is the French overseas community of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, with an area of 108,860 square kilometres, Newfoundland is the worlds 16th-largest island, Canadas fourth-largest island, and the largest Canadian island outside the North. The provincial capital, St. Johns, is located on the southeastern coast of the island, Cape Spear, just south of the capital, is the easternmost point of North America, excluding Greenland. It is common to consider all directly neighbouring islands such as New World, Twillingate, Fogo, by that classification, Newfoundland and its associated small islands have a total area of 111,390 square kilometres. Additionally 6. 1% claimed at least one parent of French ancestry, the islands total population as of the 2006 census was 479,105. Long settled by peoples of the Dorset culture, the island was visited by the Icelandic Viking Leif Eriksson in the 11th century. The next European visitors to Newfoundland were Portuguese, Basque, Spanish, French, the island was visited by the Genoese navigator John Cabot, working under contract to King Henry VII of England on his expedition from Bristol in 1497. In 1501, Portuguese explorers Gaspar Corte-Real and his brother Miguel Corte-Real charted part of the coast of Newfoundland in a attempt to find the Northwest Passage. Newfoundland is considered Britains oldest colony, at the time of English settlement, the Beothuk inhabited the island. While there is evidence of ancient indigenous peoples on the island. LAnse aux Meadows was a Norse settlement near the northernmost tip of Newfoundland, the site is considered the only undisputed evidence of Pre-Columbian contact between the Old and New Worlds, if the Norse-Inuit contact on Greenland is not counted. There is a second suspected Norse site in Point Rosee, the island is a likely location of Vinland, mentioned in the Viking Chronicles, although this has been disputed. The indigenous people on the island at the time of European settlement were the Beothuk, later immigrants developed a variety of dialects associated with settlement on the island, Newfoundland English, Newfoundland French. In the 19th century, it also had a dialect of Irish known as Newfoundland Irish, Scottish Gaelic was spoken on the island during the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the Codroy Valley area, chiefly by settlers from Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia. The Gaelic names reflected the association with fishing, in Scottish Gaelic, it was called Eilean a Trosg, or literally, similarly, the Irish Gaelic name Talamh an Éisc means Land of the Fish. The first inhabitants of Newfoundland were the Paleo-Eskimo, who have no link to other groups in Newfoundland history

46.
Gardiner Greene Hubbard
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Gardiner Greene Hubbard was an American lawyer, financier, and philanthropist. One of his daughters, Mabel Gardiner Hubbard, also became the wife of Alexander Graham Bell, Hubbard was born in Boston, Massachusetts to Samuel Hubbard, a Massachusetts Supreme Court justice, and Mary Greene. Hubbard was a grandson of Boston merchant Gardiner Greene, Gardiner Hubbard attended Phillips Academy, Andover and later graduated from Dartmouth in 1841. He then studied law at Harvard, and was admitted to the bar in 1843, Hubbard married Gertrude Mercer McCurdy and had six children, Robert Hubbard, Gertrude Hubbard, Mabel Gardiner Hubbard, Roberta Hubbard, Grace Hubbard, and Marian Hubbard. Gardiner Hubbards daughter Mabel became deaf at the age of five from scarlet fever and she later became a student of Alexander Graham Bell, who taught deaf children, and they eventually married. Hubbard also played a role in the founding of Clarke School for the Deaf. Hubbard argued for the nationalization of the system under the U. S. During the late 1860s, Gardiner Hubbard had lobbied Congress to pass the U. S. Postal Telegraph Bill that was known as the Hubbard Bill, the bill would have chartered the U. S. Postal Telegraph Company that would be connected to the U. S. The Hubbard bill did not pass, to benefit from the Hubbard Bill, Hubbard needed patents which dominated essential aspects of telegraph technology such as sending multiple messages simultaneously on a single telegraph wire. This was called the telegraph or acoustic telegraphy. Hubbard organized the Bell Telephone Company on July 9,1877, with himself as president, Thomas Sanders as treasurer, Hubbard also became the father-in-law of Bell when his daughter Mabel Hubbard married Bell on July 11,1877. The American Bell Telephone Company would, at the end of 1899, evolve into AT&T. Hubbard also became an investor in the Edison Speaking Phonograph Company. C. Hubbard devoted considerable donations and attention to the advancement of education and was president of Clarke School for the Deaf for ten years. He died on December 11,1897, Gardiner Hubbards life is detailed in the book One Thousand Years of Hubbard History, by Edward Warren Day. In 1890, Mount Hubbard on the Alaska-Yukon border was named in his honour by an expedition co-sponsored by the National Geographic Society while he was president, the main school building at the Clarke School for the Deaf, Hubbard Hall, is named after him in his honor. Hubbards house on Brattle Street in Cambridge no longer stands, but a large beech tree from its garden still remains. After he moved to Washington, D. C. from Cambridge in 1873, on Hubbard Park Road and Mercer Circle he built large houses designed for Harvard faculty

47.
Scottish people
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The Scottish people, or Scots, are a nation and ethnic group native to Scotland. Historically, they emerged from an amalgamation of the Picts and Gaels, who founded the Kingdom of Scotland in the 9th century, and are thought to have been ethnolinguistically Celts. Later, the neighbouring Cumbrian Britons, who spoke a Celtic language, as well as Germanic-speaking Anglo-Saxons. In modern usage, Scottish people or Scots is used to refer to anyone whose linguistic, cultural, the Latin word Scotti, originally the word referred specifically to the Gaels, but came to describe all inhabitants of Scotland. Considered archaic or pejorative, the term Scotch has also used for Scottish people. John Kenneth Galbraith in his book The Scotch documents the descendants of 19th-century Scottish pioneers who settled in Southwestern Ontario and he states the book was meant to give a true picture of life in the community in the early decades of the 20th century. People of Scottish descent live in countries other than Scotland. Scottish emigrants took with them their Scottish languages and culture, large populations of Scottish people settled the new-world lands of North and South America, Australia and New Zealand. Canada has the highest level of Scottish descendants per capita in the world, Scotland has seen migration and settlement of many peoples at different periods in its history. The Gaels, the Picts and the Britons have their origin myths. The Venerable Bede tells of the Scotti coming from Spain via Ireland, Germanic peoples, such as the Anglo-Saxons, arrived beginning in the 7th century, while the Norse invaded and colonized parts of Scotland from the 8th century onwards. In the High Middle Ages, from the reign of David I of Scotland, there was emigration from France, England. Some famous Scottish family names, including bearing the names which became Bruce, Balliol, Murray. Today Scotland is one of the countries of the United Kingdom, culturally, these peoples are grouped according to language. Most of Scotland until the 13th century spoke Celtic languages and these included, at least initially, the Britons, as well as the Gaels and the Picts. Germanic peoples included the Angles of Northumbria, who settled in south-eastern Scotland in the region between the Firth of Forth to the north and the River Tweed to the south. They also occupied the south-west of Scotland up to and including the Plain of Kyle and their language, south-east of the Firth of Forth, then in Lothian and the Borders, a northern variety of Old English, also known as Early Scots, was spoken. The Northern Isles and some parts of Caithness were Norn-speaking, from 1500 on, Scotland was commonly divided by language into two groups of people, Gaelic-speaking Highlanders and the Inglis-speaking Lowlanders

48.
Edinburgh
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Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls