Freemasonry's Latest Scheme: Wicca, the Neo-Pagan Witchcraft Nature Religion for the New Age

A Certain Point Within A Circle...

So Mote It Be...

The History of Wicca: 1939 - present day

This talk was given by Julia Phillips at the Wiccan Conference in Canberra,
1991. It is mainly about the early days of the Wicca in England; specifically
what we now call Gardnerian and Alexandrian traditions. The text remains "as
given", so please remember when you read it that it was never intended to be
"read", but "heard" and debated.

Text begins:

There are three main strands I intend to examine: one, Gardner's claim of
traditional initiation, and its subsequent development; two, magical traditions
to which Gardner would have had access; and three, literary sources.

As we look at these three main threads, it is important to bear in mind that
Gardner was 55 years old at the time of his claimed initiation; that he had
spent many years in Malaya, and had an enormous interest in magic, Folklore and
Mythology. By the time he published High Magic's Aid, he was 65, and 75 when
"The Meaning of Witchcraft" appeared. He died in 1964, at the age of 80.

Gardner was born in 1884, and spent most of his working adult life in Malaya.
He retired, and returned to the UK in 1936. He joined the Folklore Society, and
in June 1938, also joined the newly opened Rosicrucian Theatre at Christchurch
where it is said he met Old Dorothy Clutterbuck.

I chose 1939 as my arbitrary starting point as that was the year that Gerald
Gardner claims he was initiated by Old Dorothy into a practising coven of the
Old Religion, that met in the New Forest area of Britain. In his own words,

"I realised that I had stumbled upon something interesting; but I was
half-initiated before the word, "Wica" which they used hit me like a
thunderbolt, and I knew where I was, and that the Old Religion still existed.
And so I found myself in the Circle, and there took the usual oath of secrecy,
which bound me not to reveal certain things." This quote is taken from The
Meaning of Witchcraft, which was published in 1959.

It is interesting that in this quote, Gardner spells Wicca with only one "c";
in the earlier "Witchcraft Today" (1954) and "High Magic's Aid" (1949), the word
Wicca is not even used. His own derivation for the word, given in "The Meaning
of Witchcraft", is as follows:

"As they (the Dane and Saxon invaders of England) had no witches of their own
they had no special name for them; however, they made one up from "wig" an idol,
and "laer", learning, "wiglaer" which they shortened into "Wicca".

"It is a curious fact that when the witches became English- speaking they
adopted their Saxon name, "Wica"."

In "An ABC of Witchcraft Past and Present", Doreen Valiente does not have an
entry for Wicca, but when discussing Witchcraft, does mention the Saxon
derivation from the word Wicca or Wicce. In the more recently published The
Rebirth Of Witchcraft, however, she rejects this Saxon theory in favour of Prof.
Russell's derivation from the Indo-European root "Weik", which relates to things
connected with magic and religion.

Doreen Valiente strongly supports Gardner's claim of traditional initiation,
and published the results of her successful attempt to prove the existence of
Dorothy Clutterbuck in an appendix to "The Witches' Way" by Janet and Stewart
Farrar. It is a marvellous piece of investigation, but proving that Old Dorothy
existed does nothing to support Gardner's claims that she initiated him.

In his book, "Ritual Magic in England", occultist Francis King does offer
some anecdotal evidence in support of Gardner's claims. However, it is only fair
to point out that in the same book, he virtually accuses Moina Mathers of
murder, based upon a misunderstanding of a story told by Dion Fortune! With that
caveat, I'll recount the tale in full:

King relates that in 1953, he became acquainted with Louis Wilkinson, who
wrote under the pen-name of Louis Marlow, and had contributed essays to
Crowley's Equinox. He later became one of Crowley's literary executors. King
says that in conversation, Wilkinson told him that Crowley had claimed to have
been offered initiation into a witch coven, but that he refused, as he didn't
want to be bossed around by a bunch of women. (This story is well-known, and
could have been picked up anywhere.)

Wilkinson then proceeded to tell King that he had himself become friendly
with members of a coven operating in the New Forest area, and he thought that
whilst it was possible that they derived their existence from Murray's "Witch
Cult in Western Europe", he felt that they were rather older.

King draws the obvious conclusion; that these witches were the very same as
those who initiated Gardner. King claims that the conversation with Wilkinson
took place in 1953, although "Ritual Magic in England" was not published - or
presumably written - until 1970. However, on September 27 1952, "Illustrated"
magazine published a feature by Allen Andrews, which included details of a
working by, "the Southern Coven of British Witches", where 17 men and women met
in the New Forest to repel an invasion by Hitler. Wilkinson had told King of
this working during their conversation, which King believes to be proof that
such a coven existed; there are some differences in the two stories, and so it
is possible that two sources are reporting the same event, but as Wilkinson's
conversation with King came after the magazine article, we shall never know.

In the recently published "Crafting the Art of Magic", Aidan Kelly uses this
same source to "prove" (and I use the word advisedly - the book "proves"
nothing") that Gardner, Dorothy, et al created Wicca one night following a
social get together! Of one thing we can be certain though: whatever its origin,
modern Wicca derives from Gardner. There may of course be other traditional,
hereditary witches, but even if they are genuine, then it is unlikely that they
would have been able to "go public" had it not been for Gardner.

There have been many claims of "hereditary" origin (other than Gardner's
own!) One of the most famous post-Gardner claimants to "hereditary" status was
actress Ruth Wynn-Owen, who fooled many people for a very long time before being
exposed. Roy Bowers, who used the pseudonym Robert Cochrane, was another: Doreen
Valiente describes her association with him in "The Rebirth of Witchcraft", and
The Roebuck, which is still active in the USA today, derives directly from
Cochrane, via Joe Wilson. "Witchcraft: A Tradition Renewed" by Evan John Jones
with Doreen Valiente describes a tradition derived from Robert Cochrane. Alex
Sanders, of course is another who claimed hereditary lineage, and like Cochrane,
deserves his own place in this history, and we'll get to both of them later.

Many people have been suspicious of Gardner's claims, and have accused him of
making the whole thing up. They suggest that the Wicca is no more than the
fantasy of an old man coloured by a romantic imagination. One particularly
virulent attack upon Gardner came from Charles Cardell, writing under the
pseudonym of Rex Nemorensis.

One of Gardner's initiates who is still active in the Wicca today has an
interesting tale to tell about Cardell, whom he knew:

"Cardell claimed to be a Witch, but from a different tradition to Gardner's.
Cardell was a psychopathic rat, with malevolent intent toward all and sundry. He
managed to get a woman called Olive Green (Florannis) into Gardner's coven, and
told her to copy out the Book of Shadows so that Cardell could publish it, and
destroy Gardner. He also contacted a London paper, and told them when and where
the coven meetings were held, and of course the paper got quite a scoop. Cardell
led people in the coven to believe that it was Doreen Valiente who had informed
on them.

Doreen had just left Gardner in a bit of a huff after a disagreement; another
coven member, Ned Grove, left with her. Anyway, the day the paper printed the
exposure, Cardell sent Gardner a telegram saying, "Remember Ameth tonight".
(Ameth was Doreen's Craft name, and as it has now been published, I see no
reason not to use it here)."

My informant also said that Olive Green was associated with Michael Houghton,
owner of Atlantis book shop in Museum Street, who was the publisher of High
Magic's Aid. Through this association, she also encountered Kenneth Grant of the
OTO, although their association was not friendly.

Cecil Williamson, the original owner of the witchcraft museum on the Isle of
Man, and present owner of the Witchcraft Museum in Boscastle, has also published
a number of articles where he states quite categorically that Gardner was an
utter fraud; but, he offers only anecdotes to support these allegations.

Although Gardner claimed his initiation occurred in 1939, we don't really
hear anything about him until 1949, when "High Magic's Aid" was published by
Michael Houghton.

This book has very strong Solomonic leanings, but like Gardner's own
religious beliefs, combined the more natural forms of magic with high
ceremonial. In his introduction to the book, Gardner says that: "The Magical
rituals are authentic, party from the Key of Solomon (MacGregor Mathers'
translation) and partly from magical MSS in my possession)." Gardner did indeed
have a large collection of MSS, which passed with the rest of his goods to
Ripleys in Toronto after his death.

Scire (pseudonym) was the name Gardner took as a member of Crowley's branch
of the OTO; although it is generally agreed that his membership was purely
nominal, he was certainly in contact with people like Kenneth Grant and Madeline
Montalban (founder of the Order of the Morning Star).

Gardner was given his OTO degree and Charter by Aleister Crowley, to whom he
was introduced in 1946 by Arnold Crowther. As Crowley died in 1947, their
association was not long-lived, but Crowther confirms that the two men enjoyed
each other's company.

So, after that brief introduction we can have a look at the first of the
strands I mentioned.

In 1888, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn was born, beginning a
renaissance of interest in the occult that has continued to the present day. It
is impossible to overstate the importance of the GD to modern occultists; not
only in its rituals, but also in its personalities; and of course, through
making available a large body of occult lore that would otherwise have remained
unknown, or hidden in obscurity.

I will be looking at this body of occult lore with other literary influences
later, and will here concentrate on the rituals and personalities that have
influenced Wicca.

We cannot look at the GD in isolation from its own origins. It is descended
from a myriad of esoteric traditions including Rosicrucianism, Theosophy, and
Freemasonry. The latter in its own right, as well as via the SRIA - a scholarly
and ceremonial association open to Master Masons only.

Whether the German Lodge or Fraulein Sprengel actually existed is a matter
still under debate; but either in fact or in spirit, this is the source for the
"Cypher Manuscripts" which were used to found the Isis-Urania Lodge in 1888.

As I'm sure everyone knows, Isis-Urania was founded by Dr Wynn-Westcott, Dr
Woodman, and MacGregor Mathers. Not only were all three Master Masons;
Wynn-Westcott and Mathers were also members of the Theosophical Society. The
most important thing though is the fact the these three men were a ruling
triumvirate that managed the affairs of the SRIA. This is important, for the
SRIA included Hargrave Jennings in its membership, and Jennings is reputed to
have been involved with a Pagan group at the end of the 19th century, which drew
its inspiration from Apuleius - The Golden Ass.

But back to the GD - whether the Cypher Manuscripts actually existed, or
Wynn-Westcott manufactured them is now irrelevant; Mathers was commissioned to
write-up the rituals into a workable shape, and thus the Golden Dawn was born.

Members of the Isis-Urania Lodge at various times also included Allan
Bennett, Moina Mathers, Aleister Crowley, Florence Farr, Maud Gonne, Annie
Horniman, Arthur Machen, "Fiona Macleod", Arthur Waite and WB Yeats. Also
associated were Lady Gregory, and G W Russell, or AE, whose "The Candle of
Vision" was included in the bibliography of "The Meaning of Witchcraft". The
literary and Celtic influences within the GD were immense.

From the Isis-Urania Lodge sprang all the others, including the so-called
Dissident Orders derived through Crowley. It is this line that some commentators
trace to modern Wicca, so it is the one upon which we will concentrate.

Aleister Crowley was initiated into the Isis-Urania Lodge on 18 November
1898. As you most probably know, Crowley later quarrelled with MacGregor
Mathers, and in 1903 began to create his own Order, the Argenteum Astrum, or
Silver Star. In 1912, Crowley was initiated into the OTO, and in 1921, succeeded
Theodor Reuss as its Chief.

According to Arnold Crowther's account, it was in 1946, a year before
Crowley's death, that Crowley gave Gardner an OTO Charter. Ithell Colquhoun says
only that it occurred in the 1940s, and further states that Gardner introduced
material from the OTO, and less directly from the GD, into "...the lore of his
covens".

As Doreen Valiente also admits, "Indeed, the influence of Crowley was very
apparent throughout the (Wiccan) rituals.". This, Gardner explained to her, was
because the rituals he received from Old Dorothy's coven were very fragmentary,
and in order to make them workable, he had to supplement them with other
material.

To give an example of some of the lines by Crowley which are rather familiar
to modern Wiccans:

I give unimaginable joys on earth; certainty, not faith, while in life, upon
death; peace unutterable, rest, ecstasy; nor do I demand aught in sacrifice.

I am Life, and the giver of Life, yet therefore is the knowledge of me the
knowledge of death.

And of course, the Gnostic Mass has been immensely influential.

Not only poetry, but also magical practices in Wicca are often derived from
GD sources. For example:

the way of casting the circle: that is, the visualisation of the circle, and
the pentagrams at the quarters, are both based upon the standard GD Pentagram
Ritual;

both the concept and word "Watchtowers" are of course from the Enochian
system of Magic, passed to Wicca via the GD (although I would like to make it
very clear that their use within Wicca bears no relation to the use within
Enochia - the only similarity is in the name);

the Elements and colours generally attributed to the Quarters are those of
the GD;

the weapons and their attributions are a combination of GD, Crowley and Key
of Solomon.

In "Witchcraft Today", Gardner says, "The people who certainly would have had
the knowledge and ability to invent (the Wiccan rites) were the people who
formed the Order of the Golden Dawn about seventy years ago...".

The GD is not the only influence upon Gardner; Freemasonry has had a
tremendous impact upon the Wicca. Not only were the three founders of
Isis-Urania Temple Masons, so too were Crowley and Waite; Gardner and at least
one member of the first coven (Daffo) were both Co-Masons. Gardner was also a
friend of JSM Ward, who had published a number of books about Masonry.

Doreen describes Ward as a "leading Mason", but Francis King says only that
Ward was, "a bogus Bishop... who had written some quite good but far-fetched
books on masonry, and who ran a peculiar religious-cum-occult community called
The Abbey of Christ the King..." Whether the books were far-fetched or not, we
can assume that some of the many similarities between Wicca and Masonry are in
some ways due to Ward's influence.

Some of these include:

The Three DegreesThe CraftSo Mote It BeThe ChallengeProperly
PreparedThe 1st Degree Oath (in part)Presentation of the Working Tools
at 1st degree

and so on.

It seems to me quite clear that even if Gardner received a traditional set of
rituals from his coven, they must have been exceptionally sparse, as the
concepts that we know of as Wicca today certainly derive from ceremonial magic
and Freemasonry to a very great extent. Indeed, Gardner always claimed that they
were sparse.

It could be argued that all derive from a common source. That the appearance
of a phrase, or technique in one tradition does not automatically suggest that
its appearance elsewhere means that the one was taken from the other. However,
Gardner admits his sources in many cases, and Doreen confirms them in others, so
I think it is safe to presume that the rituals and philosophy used by Wicca
descends from the traditions of Freemasonry and Ceremonial magic, rather than
from a single common source. However, as Hudson Frew points out in his
commentary upon Aidan Kelly's book, the phenomena of the techniques and
practices of ceremonial magic influencing folk magic and traditions is widely
recognised by anthropologists, and certainly does not indicate plagiarism. And
of course there are many traditional witchcraft aspects in the Wicca.

We have looked at the development of the magical orders which resulted from
the British occult revival of the 19th and 20th centuries, and now we can see
where this ties in with Wicca, and Gardner's claim of traditional initiation.

I have here a "family tree" of the main branches of British Wicca. It is by
no means exhaustive, and is intended to provide an outline, not a definitive
history! I have included my own coven lines and development as an indication of
the kind of "cross-over" of tradition which often occurs, not to suggest that
these are the only active groups! Also, it would not be ethical for me to
include details of other covens.

We have two possible "hereditary" sources to the Gardnerian Craft: one, the
Horsa Coven of Old Dorothy, and two, the Cumbrian Group which Rae Bone claims to
have been initiated into before meeting Gardner. (NB: Doreen Valiente says that
the Horsa Coven is not connected with Old Dorothy, but is another group
entirely.) There is also sometimes mention of a St Alban's group that pre-dates
Gardner, but as far as I know, this is mistaken. The St Albans group was
Gardner's own group, which as far as research confirms, did not pre-date him.

To return to Rae Bone: she was one of Gardner's HPSs, and her "line" has been
immensely important to the modern Wicca; she was featured in the magazine
series, "Man Myth and Magic" if anyone has a copy of that.

In her heyday she ran two covens: one in Cumbria, and one in South London.
Rae is still alive, and lives in Cumbria, although her last coven moved to New
Zealand many years ago, and she is no longer active. No-one has ever been able
to trace the coven in New Zealand.

At this point, I will just mention George Pickingill, although he is not
shown on the tree, as I think it extremely dubious that he had any connection
with Gardner, or any other modern Wiccan.

Pickingill died in 1909, whilst Gardner was still in Malaya. Eric Maple is
largely responsible for the beginnings of the Pickingill myth, which were
expanded by Bill Liddell (Lugh) writing in "The Wiccan" and "The Cauldron"
throughout the 1970s. Mike Howard still has some of Liddell's material which he
has never published, and I have yet to meet anyone within the British Craft who
gives credence to Liddell's claims.

In the book, "The Dark World of Witches", published in 1962, Maple tells of a
number of village wise women and cunning men, one of whom is George Pickingill.
There is a photograph included of an old man with a stick, holding a hat, which
Maple describes as Pickingill. This photograph has subsequently been re-used
many times in books about witchcraft and Wicca.

Issue number 31 of "Insight" Magazine, dated July 1984, contains a very
interesting letter from John Pope:

"The photograph purporting to be Old George Pickingill is in fact a photo of
Alf Cavill, a station porter at Ellstree, taken in the early 1960s. Alf is now
dead, but he was no witch, and laughed over the photograph when he saw it."

A very respected Craft authority has told me that he believes the photo,
which is in his possession, to be of Pickingill, but like so much to do with
Craft history, there is no definitive answer to this one.

Many claims were made by Liddell; some obviously from cloud- cuckoo land,
others which could, by a stretch of the imagination, be accepted. The very idea
of Pickingill, an illiterate farm labourer, co-ordinating and supervising nine
covens across the breadth of the UK is staggering. To accept - as Liddell avers
- that he had the likes of Alan Bennett and Aleister Crowley as his pupils bends
credulity even further.

The infamous photograph which Liddell claims shows Crowley, Bennett and
Pickingill together has conveniently disappeared, and no-one admits to ever
having seen it. Like most of Liddell's claims, nothing has ever been
substantiated, and when pushed, he retreats into the time honoured favourite of,
"I can't reveal that - you're not an initiate"!

But to return to the family tree: the names of Doreen Valiente, Pat and
Arnold Crowther, Lois Bourne (Hemmings), Jack Bracelin and Monique Wilson will
probably be the most familiar to you.

Jack Bracelin is the author of Gardner's biography, "Gerald Gardner, Witch",
(published 1960) now out of print, although still available 2nd hand, and in
libraries. (In Crafting the Art of Magic, Kelly claims that this book was
actually written by Idries Shah, and simply published under Bracelin's name. As
with every other claim, Kelly offers no evidence of this)

I have seen a copy of Bracelin's Book of Shadows, which it is claimed dates
from 1949, although in The Rebirth Of Witchcraft, Doreen says that Bracelin was
a "relative newcomer" in the mid-1950s. I have also been told by two different
sources that Bracelin helped Gardner write "The Laws". In The Rebirth Of
Witchcraft, Doreen states that she did not see The Laws until the mid 1950s,
when she and her partner Ned Grove accused Gardner of concocting them in order
to re-assert control over the coven. As Bracelin was in the Gardner camp during
the break-up of the group, it seems reasonable that he did in fact help with
their composition. (NB: Alex Sanders increased the number of "The Laws" much
later - these appeared in June Johns' book, "The King of the Witches")

Although Doreen claims that the reason for the coven break-up was the fact
that Gardner and Bracelin were publicity crazy, there was another reason, which
was the instatement of a new lady into the coven, effectively replacing Doreen
as HPS. This is also the main reason for Gerald's Law which states that the HPS
will, "...gracefully retire in favour of a younger woman, should the coven so
decide in council." Needless to say, Doreen was not impressed, and she and Ned
left the coven under very acrimonious circumstances. It was quite some time
before Doreen had contact with Gardner again, and they never quite regained the
degree of friendship that had previously existed.

Monique and Campbell Wilson are infamous, rather than famous, as Gardner's
heirs who sold off his magical equipment and possessions after his death, to
Ripleys in the USA.

Monique was the last of his Priestesses, and many Wiccans today still spit
when her name is mentioned. Pat Crowther was rather scathing about her recently
in an interview, and in The Rebirth Of Witchcraft, although Doreen tells of the
sale of Gardner's magical possessions to Ripleys, she doesn't ever mention the
Wilsons by name. In effect, the Craft closed ranks against them, and they became
outcasts.

Eventually, in the face of such opposition they had to sell the Museum in
Castletown, and they moved to Torremolinos, where they bought a cafe. Monique
died nine years after selling the Museum. It is rumoured that Campbell Wilson
moved to the USA, and met with a car accident there: this is only hearsay though
- I really do not know for sure what happened to him.

However, Monique was influential in a way that even she could not have
imagined, when in 1964 or 5 she initiated Ray Buckland, who with his wife
Rosemary (later divorced), was very influential in the development of the Wicca
in the USA.

Fortunately, Richard and Tamarra James managed to buy the bulk of Gardner's
collection back from Ripleys in 1987, for the princely sum of US$40,000, and it
is now back within the Craft, and available for initiates to consult and view.

D and C S. are probably completely anonymous, and if it were not for the fact
that C initiated Robert Cochrane (briefly mentioned earlier) they would probably
stay that way!

Cochrane's origins are obscure, but I have been told that he was initiated
into the Gardnerian tradition by C S, and met Doreen Valiente through a mutual
acquaintance in 1964. When he met Doreen, however, he claimed to be a hereditary
witch, from a different tradition to Gardner's, and as Doreen confirms, was
contemptuous of what he called "Gardnerian" witches. Indeed, Doreen believes he
coined the term, "Gardnerian".

Doreen said she was completely taken in by Cochrane and for a while, worked
with him and the "Clan of Tubal-Cain" as he described his tradition, which was
also known as "The Royal Windsor Cuveen", or 1734.

The figures "1734" have an interesting history. Doreen gives a rather strange
account of them in The Rebirth Of Witchcraft, which contradicts what Cochrane
himself describes in a letter to Joe Wilson, dated "12th Night 1966", where he
says,

"...the order of 1734 is not a date of an event but a grouping of numerals
that mean something to a witch.

"One that becomes seven states of wisdom - the Goddess of the Cauldron. Three
that are the Queens of the Elements - fire belonging alone to Man, and the
Blacksmith God. Four that are Queens of the Wind Gods.

"The Jewish orthodoxy believe that whomever knows the Holy and Unspeakable
name of God has absolute power over the world of form. Very briefly, the name of
God spoken as Tetragrammaton ... breaks down in Hebrew to the letters YHVH, or
the Adam Kadmon (The Heavenly Man). Adam Kadmon is a composite of all Archangels
- in other words a poetic statement of the names of the Elements.

"So what the Jew and the Witch believe alike, is that the man who discovers
the secret of the Elements controls the physical world. 1734 is the witch way of
saying YHVH." (Cochrane, 1966)

Although Doreen says that Cochrane's group was small, it still proved to be
remarkably influential. As well as Cochrane and his wife (whom Doreen refers to
as "Jean") and Doreen herself, there were others who are well-known today, and a
man called Ronald White, who very much wanted to bring about a new age in
England, with the return of King Arthur.

In The Rebirth Of Witchcraft, Doreen elaborates upon the circumstances
surrounding the death of Cochrane: the bald facts are that he died at the Summer
Solstice of 1966 of an overdose. Craft tradition believes that he became in
fact, and of his own choice, the male ritual sacrifice which is sometimes
symbolically enacted at the height of Summer.

The Royal Windsor Cuveen disbanded after Cochrane died, only to be re-born
from the ashes at Samhain that year under a new name - The Regency. All of its
early members were from the Royal Windsor Cuveen, and they were under the
leadership of Ronald White. The Regency proved to be of great importance to the
development of the Wicca, although its existence was kept a fairly close secret,
and even today, there are relatively few people who have ever heard of it.

Meetings were held in North London, at a place called Queens Wood. As well as
Ron White and Doreen Valiente, members included "John Math", founder of the
Witchcraft Research Association in 1964, and editor of Pentagram magazine, and
the founder of the Pagan Movement, Tony Kelly. At its height, there were
frequently more than 40 in attendance at rites, which tended to be of the
dramatic, pagan kind rather than the ceremonial associated with high ritual
magic. The Regency operated fairly consistently for over twelve years, finally
disbanding in 1978. The Membership roll reads like a who's who of the British
Wicca! Some of the rites have been incorporated into modern Wiccan rituals - in
fact, one was used at the Pan European Wiccan Conference 1991 with very great
success.

Moving back over to Rae Bone's line, there are a number of influential people
here, mainly through her initiates, Madge and Arthur, who probably take the
award for the most prolific pair in Wiccandom! Rae, although initiated by
Gardner, does of course also claim a hereditary status in her own right.

Madge and Arthur's initiates include:

John and Jean Score

John Score was the partner of Michael Houghton (mentioned earlier), and the
founder of the Pagan Federation, which is very active today.

Houghton died under very mysterious circumstances, which is briefly mentioned
in "The Sword of Wisdom" by Ithell Colquhoun. My Craft source told me that this
was actually a ritual that went badly wrong, and Houghton ended up on the wrong
end of some fairly potent energies.

There is an interesting anecdote about Houghton in The Rebirth Of Withcraft,
which is taken from "Nightside of Eden" by Kenneth Grant, and agrees in some
respect to a similar story that I was told some years ago. Doreen suggests in
The Rebirth Of Witchcraft that the story may relate to a magical working
involving Kenneth Grant and his wife, Gardner, Dolores North (Madeline
Montalban), and an un-named witch, who was probably Olive Green.

They were all to perform a ritual together, supposedly to contact an
extra-terrestrial being. The material basis for the rite, which took place in
1949, was a drawing by AO Spare.

Apparently soon after the rite commenced, a nearby bookseller (Michael
Houghton) turned up and interrupted proceedings. On hearing that Kenneth Grant
was within, he declined to enter, and wandered off. The rite was disrupted, and
the story goes that everyone just went home.

Kenneth Grant claims that as a result of disturbing their working, Houghton's
marriage broke up, and that Houghton died in mysterious circumstances. In fact,
the Houghton divorce was a cause celebre, with her suing him for cruelty because
he boasted of being a Sagittarian while sneering at her because she was only a
dingy old Capricorn!

The interrupted ritual could well have taken place. Madeline had a flat near
to Atlantis (Houghton's shop), and would certainly have known both Grant and
Houghton. I know for a fact that Madeline was acquainted with Gerald, although
her opinion of both him and the Wicca was rather poor. One of Madeline's older
students told me that she thought Gardner rather a fraud, and ritually inept.
She also had a very low opinion of Wiccans, and refused to allow her own
students to participate in Wiccan rites. The reason for this lies in an anecdote
which Doreen doesn't relate: the story goes that Madeline agreed to participate
in a rite with Gerald, which turned out to involve Madeline being tied up and
tickled with a feather duster! The great lady was not amused.

Prudence Jones

Prudence was for many years the president of the Pagan Federation, and editor
of its newsletter. She inherited her role from John Score, after he passed away.
With Nigel Pennick, Prudence also runs the Pagan Anti-Defamation League (PADL),
and is an active astrologer and therapist. She has edited a book on astrology,
and with Caitlin Matthews, edited "Voices from the Circle", published by
Aquarian Press. Although Prudence took her degree in Philosophy, her main
interests lie in the areas of the Grail and troubadour tales, and she has
published privately an excellent essay on the Grail and Wicca. She is also a
very highly respected astrologer, who lectures extensively in Britain.

Vivianne and Chris Crowley

Vivianne Crowley, is author of "Wicca - The Old Religion in the New Age", and
also secretary of the Pagan Federation. She has a PhD in Psychology, and is
perhaps the only person to have been a member of both a Gardnerian Coven and an
Alexandrian one simultaneously!

Vivianne is very active at the moment, and has initiated people in Germany
(having memorised the ritual in German - a language she doesn't speak!), Norway,
and - on the astral - Brazil. As a result of her book, she receives many letters
from people from all around the world, and organised the first ever pan-European
Wiccan conference, held in Germany 1990. The second conference was held in
Britain at the June solstice, and the third (1992) in Norway. In 1993, the
Conference will be in Scotland.

John and Kathy (Caitlin) Matthews, are probably well-known to everyone, but
possibly their Gardnerian initiations are not such common knowledge. The story
that John Matthews relates in "Voices from the Circle" is essentially the one
which he told the HPS who initiated him.

Pat and Arnold Crowther

I have left Pat and Arnold till last, as it is from their line that the
infamous Alex Sanders derives! It is no secret anymore that Alex, far from being
initiated by his grandmother when he was seven, was in fact turned down by Pat
Crowther in 1961, but was later accepted by one of her ex-coven members, Pat
Kopanski, and initiated to 1st Degree.

In "The Rebirth of Witchcraft" Doreen says that Alex later met Gardner, and
was allowed to copy from the Book of Shadows; Craft tradition is somewhat
different! It has always been said (even by Alex's supporters!) that he pinched
what he could from Pat Kopanski before being chucked out, and that the main
differences between the Alexandrian and Gardnerian Books of Shadows occur where
Alex mis-heard, or mis-copied something! There are certainly significant
differences between the two Books; some parts of Gardnerian ritual are quite
unknown within the Alexandrian tradition, and the ritual techniques are often
different. It is usually very easy to spot whether someone is an Alexandrian, or
Gardnerian initiate.

Alex needed a HPS, and as we know, chose Maxine Morris for the role. Maxine
is a striking Priestess, and made a very good visual focus for the movement
which grew in leaps and bounds.

In the late 1960s, Alex and Maxine were prolific initiators, and a number of
their initiates have become well known. Some came to Australia, and there are
still a number of covens in the UK today whose HP and/or HPS was initiated by
Alex or Maxine.

Alex and Maxine's most famous initiates are almost certainly Janet and
Stewart Farrar, who left them in 1971 to form their own coven, first in England,
then later, in Ireland. Through their books, they have probably had the most
influence over the direction that the modern Craft has taken. Certainly in
Australia, the publication of "What Witches Do" was an absolute watershed, and
with Janet and Stewart's consistent output, their form of Wicca is more likely
to become the "standard" than any other type.

Since their early days of undiluted Alexandrianism, they have drifted
somewhat towards a more Gardnerian approach, and today, tell everyone that there
are no differences between the two traditions. In fact, despite the merging that
has been occurring over the last few years, there are very distinct differences
between the traditions; some merely external, others of a very significant
difference of philosophy.

Seldiy Bate was originally magically trained by Madeline Montalban, and then
took an Alexandrian initiation from Maxine and Alex. Her husband, Nigel, was
also initiated by Maxine, and they have been "public" witches for a number of
years now, often appearing on TV, radio and in the press. Their background in
ritual magic is expressed in the type of coven that they run; a combination of
Wicca and Ceremonial Magic.

In 1971, Alex and Maxine went their separate ways. David Goddard is a Liberal
Catholic Priest, and for many years, he and Maxine worked in the Liberal
Catholic faith, and did not run a coven of any kind. Then in 1984, Maxine
gathered together a group again, and started practising a combination of Wicca,
Qabalah and Liberal Catholicism. She and David separated in 1987, and since then
her coven has been exclusively Wiccan. In 1989, she married one of her
initiates, Vincent, and they are still running an active coven in London today.

Alex's history after the split was a little more sordid, with one girl he
married, Jill, filling the gutter press with stories about Alex being
homosexual, and defrauding her of all her money to spend on his boyfriends.
Sally Taylor was initiated by Maxine and David, but then transferred to Alex.
She was trained by him, and then started her own group.

I'd now like to focus upon the last of the strands which I believe has been
influential upon the birth and development of Wicca; that of the literary
traditions and sources to which Gardner would have had access. To a certain
extent these are contiguous with the magical traditions described earlier, as
nowhere is it ever suggested that Gardner did in fact ever work in a magical
Lodge, so we must assume that his knowledge came from the written form of the
rites, not from the actual practise of them.

From reading Gardner's books, it is quite apparent that Margaret Murray had a
tremendous impact upon him. Her book, "The God of the Witches" was published in
1933, and twelve years previously, "The Witch Cult in Western Europe" had
appeared. "The God of the Witches" has been tremendously influential on a number
of people, and certainly inspired Gardner.

In fact, "Witchcraft Today", published by Gardner in 1954 contained a
foreword by Margaret Murray. At this time, remember, Murray's work was still
taken seriously, and she remained the contributor on the subject of witchcraft
for the Encyclopedia Britannica for a number of years.

Now of course her work has been largely discredited, although she remains a
source of inspiration, if not historical accuracy. In Gardner's day, the idea of
a continuing worship of the old pagan gods would have been a staggering theory,
and in the second article in my series about Murray (published in The Cauldron),
I made the point that Murray may have had to pretend scientific veracity in
order to get her work published in such times. Don't forget that Dion Fortune
had to publish her work privately, as did Gardner with High Magic's Aid. Carlo
Ginzburg's excellent book, "Ecstasies", also supports Murray's basic premise;
although of course he regrets her historical deceptions.

There were of course other sources than Murray. In 1899, "Aradia: Gospel of
the Witches" was published. Most of Crowley's work was available during the pre-
and post-war years, as were the texts written and translated by MacGregor
Mathers and Waite. Also readily available were works such as The Magus, and of
course the classics, from which Gardner drew much inspiration.

Of paramount importance would have been "The White Goddess", by Robert
Graves, which is still a standard reference book on any British Wiccan's
bookshelf. This was published in 1952; three years after High Magic's Aid
appeared, and two years before Gardner's first non-fictional book about
witchcraft. I would just like to say at this point that Graves has taken some
very unfair criticism in respect of this book. The White Goddess was written as
a work of poetry, not history, and to criticise it for being historically
innaccurate is to miss the point. Unfortunately, I agree that some writers have
referred to it as an "authority", and thus led their readers up the garden path.
This is not Graves's fault, nor do I believe it was his intention.

Another book which has had a profound influence on many Wiccans, and would
undoubtedly have been well known by Gardner is "The Golden Bough"; although the
entire book was written based upon purely secondary research, it is an extensive
examination of many pagan practices from the Ancient World, and the emphasis of
the male sacrifice could certainly have been taken from here equally as well as
from Murray. Certain of the Gardnerian ritual practices were almost certainly
derived from The Golden Bough, or from Frazer's own sources.

In "Witchcraft Today" Gardner mentions a number of authors when speculating
where the Wiccan rites came from. He says that, "The only man I can think of who
could have invented the rites was the late Aleister Crowley."

He continues to say, "The only other man I can think of who could have done
it is Kipling...". He also mentions that, "Hargrave Jennings might have had a
hand in them..." and then suggests that "Barrat (sic) of The Magus, circa 1800,
would have had the ability to invent or resurrect the cult."

It's possible that these references are something of a damage control
operation by Gardner, who, according to Doreen, was not too impressed when she
kept telling him that she recognised certain passages in the Witch rites!
"Witchcraft Today" was published the year after Doreen's initiation, and perhaps
by seeming genuinely interested in where the Rites came from, Gardner thought he
might give the appearance of innocence of their construction!

As mentioned previously, Gardner also had a large collection of unpublished
MSS, which he used extensively, and one has only to read his books to realise
that he was a very well-read man, with wide-ranging interests. Exactly the sort
of man who would be able to draw together a set of rituals if required.

The extensive bibliography to "The Meaning of Witchcraft" published in 1959,
demonstrates this rather well. Gardner includes Magick in Theory and Practice
and The Equinox of the Gods by Crowley; The Mystical Qabalah by Dion Fortune;
The Goetia; The White Goddess (Graves); Lady Charlotte Guest's translation of
The Mabinogion; English Folklore by Christina Hole; The Kabbalah Unveiled and
the Abramelin by Mathers; both Margaret Murray's books and Godfrey Leland's
Gypsy Sorcery, as well as a myriad of classic texts, from Plato to Bede!

Although this bibliography postdates the creation of Gardnerian Wicca, it
certainly indicates from where Gardner draws his inspiration from. There are
also several books listed which are either directly, or indirectly, concerned
with sex magic, Priapic Cults, or Tantra.

Hargrave Jenning, mentioned earlier, wrote a book called "The Rosicrucians,
their Rites and Mysteries", which Francis King describes as a book, "concerned
almost exclusively with phallicism and phallic images - Jennings saw the penis
everywhere."

As I mentioned earlier, Hargrave Jennings, a member of the SRIA, also
belonged to a group, described as a coven, which met in the Cambridge area in
the 1870s, and performed rituals based upon the classical traditions -
specifically, from The Golden Ass. There is no evidence to support this, except
that there are often found references to a "Cambridge Coven" linked to Jennings'
name. Many of the rituals we are familiar with today were of course later
additions by Doreen Valiente, and these have been well documented by both her
and the Farrars, in a number of books. Doreen admits that she deliberately cut
much of the poetry by Aleister Crowley, and substituted either her own work, or
poems from other sources, such as the Carmina Gadelica.

Of course we can never really know the truth about the origins of the Wicca.
Gardner may have been an utter fraud; he may have actually received a
"Traditional" initiation; or, as a number of people have suggested, he may have
created the Wicca as a result of a genuine religious experience, drawing upon
his extensive literary and magical knowledge to create, or help create, the
rites and philosophy.

What I think we can be fairly certain about is that he was sincere in his
belief. If there had been no more to the whole thing than an old man's fantasy,
then the Wicca would not have grown to be the force that it is today, and we
would not all be sitting here in Canberra on a Saturday morning!

Note: The author of the following article is a Freemason and a Wiccan.

Common Elements in Freemasonry and Neo-Pagan Ritual

Freemasonry is an ancient and venerable institution with many centuries of
history behind it. Likewise, Pagan traditions fade into the most distant
recesses of time. Yet few modern-day Pagans are intimately familiar with
Freemasonry, undoubtedly as least in part due to the all-male nature of the
fraternity in contrast to the prominent role of women in most traditions of
neo-Paganism. And it is likely that even fewer Masons understand neo-Paganism.
Yet there are striking liturgical similarities and historical ties.

Historians agree that the present-day structure known as the Masonic
fraternity, whatever its antecedents may have been, began with the formation
of the Grand Lodge of England in the year 1717 [1]. It is not surprising,
then, to find that some of the symbolic and mythological elements in Masonic
rituals would appear to be of Pagan origin. Examples include ritual
circumambulation, which is rooted in Celtic practices centered around belief
in sympathetic solar magic. By walking in the direction of the sun, Pagans
believed (as many do today) that they could attune themselves to Nature's
progress around the wheel of the year. Moderns understand the earth orbits the
sun, but ancients contemplated a life-giving orb which "rose" in the east and
"set" in the west.

Other striking examples occur in common vocabulary of the of the Masonic
fraternity and certain neo-Pagan traditions. For example, the word "cowan,"
which comes from ancient Scottish language, refers to non-initiates in either
instance.

No less than the eminent Masonic historian, Dr. Albert G. Mackey, tells of
similarities between Freemasonry and ancient Druidism, which was one of
thousands of ancient Pagan traditions. (Hereafter, the word "paleo-Pagan" will
be used to distinguish between ancient and modern, or "neo-Pagan," beliefs or
systems.) Dr. Mackey tells us:

The doctrine of the Druids were the same as those entertained by
Pythagoras... The object of their mystic rites was to communicate those
doctrines in symbolic language, and object and a method common alike to
Druidism, to the Ancient Mysteries and to Modern Freemasonry. [2]

It is believed that the body of knowledge which has descended to us in the
form of Freemasonry has its roots in many ancient sources. The most obvious
are Semitic and Christian since the outward content of the rituals revolve
around the construction of King Solomon's temple. But some aspects of Masonry
appear to be of Pagan origin, in the most honorable and classical sense of
that word.[3] One reason may be common historical roots.

Pythagoras, himself undeniably a Pagan, reportedly studied the teachings
of "Brahmins and Druids," under the mental of an Assyrian philosopher named
Ammanianus.[4] Pythagoras, who lived from 586 to 506 BCE, is remembered
generally for his love of knowledge, and specifically for his writings on the
mystical power of numbers, as well as for being the father of the science of
geometry. According to Mackey, Pythagoras "...traveled through Egypt, Chaldea
and Asia Minor, and is said to have submitted to the initiations in those
countries for the purpose of acquiring knowledge. On his return to Europe, he
is said to have established his school at Crotona, with liturgical practices
resembling those subsequently adopted by Freemasons" [5].

The present paper will touch on a few of the elements evident in
present-day Masonic liturgy, without revealing any of its so-called "secrets,"
which appear to have common aspects with some of the indigenous Pagan
mythologies. Dr. Lewis Spence explains this by pointing out that in the middle
ages, students of occultism were often initiated to a variety of societies. He
adds his own assessment of Masonic mysticism:

No student of occultism can fail to be struck with the close resemblance
of the constitutions of nearly all the mystical fellowships of the middle
ages, and the resemblance of the verbiage employed by their founders and
protagonists * * *

It is extremely doubtful if among even the higher ranks of masonry, the
deepest significance of the tradition of the craft is thoroughly realised
and it is the absurd works which every now and then emanate from the eminent
masons regarding the history of their craft be accepted as criteria of their
higher knowledge, it must indeed be of slight proportions. Regarding the
grand secret, or secrets, of masonry, the layman may rest comfortably
assured that if he has failed to join the brotherhood, he has missed no fact
of supreme importance by so doing. There is no 'secret' at all. The original
secrets in connection with the craft were those of operative masons, who
were jealous of their position as workmen, and who rightly enough did not
believe in giving away business secrets to all and sundry; but the so-called
'secrets' of modern speculative masonry are merely such as have brought
alchemy, astrology, and the kindred sciences into unthinking disrepute among
those who do not recognize their significance in the history of human
thought. This is not to say that masonry as a whole consists of mere
clap-trap. The trend of its entire constitution is nowadays frankly
mystical, but it is a mysticism which is only half understood by the lower
ranks of the craft, and which is imperfectly recognised by its higher
officers. Its tenets are unquestionably mystic and lofty, but Masonic
transcendentalism has scarcely kept in line with more modern forms of
mysticism. [6]

Freemasonry has not been without influence in the neo-Pagan movement in
the latter's efforts to reconstruct and recreate that which has been lost.
Gerald Brosseau Gardner (1884-1964) is often cited as being chiefly
responsible for reviving the religion of Witchcraft in England and the modern
West [7]. Wiccan matriarch Doreen Valiente, an High Priestess who worked
closely with Gardner, informs us:

Another tradition which has obviously been laid under tribute by
Gerald's rituals is that of Freemasonry. Thanks to the work of such writers
as Walton Hannah, the ordinary reader is able to find out a good deal more
about Masonic ritual than was generally available before. We can therefore
see that there are terms such as 'the Working Tools,' the reference to the
candidate's being 'properly prepared' for initiation, the 'Charge' which is
read to the new initiate, and the existence of three Degrees through which
the initiate must advance, which are all very reminiscent of Masonic
procedure when one finds them in the witch rituals. Indeed, both Masons and
witches today refer to their cult as 'the Craft.' The Third Degree of the
witches refers to 'the Five Points of Fellowship,' just as the Third Degree
of Freemasonry does, though with a rather different meaning. In the third
Degree initiation, the candidate is blindfolded, has a cable-tow placed
about the neck and is admitted upon the point of a sharp instrument, in both
Gardnerian witchcraft and Freemasonry.

What do these resemblances mean? It has been argued that there was an
ancient connection between witch rituals and those of Freemasonry. This may
be so, but it is a fact that both Gerald Gardner and Dafo were members of
the Co-Masons. Co-Masonry is an offshoot of Freemasonry which permits the
admission of women, something which, of course, the United Grand Lodge of
England strictly forbids. It originated in France and spread to Britain in
1902, when its first British Lodge was formed in London. In this Lodge the
famous leader of the Theosophical Society, Mrs. Annie Besant, was initiated
and became the national delegate for Britain, and in 1922 Co-Masonry was
affiliated to the Grand Orient of France. When Annie Besant died, her
daughter, Mrs. Mabel Besant-Scott, became the leader of Co-Masonry in
Britain -- and Mrs. Mabel Besant-Scott was Gerald Gardner's neighbour in
Highcliffe, near Christchurch, on the edge of the New Forest. She was also a
leading member of the Rosicrucian Fellowship of Crotona [8].

Another close associate of Gardner who is reported to have been a
Freemason was Arnold Crowther (1909-1974) [9].

As has already been made clear in the passage from Spence quoted
previously, the rise of speculative Freemasonry in the 17th and 18th century
has been historically linked to an increase in the popularity among other
secret magical orders whose rituals were based on the Hermetica, mystery
schools, the Tarot, interpretations of the Kabbalah and astrology [10].

Aleister Crowley (1875-1947) provided other influences on the development
of modern witchcraft through association with Gardner. Crowley was an adept of
the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn (which included the Outer Order of the
White Brotherhood, Order of the Red Rose and the Golden Cross, and the Silver
Star or A.:.A.:. (Argentum Astrum). Even the distinctive three dots in
"A.:.A.:." suggests a Masonic connection Later, Crowley advanced through the
Ordo Templi Orientis, a German occult order that practices sex magick. Crowley
is not known to have had any Masonic connections, though the organizations
just named may bear, or once have born, historical or concordant or
clandestine ties to the Fraternity.

Isaac Bonewits, Archdruid of Ar' nDrai'ocht Fe'in: A Druid Fellowship, in
explaining the evolution of Pagan traditions and beliefs as they were passed
through the generations, states the followers of the Old Religion were forced
by persecutions during the Burning Times to conceal their "superstitious"
beliefs and magical systems. "Instead," he says, "they became involved in
Freemasonry and Rosicrucianism in the 18th century, Spiritualism and Theosophy
in the 19th; for all of these movements were considered more respectable than
witchcraft, and still allowed the Fam-Trads to practice their occult arts"
[11].

Another specific common ritual element between Freemasonry and various
Pagan traditions centers around the idea of iron as a source of evil to those
who touch it. Blacksmiths of ancient Rome and Pompeii wore phallic amulets to
counteract the effect which the constant handling of iron was expected to
bring upon them. More recently, men who built needfires in Beltane bonfires of
Scotland traditionally divested themselves of anything made of metal. Another
Scotch custom was that in making the clavie (a fire-wheel used in celebrating
Yule) any hammering must be done with a stone rather than metal [12].

Similarly, Masonic ritual requires a candidate for initiation to enter the
Lodge "divested of all metallic substances," as it is said the masons who
built King Solomon's temple cut each stone without blades of stone. Known as
the "rite of divestiture," this Masonic ritual reminds the new initiate of the
destitute condition in which all humans enter the world and that all must rely
on the charity of others. Mackey explains: "In the divestiture of metals as a
preliminary to initiation, we are symbolically taught that Masonry regards no
man on account of his wealth" [13]

In ancient times, iron was forbidden inside Greek and Roman temples, just
as it was during construction of both Hebrew temples at Jerusalem. Ancient
Saxons would not use iron in cemeteries because it was feared the metal would
scare away departed spirits. Brass has also been believed to be effective in
repelling spirits. Many neo-Pagan traditions also have strict prohibitions
about the types of metals, or whether any metal, which may be brought into a
ritual circle.

An example of a more direct influx of Masonic material, and of its
alteration to fit neo-Pagan system of worship, is documented by Janet and
Stewart Farrar when they refer in a footnote to the evolution of Gardner's
book of shadows:

Text A says 'Holy Twin Pillars, B. and J.' This stands for Boaz and
Jachin, the Masonic names for the twin pillars of Solomon's Temple,
representing the complementary principles of Severity and Mercy. The 'B. and
J.' was dropped from Texts B and C. In this ritual, the 'Holy Twin Pillars'
are the Priestess's breasts, which are kissed at this point. (In the
alternative form of the Great Rite..., because of the different positioning
of the Priestess and Priest, the Pillars are taken to be the Priestess's
legs.) [14]

Two interesting literary references, in line with the Farrars' allusion to
the pillars as figured in human breasts and legs, are found in the Song of
Solomon, where the lyricist says: "I am a wall and my breasts like towers..."
(8:10). And again: "His legs are pillars of marble, set upon sockets of fine
gold: his countenance is as Lebanon, excellent as the cedars" (5:15).

Contrary to the Farrars' interpretation of the Masonic meaning of the two
pillars, knowledgeable Masonic writers provide a different explanation of the
twin pillars which stand at the "inner door" of Masonic lodges everywhere,
which are emblematical of the two which supposedly stood in the ancient
Temple:

It is believed that when a king was crowned he stood before one of them,
for which reason it was called the 'King's Pillar;' when a high priest was
consecrated he stood before the other, or 'Priest's Pillar.' For this reason
the two pillars represented the foundation of a nation's life, the state and
church government and religion, God and King. But... as used in the Second
Degree they have more profound and important meaning: they are the symbol of
the last step taken in Passing, the step taken between the hard and honest
work a man does on his own nature to shape it into the character it ought to
have and the reward of that work in honor, peace of mind, power, and
self-respect. [15]

Interesting similarities, and also some differences, occur in the ritual
assemblies in Freemasonry and various Pagan traditions both ancient and
modern.

Wicca is a religion the roots of which, like those of Freemasonry, are
lost in antiquity. This century, however, has seen a resurgence of Goddess
worship, both in the form of various Wiccan traditions, and revitalization of
other forms of Pagan worship. Many of these traditions worship a Great
Goddess, side-by-side with a masculine deity.

In the casting of a modern-day Wiccan ritual circle, a process known as
"erecting the Temple" includes the consecration of sacred space. This includes
saluting the "guardians of the watchtowers" (or other similar language) of the
East, South, North and West, usually in that order, at each quarter of the
circle. Some also salute the center of the circle. It is explained that each
quarter corresponds to one of the essential elements of Air, Fire, Earth,
Water and Spirit.

A Masonic lodge, on the other hand, is described as an "oblong square,"
which denotes two squares joined together to form a rectangle. Masons
generally sit or stand around the sidelines of the Lodge as rituals take
place, with officers seated in the East, South and North. The Masonic alter is
always situated in the center of the lodge, the spot which in a neo-Pagan
circle might well represent the element of Spirit.

Russell A. Herner [16] puts forth the hypothesis that the prehistoric
stones standing on Salisbury Plain, in England, were placed there by a Masonic
organization some 2,700 or more years ago. Although Herner's writings appear
more directed at a popular audience than a scholarly one, and are not
generally accepted by historians, he raises a number of interesting
observations, including that Stonehenge's alignments are oriented to the
positions of the cycles of the sun and moon, and that its focal point is to
the North-East, a significant direction in the rituals of modern Freemasonry.
In addition, Herner notes, the stones are placed precisely in geographical
directions, laid out nearly identically to a modern Masonic lodge-room, with
officer stations at each of the four quarters.

Ritual space for Wiccans, Druids and other neo-Pagans, is often referred
to as "a place that is not a place, a time that is not a time," in allusion to
the idea of crossing mystical boundaries.

A Masonic initiate enters the lodge "...neither barefoot nor shod, naked
nor clad...," again neither this nor that. In their lectures on Celtic poetry
and myth, Taine Bwca and Erynn Darkstar explain the roots of such practices is
cosmological terms:

[The Celts] had a very different way of classifying time and space than
we do. Their day began at the fall of night. They liked going to boundaries.
They enjoyed looking at an absurd concept and breaking it down in terms of
things that were and were not. The song that Simon and Garfunkel popularized
in the 1960s, 'Scarborough Fair,' has a little piece of ancient riddle
that's very Celtic in form, 'between the sea water and the sea sand,' it's
neither this nor that. They loved the neither/nor dichotomy. Most of the
warriors that die gloriously (and they all basically die gloriously in
Celtic tales) die under impossible, absurd situations, like standing on the
back of a horse, right between the time when the bell is tolling, neither in
nor out of the house, with a weapon that's not been made by anyone in
particular... These were people that crossed boundaries * * *

They really, again, like boundary conditions, where the shoreline is,
where you can't really see things that clearly, especially in Ireland and
Scotland with all that fog there. Things happen at boundaries in Celtic
culture, at least for purposes of religion. They don't happen in the middle,
or in a 'safe' section. Things happen right on the edge. [17]

Mithraism is one of many paleo-Pagan religions about which more has been
learned in recent years. James R. Russell (1994) of the Harvard University
Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations presented a paper
entitled "Mithraism and Freemasonry" at the Livingston Masonic Library in New
York, in which he began: "It has long been recognized that there are very
numerous similarities between the initiatory rituals and symbolism of the
ancient Mithraic mysteries and those of modern Freemasonry." Dr. Russell
proceeded to discuss the contents of Egyptian documents containing a Greek
language Obligation which has elements similar to modern Masonic ritual; as
well, we might add, as being similar to some current-day Pagan religious
rituals.

At the conclusion of each Masonic degree a "Charge" is given. According to
Mackey: "It is the admonition which is given by the presiding officer at the
close of the ceremony of initiation, to the candidate, and which the latter
receives standing, as a token of respect. There is a charge for each degree,
which is found in all the monitors [19] and manuals from Preston onward" [20].
Respect for Masonic tradition and law prohibits reproduction of a Charge here,
though versions may be found in publication in various places.

In some ways similar, a "Charge of the Goddess" is used among almost all
branches of modern Witchcraft. It is published in varying forms. Some covens
have Charges which they hold secret. The following version, set in modern
language by Starhawk, was first published by Charles Godfrey Leland in 1899
[21]:

Listen to the words of the Great Mother, who of old was called
Artemis, Astarte, Dione, Melusine, Aphrodite, Ceridwen, Diana, Arionrhod,
Brigid, and by many other names. Whenever you have need of anything, once in
the month, and better when the moon is full, you shall assemble in some
secret place and adore the spirit of Me who is Queen of all the wise. You
shall be free from slavery, and as a sign that you be free you shall be
naked in your rites. Sing, feast, dance, make music and love, all in My
presence, for Mine is the ecstasy of the spirit and Mine also is joy on
earth. For My law is love unto all beings. Mine is the secret that opens
upon the door of youth, and Mine is the cup of wine of life that is the
Cauldron of Ceridwen that is the holy grail of immortality. I give the
knowledge and the spirit eternal and beyond death I give peace and freedom
and reunion with those that have gone before. Nor do I demand aught of
sacrifice, for behold, I am the mother of all things and My love is poured
out upon the earth. [22]

Valiente was quoted earlier to the effect that some version of the "Five
Points of Fellowship" of the Masons exist within the third degree of Witch
rituals. Also called the "Fivefold Kiss," Guiley offers the following
description:

A ritual kissing of five parts of the body done in certain rites
and ceremonies, such as handfasting, in some traditions of neo-Pagan
witchcraft. It is always done within a magic circle and is symbolic of the
homage paid by the God and the Goddess to each other. The fivefold kiss can
be done man to woman or woman to man. The kisses may be given on the parts
of the body which, with arms and legs outstretched, correspond to the points
of a pentacle: head, arms or hands; legs or feet. Or, eight kisses may be
given in five body points: on each foot; on each knee; above the pubic hair;
on each breast; on the lips. Each kiss is accompanied by a blessing... [23]

The closest thing to a Masonic counterpart of this, as noted, is the Five
Points of Fellowship, which Mackey explains thus: "...In the old system, the
symbols are the hand, the foot, the knee, the breast and the back. In the new
system, the first symbol or the hand is omitted, and the mouth and the ear
substituted." [24]

Among the first similarities observed by a Witch visiting a Masonic lodge,
to a Wiccan circle (or vice versa), is the orientation of the ritual around
the points of the compass. The "cardinal point" in Freemasonry is the East. It
is here that the Worshipful Master sits and presides over the ritual, over
whose head the letter "G" hangs from the vaulted ceiling of the lodge.
According to Masonic custom, it is at the North-East corner that buildings are
ceremonially commenced and the cornerstone laid. A nineteenth century Mason,
Brigham Young, explained the laying of the cornerstone of a temple in Salt
Lake City at the southeast corner, although he acknowledges that this was not
traditional:

The First Presidency proceeded to the south-east corner, to lay the
first stone, though it is customary at the north-east corner -- that is the
beginning point most generally, I believe, in the world. At this side of the
equator we commence at the south-east corner. We sometimes look for light,
you know, brethren. You old men that have been through the mill pretty well,
have been inquiring after light -- which way do you go? You will tell me to
go to the east for light? So we commence by laying the stone on the
south-east corner, because there is the most light.
[25]

Ordinarily, it is at the North-East corner that
buildings are ceremonially commenced, according to Masonic custom. Mackey
tells us:

The organizers of the Mysteries did not leave things to chance. However
vague some of their speculations may have sounded in the ears of the people,
they were themselves dealing in as exact science as they were able to
command. Hence, while the terrestrial 'East' was ever in the direction of
the rising sun, a direction that describes a complete circle with every
recurring twelve months, the celestial or true East was permanently situated
in the sign of the zodiacal lion, or Leo, or the 'House of the Sun.' In
every part of the world we always find the four cardinal points associated
with the four elements, -- East, Lion, fire; South, Eagle (Scorpio), water;
West, man, air; North, Bull, earth. [26]

These correspondences are similar but do not precisely match those
commonly recognized by modern Pagan traditions. Though variation exists with
the is diversity of Pagan traditions, following are the correspondences with
which this writer is most familiar in a Pagan context, for exemplary purposes,
in a table alongside the above noted Masonic counterparts:

WICCA

FREEMASONRY

East

Air

Intellect/Imagination

East

Fire

Leo

South

Fire

Will/Vitality

South

Water

Scorpio

West

Water

Emotion/Intuition

West

Air

Man

North

Earth

Body/Foundation

North

Earth

Bull

Another obvious common symbol used in Masonry and Pagan traditions, is the
Pentagram, recognized as a symbol of many mystical traditions. With its point
turned up or down, it is widely known as the emblem of the Order of the Easter
Star, and has numerous layers of meaning. Neo-Pagan author, Amber K, on the
other hand, relates some historic meanings this mystic symbol has had, and the
meaning it continues to hold to modern Wiccans:

The pentagram has had many names through the ages: Pentalpha, the
Endless Knot, the Pentacle of the Virgin, the Seal of Microcosm, the Star of
Knowledge, the Pentacle of the Templars, and according to some, the Seal of
Solomon. Medieval churchmen, however, called it Witch's Foot, or Wizard's
Star, Goblin's Cross, Druid's Foot, and Devil's Sign. It has been used by
Sumerians, Kabbalists, Celts, Egyptians, Christians and Gypsies.

It stands for Spirit ruling the world of Matter. Also life, health,
protection (especially against hostile spirits). Also a human being as
microcosm of the universe. The points can represent the five senses, stages
of life, or states of consciousness. Small ones, of silver, are amulets
favored by Witches. On a disc of wood or metal it is the Witch's Pentacle,
the ritual tool of Earth. If inverted, it can stand for the Horned God or
for Spirit hidden in Matter or subject to it. [27]

Of your own free will and accord

It would perhaps have been fitting to address the subject of Free Will
first in this treatise, for it is at the beginning and end of both Freemasonry
and Witchcraft, and woven throughout. The element of free choice is central to
initiation in either, just as the concepts of exercising caution but fearing
no danger while in the service of Deity.

Once a candidate for initiation vocalizes willingness to proceed with the
ceremony, both in the cases of Masons and Witches (or at least many Witches,
depending on tradition), he or she is ceremonially bound, hoodwinked, neither
naked nor clad, and called upon to make a number of oaths all subject to free
will. Although it would not be appropriate to go into the details here, the
two rituals bear a number of other specific parallels.

Paganism and Freemasonry today

It is difficult to fix with certainty the number of neo-Pagans in America.
The Witches League for Public Awareness, a nonprofit national organization
based in Salem, Massachusetts, estimates there are between 200,000 nationwide.
But J. Gordon Melton, a United Methodist minister and director of the
Institute for the Study of Religion at the University of California, Santa
Barbara, claims there are only 40,000 [28] Of course, Witches are merely a
fraction of those who identify themselves as Pagan. At this writing, the
EarthSpirit Community of Medford, Massachusetts is in the process of
conducting a "Pagan Census Project," with funding from West Chester State
University in Pennsylvania and the Covenant of the Goddess (a confederation of
Witch covens), which hopefully will yield some meaningful results. Reports of
the 1993 World Parliament of Religions indicate the neo-Pagan movement is
among the fastest-growing religions in North America today. [29]

On the other hand, as an established organization with clearly defined
membership rolls (which in many jurisdictions are computerized), obtaining a
count of Freemasons is relatively easy. According to the New York
Times, there are currently 2.4 million Masons nationally. This is down
from 4.1 million in 1969.

It is unknown how many Masons hold Pagan beliefs, and it probably will
never be known since religious affiliation is not something about which Masons
traditionally question their members. Some portion of mainstream Masons who
might agree with major aspects of Pagan philosophy and spirituality, might
hesitate to label themselves "Pagan," partly due to a misunderstanding of what
the word denotes and what it implies.

Assuredly, no atheist may ever be a Mason. But neo-Pagans are far from
atheist. Some devote more time and energy to prayer, religious study, and
other spiritual activities than most Christians, Jews or Moslems -- Mason or
not.

Both Masons and Pagans have been subject to periods of intense persecution
during their history. For example, a measure declaring Freemasonry
Incompatible with Christianity failed by only to a close vote at the 1993
Southern Baptist Convention in Houston. Two reasons cited in support of the
proposal were the following:

o The recommended readings, in pursuance of advanced degrees, of
religions and philosophies, which are undeniably pagan and/or occult, such
as much of the writings of Albert Pike, Albert Mackey, Manly Hall, Rex
Hutchins, W.L. Wilmshurst, and other such authors.

o The heresy of universalism (the belief all people will eventually be
saved), which permeates the writings of many Masonic authors.
[31]

In keeping with the non-sectarian nature of the Masonic fraternity, a
number of the members of any given lodge might be practicing Pagans ad the
other members be totally unaware. A current Masonic introductory tract
affirms:

Freemasonry welcomes men from every religious denomination or creed,
requiring only that they affirm their belief in a Supreme Being, and that
they are of high moral character and are good citizens. Masonic Lodges are
non-denominational and non-political. Partisan and sectarian discussions are
not permitted in Lodges.

Masonry is not a substitute for church or religion. The Fraternity urges
its members to practice their own particular religious beliefs in their
daily lives. [32]

Some Pagan men may find Freemasonry to be a rewarding supplement to their
spiritual life. It can provide fraternal association with a broader segment of
the men of a community than would be possible under other circumstances, in a
Masonic ritual setting which attempts to be as non-threatening as possible on
a personal level. While some Pagans may miss the presence of women in Masonry
(aside from a small handful who have snuck in over a period of centuries),
gender segregation is not unheard of in neo-Paganism, as Dianic Witches or
those of certain Faery traditions can attest.

Pagans desiring more information about Masonry are invited to ask a
Masonic friend about joining. Likewise, Freemasons who are interested in
learning more about modern application of the ancient mystical techniques and
philosophies, may contact any of a number of neo-Pagan organizations around
the country.

As stated at the outset, the purpose of this article is to initiate a
dialog. Nothing in this article should be interpreted to suggest that
Freemasonry as a whole, or Freemasons as a group, endorse Paganism, any more
than they endorse Christianity, Judaism, Islam, or any other religion.

So mote it be.

References

1. Lang, Ossian (1922). History of Freemasonry in the State of New,
Grand Lodge of New York, F&AM, p. 1.

3. "Pagan, from the Latin paganus, peasant, and
pagus, a district, the country, parallels HEATHEN: a dweller on the
heath) both in sense and origin Pagan traveled a more circuitous route,
however. First paganus became an epithet among Roman soldiers for
civilian. Then, contemptuous usage was adopted by early Christians, who
saw themselves as soldiers, milites, of Christ, and who naturally
extended paganus to anyone who wasn't converted. See also HICK,
PEASANT, and RENEGADE." (Hugh Crawson (1989). Wicked Words: A Treasury of
Curses, Insults, Put-Downs, and Other Formerly Unprintable Terms from
Anglo-Saxon Times to the Present, Crown Publishers: New York, P. 280.)

4. Rutherford, Ward (1990). The Druids: Magicians of the West, the
doctrines, beliefs and practices of Druidism, New York: Sterling Books, p.
46. In this vein, Gerald Gardner (1959) alleges: "According to tradition, a
Druid called Abarts was a friend of Pythagoras, who, it will be remembered,
was also a believer in reincarnation" (p. 74.)

5. Mackey, op cit., Vol. II, p. 602, s.v. "Pythagoras."

6. Spence, Lewis (1960). An Encyclopaedia of Occultism, New Hyde
Park, New York: University Books.

32. Anonymous (no date). "Q&A: Answers to questions about the Masonic
Fraternity," Grand Lodge of F&AM of New York State.

The author was raised as a Master Mason in September 1993. He has
written numerous articles on religion, spirituality, psychology and
counseling. The statements expressed in this article do not represent
any organization, including any grand or local Masonic lodge.

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