Prose

Iceland’s adoption of Christianity in 1000 opened the way for powerful influences from western Europe. Missionaries taught Icelanders the Latin alphabet, and they soon began to study in the great schools of Europe. One of the first was Ísleifr, who, after being educated and ordained a priest, was consecrated bishop. His school at Skálholt in southern Iceland was for many centuries the chief bishopric and a main centre of learning. The earliest remembered historian is Sæmundr the Wise, but Ari Þorgilsson is regarded as the father of historiography in the vernacular. A short history, Īslendingabók (or Libellus Islandorum, c. 1125; The Book of the Icelanders), and the more detailed Landnámabók (“Book of Settlements”) are associated with his name. Extant works of the period are few or anonymous. Annals of contemporary events date from the 13th century and the oldest religious manuscripts, consisting of homilies and saints’ lives, from c. 1150. Larger collections of religious literature appeared in late 12th- and early 13th-century manuscripts. As elsewhere in Europe, the most popular books were often lives of the Apostles and saints.

The word saga is used in Icelandic for any kind of story or history, whether written or oral. In English it is typically used to refer more precisely to the biographies of a hero or group of heroes written in Iceland between the12th and the 15th century. These heroes were most often kings of Norway, early founders of Iceland, or legendary Germanic figures of the 4th to the 8th century. The oldest saga is the fragmentary Ólafs saga helga (“Saga of St. Olaf”), written about 1180. In form it is a hagiographic narrative, laying emphasis on miracles worked through the agency of the saint. It was probably written in the monastery of Þingeyrar, which played an important part in cultural life in the late 12th and early 13th centuries.

Several sagas about King Olaf I Tryggvason, at whose instigation the Icelanders adopted Christianity, were also written at Þingeyrar, where the work of the monks was fanciful rather than realistic. A more critical style of history was established in the south by Sæmundr and Ari, and several notable works were written at Skálholt or nearby in the 13th century, such as the Hungrvaka (“The Appetizer”), a short history of the bishops of Skálholt from Ísleifr to Kloengr. In the late 12th century several short histories of Norwegian kings were taken from Norway to Iceland, where they influenced Icelandic historians. The Ágriþ, a summary of the histories, or sagas, of Norwegian kings, written in the vernacular in Norway, was particularly influential. The Fagrskinna (“Fine Skin”; Eng. trans. Fagrskinna) covered the same period in more detail, while the Morkinskinna (“Rotten Skin”; Eng. trans. Morkinskinna), probably written earlier, covered the period from Magnus I Olafsson (ruled 1035–47) to the late 12th century.

Snorri Sturluson wrote many kinds of works and played an important role in political wrangles in his time. Among works ascribed to him are the Snorra Edda (c. 1225), a handbook of prosody and poetic diction commonly referred to as the Prose Edda, or Younger Edda. He twice visited Norway, and a large part of his work consists of lives of its early kings: he combined his Ólafs saga with lives of other Norwegian kings to form the Heimskringla (c. 1220; “Orb of the World”; Eng. trans. Heimskringla). The value of these as historical sources has long been debated. Snorri was certainly well read in vernacular history and attempted to write faithful accounts of what he had read in earlier records. But he did not aim to write history in the modern sense of the term, as an analytical reconstruction of past events; his work was creative and therefore portrayed his heroes imaginatively. The stirring Egils saga (on the skald Egill Skallagrímsson) is attributed to Snorri.

The Icelanders’ sagas (also called family sagas) are about heroes who supposedly lived in the 10th and 11th centuries. Their origins are unclear, and it is debatable whether they are faithful records of history. One theory has suggested that they were composed in the 11th century and transmitted orally until written down in the 13th century; though researchers now reject this view, it is true that the sagas owed much to oral tales and the tradition of oral verse. Their historicity is difficult to verify, since their content and form were shaped both by the sources used and by the author’s intentions.

It is also difficult to determine the date of many of the sagas. The obviously early works are somewhat crudely structured and express Norse ideals of loyalty and heroism. The Gísla saga, written before the middle of the 13th century, shows the development of artistic skill and contains rich descriptions of nature and verses of considerable beauty and tragic feeling; it tells of the poet Gísli Súrsson (died c. 980). The Laxdæla saga (“Saga of the Men of Laxárdal”), written a few years later, is a delicately worked tragedy in which the author shows an unusual appreciation of visual beauty. One work that is clearly its author’s creation was the Hrafnkels saga Freysgoða (“Saga of Hrafnkell, Freyr’s Priest”): despite realistic detail, the saga contains little historical fact. As the 13th century progressed, a taste for fantastic and romantic elements grew. The Grettis saga (“Saga of Grettir the Strong”) includes several motifs from folklore and portrays a hero fighting against trolls and ghosts.

The greatest of Icelanders’ sagas, the Njáls saga, has in fact two heroes, Njáll, who is wise, prudent, and endowed with prophetic gifts, and Gunnar, who is young and inexperienced. Njáll embodies traditional Norse ideals of loyalty and bravery yet faces his death by burning with the resignation of a Christian martyr.

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