72. Evidence received has shown that street lighting
has been effective in reducing the number of road traffic accidents.[121]
It is somewhat beyond the remit of this inquiry to investigate
whether lighting does engender a feeling of safety for pedestrians
at night or whether lighting does indeed prevent crime. A number
of memoranda questioned the accuracy of the Home Office survey
which concluded that lighting does prevent crime.[122]
It is interesting that the Home Office-sponsored Crime Reduction
Website warns that over powerful infra red sensor activate security
lighting creates dark shadows which make it easier for criminals
to enter a property unseen.[123]
The UK's streets are now more brightly lit than ever, and yet
crime levels have risen since the days when street lighting was
turned off at night. There is a suggestion that whilst people
may feel safer, in statistical terms they may not actually
be any safer. The Government told us that they were due to highlight
the role that good lighting may play in reducing crime in its
good practice guidance on "planning out crime", due
to be published later in 2003.[124]

73. Witnesses have submitted written papers to the
Committee on the adverse effect of lighting on crime.[125]
Other memoranda has commented that more lighting at night enables
criminals to see what they are doingfor example, would
graffiti artists be able to work in the dark? Without commenting
on the validity of this evidence, the Committee notes that in
the August 2003 electricity blackout in parts of North America,
the feared crime wave did not materialise. Similarly, in 1998,
Auckland was victim to a black out lasting several weeks. A police
inspector was reported as saying "It's almost a crime-free
zone. The normal levels of muggings, violence, fights, burglary
and robbery have just not happened."[126]

74. We consider that whilst the role of efficient
and well positioned street lighting in reducing accidents has
been proven, the evidence relating to the correlation between
lighting and crime is not conclusive. This link is outwith the
remit of our inquiry, but is an area that merits further research.
We look forward to seeing what new evidence the Government has
received on the role of lighting in the reduction of crime when
its good practice guidance "planning out crime" is published
later this year. However, we believe that the impact of lighting
on crime should be only one of a number of factors that is considered
in the determination of Government policy on lighting.

LIGHTING EQUIPMENT TYPES

Taken from Lighting in the Countryside:

Lamps:Gas discharge lamps can be split into two types. The first type produces ultra-violet radiation from the gas discharge which is converted into visible light through a reaction with a phosphor coating on the glass bulb. This type includes the tubular fluorescent lamp used in most commercial offices and the growing number of small 'energy saving' compact fluorescent lamps available for the home. The second type, which produces visible light directly, includes metal halide, high pressure sodium and low pressure sodium lamps. All gas discharge lamps require extra electrical components, both to switch on the light and throughout the period they are working. They have relatively high efficiencies and long lives, but varying colour appearance and rendering capabilities.

Luminaires: While it is possible to run most lamps in free air, it is normal practice to fit them into some type of luminaire. The luminaire can provide protection for the lamp against damage and/or the weather and may protect people in the vicinity against burning or electric shock. In the case of gas discharge lamps, the luminaire may act as a container for the lamp control gear, and most importantly, it may act as an optical device for controlling and directing light, helping to reduce the risk of light trespass.

The two types of luminaire commonly used in exterior lighting are the fixed angle and variable angle luminaires. The former is designed for use in a fixed orientation, such as on the top of a lamp post or built into the wall of a building, while the latter is fitted with a movable bracket, allowing the installer to direct the light beam to the direction required. In many cases it is the choice of luminaire which will determine the impact of the light. Luminaires which provide full horizontal cut-off (HCO) can minimise sky glow, and many have reflectors which control and direct the light beam with varying degrees of accuracy and effectiveness.

75. The ILE told us that there is a predominance of low pressure
sodium (LPS) lighting (sometimes referred to as SOX lighting)
in the UK. This was installed in the 1970s as it was considered
to be the most energy efficient at that time.[127]
Its disadvantages are that the light is difficult to control because
of the physical size of the luminaires and that it causes the
unpleasant orange tinged glow. The ILE estimate that 45% of street
lighting in England is of that type and consider that the figure
is probably the same for Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.[128]
Some astronomers told us they preferred LPS lighting as it is
easier to filter out, but most astronomers, the ILE and the Highways
Agency advocate the disuse of LPS lighting in favour of high pressure
sodium (HPS) lighting (also called SON lighting). The Highways
Agency told us that it "carefully considers the overall environmental
impact, energy efficiency, maintenance and aesthetics of its lighting
installations before implementing a scheme."[129]
HPS lamps can be more controlled and can direct the light downwards
whilst spreading it along the road - enabling the maximising of
spacing the light fittings. It is also possible to use other white
coloured light sources to reduce lighting levels on small areas
such as housing estates.[130]

76. The shape of the lamp is also important - lamps
with fully curved bowls tend to spill more light above the horizontal.
Whilst the ILE recommends that all lights be designed so that
there is no upwards light from them, it has concerns about Full
Cut-Off lighting (FCO) being used for all lighting.[131]
ILE believes that FCO lighting is not suitable for all street
lighting, and should be kept for dark rural areas and areas near
observatories. For general street lighting they suggest:

"we would advocate the use of shallow bowl
luminaires (less than 60mm projection) for traffic route lighting
as these give many of the benefits of non cut-off lighting with
few of the disadvantages of Full Cut-Off lighting."[132]

77. For lighting in residential areas the ILE suggests
that FCO is not suitable, but that the low pressure sodium lighting
should be replaced with high sodium pressure lighting. The ILE
estimates that better controlled modern lighting, for example
shallow bowl luminaires, could reduce the amount of light pollution
from the replaced lights by up to 20% without any difference in
running or maintenance cost to the old LPS systems.[133]

78. Street lighting in the UK is under Highways Agency
or local authority control, depending on the type of road, or
under the control of the devolved legislatures.

80. Approximately 35% (51,000) of luminaires under
the Agency's control are LPS, and the remaining 65% (94,000) are
HPS with 50% having FCO or flat glass diffuser luminaires. The
Highways Agency intends gradually to replace all of its lights
with more environmentally friendly lights - using both HPS and
FCO lighting. The framework for replacement is over the next 10-15
years.[137] They acknowledge
that the HPS lighting will not bring any energy savings, but will
better control the level and spread of light.[138]

81. The Agency told us that it supported a number
of research projects into light pollution, and was running trials
on the reduction of lighting levels on roundabouts.[139]
The Agency was also able to work with the ILE, the devolved assemblies
and local authorities on the issue of improving road effectiveness
as it sat on the Department of Transport's Lighting Board. The
1998 White Paper "A New deal for Transport - better for
everyone", states that "where lighting is essential,
it should be designed in such a way that nuisance is reduced and
the effect on the night sky is minimised." It appears that
Transport is one Department that is taking light pollution seriously
and is implementing changes through the Highways Agency.

82. We welcome the fact that both the Department
of Transport and the Highways Agency have given due consideration
to the issue of light pollution. The Highways Agency has shown
forward thinking in its gradual replacement of luminaires, and
in giving environmental considerations top priority. It should
be congratulated for its work with the lighting industry and with
the Department for Transport's Lighting Board, to improve the
efficiency of lighting throughout the UK. It should continue to
work with local authorities to "spread the word" about
light pollution and the benefits of High Pressure Sodium lighting.
We look forward to viewing the results of various research projects
into the effect of light pollution that the Agency has contributed
to.

84. The Government is currently making available
£300 million in PFI credits for local authorities outside
of London to invest in street lighting over the next three years,
and £80 million to local authorities within London.[142]
When asked whether local authorities were receiving guidance from
Government on the type of lighting they should be installing,
the Minister for Housing and Planning replied:

"There is central government guidance in
a succession of documents on the issue of light pollution, which
we certainly expect local authorities to take cognisance of in
their street lighting renewal programmes."[143]

85. ODPM later clarified that these documents were
the Department of the Environment's 'Lighting in the Countryside'
and Department of Transport's 'Road Lighting and the Environment',
and that table 8.4 of 'Lighting in the Countryside' highlights
other guidance available for lighting roads and pathways, including
Department of Transport's Design Manual for Roads and Bridges
Vol. 10 and British Standard 5489,'General Principles
of Road Lighting', 1992.

86. These guidelines are too diffuse to be of any
real significance or help to a local authority. The Transport
White Paper says "where lighting is essential, it should
be designed in such a way that nuisance is reduced and the effect
on the night sky in the countryside is minimised." It does
not tell a local authority how this could be done.[144]
BS 5489 says "in some cases artificial lighting can be obtrusive
at night. This applies especially to rural and open spaces where
the lighting can be seen as an intrusion into an otherwise darkened
environment. In addition light above the horizontal should be
minimised as it is wasteful and increases sky glow." It then
draws attention to the IAU/CIE publication providing information
on lighting in the vicinity of astronomical observatories.[145]
Again, there is no real Government guidance of the type and design
of light that should be used on streets and roads. 'Lighting in
the Countryside' gives options available but the document is clearly
labelled "The content of the Guide should not be taken to
be a definitive statement of Government policy [ ] Although
this report was commissioned by the Office, the findings and recommendations
are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the
views of the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister."

87. Street lighting that is being replaced by local
authorities now will have a life expectancy of between twenty
five to thirty years. If a local authority installs the 'wrong'
type of luminaire, the Government will have lost an ideal opportunity
to modernise street lighting, improve efficiency and reduce light
pollution.

88. The Government must act now to ensure that
every local authority about to invest in new street lighting is
well informed of the properties of modern luminaires and the issues
of light pollution. If the Highways Agency, backed by the Department
of Transport, has taken a policy decision to use high pressure
sodium lighting, with full cut off and shallow bowl luminaires
in its own replacement of street lighting, then the Government
should issue clear guidance to local authorities that these types
of lighting are believed to be the most suitable lights available
at this time. British Standards codes of practice and guidance
should be updated accordingly.

89. Firm guidance and direction must come from
the Government on this issue. Relying on piecemeal guidance, published
some years ago, to inform important local decisions such as the
replacement of the street lighting systems is not an acceptable
attitude from the Government which is spending £380 million
on this project.

90. Local authorities which have not already invested
in new lighting must be strongly advised to install High Pressure
Sodium lighting, the design of which should be shallow bowl or
fully cut off lighting as appropriate. Local authorities should
also be required to follow ILE and CIE guidelines when deciding
where to install Full Cut Off lighting, with an obligation to
protect observatories, dark rural areas and parkland within their
jurisdiction.

"Because of price and ease of installation,
many people install tungsten halogen floodlights. These units
can provide satisfactory security lighting if correctly installed
and aimed, however it is rarely necessary to use a lamp of greater
than 2,000 lumens (150w) in such fittings. The use of a higher
power only causes more glare and darker shadows [offering] a convenient
hiding place for criminals."[150]

94. Rather than the 500w tungsten halogen lights,
particularly those with Passive Infra Red (PIR) sensors which
detect movement and mean the light flicks on and off all night,
the ILE recommend low wattage compact fluorescent lamps (9/11w
and 600-900 lumens) which give off gentle, soft illumination and
can be left running all night if required. According to the ILE,
security lighting is the area of lighting in which there are true
energy savings to be made, if the public could be persuaded to
use alternatives to the 500w lights.[151]
The BAA estimate that a one kilowatt light left on for twelve
hours every night will result in CO2 emissions from
power stations of 3.5 tonnes a year, whereas a 100w light left
on for the same time will produce 0.35 of a tonne per year of
CO2 emissions.[152]
It is clear that there are significant potential energy savings
to be made in the area of security lighting by reducing the amount
of light pollution emitted from them.

95. We asked B&Q and Homebase to give details
of their light pollution policies. Only B&Q replied; however,
CPRE report that Homebase did stock a 'Dark Sky Friendly product'
and Focus Do it All stocked mostly 150w lights.[153]
B&Q's memorandum to the Committee states that they are keen
to contribute towards the reduction of light pollution and have
been promoting a range of lighting specifically designed to reduce
stray light. B&Q's annual turnover of security lights is £12.5
million, and £2 million of this is made up of 500w security
lights. They stated that they were reconsidering the price architecture
of 500w lights as these lights are £1 cheaper than 150w lights.
B&Q consider they fully discharge their responsibility as
the majority of B&Q floodlights are fitted with an anti light
pollution bracket preventing the customer angling the light upwards,
and instructions with information about light pollution are included
in the packaging of all security lights.[154]

96. Based on B&Q figures alone, and estimating
that the average 500w light costs £10 or less, at least 200,000
500w lights are being sold and installed every year, and the overwhelming
majority of these lights are far too bright for their purpose.
We have received evidence that despite the best efforts at negotiation,
many householders, astronomers or not, are unable to persuade
their neighbours to reduce the power of the lighting or to re-position
it.[155] Whilst
it is possible to angle 500w security lights correctly, we consider
that for normal domestic purposes, they are energy-inefficient
and liable to cause a nuisance.

97. The Government in its memorandum indicated that
it was not in favour of controlling the designs of lighting available
to the public.[156]
However, when questioned on this subject the Minister for Housing
and Planning told us that the Government had looked at the issue
of only permitting the use of approved lighting devices which
will not cause pollution:

"we are looking very specifically at the
question of the power of certain forms of lighting used on the
exterior of households and we are giving very serious consideration
to taking action to prevent."[157]

98. Whilst it is commendable that retailers have
considered the issue of light pollution, leaflets inside the packaging
of security lights will not alert customers to the benefits of
a less powerful light before they decide which security light
to buy. Providing the Institution of Lighting Engineer's Guidance
on security lighting, or a version thereof, alongside the displays
of security lighting would greatly assist the customer. However,
it will not prevent incorrect installation of lights. Only legislation
either banning the sale of 500w lights as security lighting, or
the designation of light as a potential statutory nuisance will
ensure that householders suffering from their neighbour's overspill
of light have a remedy: we favour the control of obtrusive light
through statutory nuisance legislation.[158]

101. Four hundred churches received grants from the
Millennium Commission towards floodlighting projects across England.[162]
Unfortunately, like that used on many other buildings, poorly
designed floodlighting is usually positioned on the ground shining
upwards into the sky, missing most of the building it is meant
to be illuminating. Lighting structures and installations of this
kind may require planning permission if they are substantial,
or alter the building's external daytime appearance, or
if they are new developments in their own right. The case of Kensington
and Chelsea Borough Council v CG Hotels and Another
shows how a local authority failed to force the removal of ground
and first floor floodlights shining on a hotel, as the judge decided
that the installations were invisible during daylight hours, and
the lighting was a consequence of electricity passing through
the apparatus, rather than the apparatus itself.[163]
As it was not a listed building, planning conditions or controls
on lighting would not have applied in this case, but a statutory
nuisance of lighting could have applied if the hotel were causing
a nuisance to its neighbours.

102. Whilst we agree with the Commission for Architecture
and the Built Environment that sympathetic and well positioned
lighting can add to the public enjoyment of towns and cities;
it is a questionable use of money to floodlight buildings all
night long.[164] For
example, the Palace of Westminster is only floodlit until midnight.[165]

103. Those responsible for floodlighting buildings
and sports facilities and those companies lighting car parks should
consider whether there is any need for lighting after 11pm or
midnight. We recommend that, when giving planning permission to
plans for new buildings with floodlighting, new floodlighting
systems or new car parks, local authorities should impose conditions
relating to the type of lights that are appropriate, how they
should be positioned and the timing of the lighting to ensure
it is not obtrusive to those around it and that it does not contribute
to energy wastage.