Meiklejohn: Easy English Grammar for Beginners, Vol. I (1862)

<?xmlversion="1.0"encoding="UTF-8"?><?xml-modelhref="../Schema/Schema.rng"type="application/xml"schematypens="http://relaxng.org/ns/structure/1.0"?><grammar_book><grammar_header><gr_id>0</gr_id><gr_author_id>0</gr_author_id><gr_last_editby="Kleiber, Ingo">28.10.2015</gr_last_edit><gr_author>Meiklejohn, John Miller Dow</gr_author><gr_author_gender>Male</gr_author_gender><gr_education/><gr_occupation/><gr_title>An Easy English Grammar For Beginners; Being a Plain Doctrine of Words and
Sentences. Book the First. Of Words and Their Changes.</gr_title><gr_short_title>An Easy English Grammar for Beginners</gr_short_title><gr_title_add>Here a little, and there a little.</gr_title_add><gr_publisher>Simpkin, Marshall, and Co., Stationers' Hall Court</gr_publisher><gr_place_of_publication>London</gr_place_of_publication><gr_year_publication>1862</gr_year_publication><gr_year_edition>1862</gr_year_edition><gr_no_edition>1</gr_no_edition><gr_no_of_pages/><gr_no_of_words/><gr_language>English</gr_language><gr_variety>British English</gr_variety><gr_type>Teaching Grammar</gr_type><gr_form>Textbook</gr_form><gr_target_institution>School</gr_target_institution><gr_target_audience>Beginner</gr_target_audience><gr_target_audience_author>Beginners</gr_target_audience_author><gr_tags/></grammar_header><grammar_text><div0description="front_matter"><div1description="advertisment"name="The Herbert Series of Short School Books"><paragraph> ALEXANDER IRELAND &amp; CO., Pall Mall Court, Manchester, propose to
issue, at intervals, a SERIES OF SCHOOL BOOKS, Under the above
title.</paragraph><paragraph> There is one standing objection against most existing school books, and
that is their high price, - a consequence of their large size. A boy has put
into his hand a school book which costs from two to ten shillings, and which he
cannot work through within three or four years. Long before the end of this time
the boy has become disgusted with the book - and, perhaps, with the subject
also. He abhors the very sight of its well-thumbed pages. He has a strong
feeling, too, that he has not been making progress in all these years. If the
very same book had been given him in portions, each of which might have been
fully conquered and made part of his mental stock in half a year, the pupil
would have had a strong feeling of progress and mental power, and would have
hailed his arrival at a new part of the subject with keen pleasure.</paragraph><paragraph> It is on this principle that the present series is to be constructed.
Each book will contain only such a quantity of matter as it is believed a boy of
average abilities may, with average application, fully master in the course of
half a year. Each book will be carefully graduated into its successor; and the
highest possible degree of clearness and completeness of statement will be aimed
at. If, then, a boy has thoroughly got up one book, he will naturally be
promoted to the next book on that subject in the series; and this change will
form at once a mark of past progress and an incitement to new exertion. If he
has not, he must continue to work in that book until he is able to approach the
following one. Thus a boy who has passed through his half-yearly course with
moderate success will be presented, at the opening of a new half, with a fresh
set of books; his ambition will be gratified, his merit openly acknowledged, and
his curiosity incited and engaged to open the new course with eagerness and
diligence.</paragraph><paragraph> The books of this series will be written by men who not only thoroughly
understand their subject, but can place it in the fullest and clearest light;
can view it from every possible stand-point that <pagebreakpage_no=""/> may be
made available for the young intellect; can surround the subject with aptest
illustration, and elucidate it by the fullest and simplest explanation; can
impart freshness to old subjects, and win from the new all possible stores of
interest, and, by their understanding of, and sympathy with, the wants and
feelings of the young, can interest and excite them in their every-day school
work.</paragraph><paragraph> The books will, so far as is practicable, be divided into lessons; and
in general, every possible arrangement will be made to save time and trouble on
the part of the teacher, and misunderstanding on the part of the pupil. Each set
of five lessons will be followed by a revise lesson, in which the salient points
of the preceding lessons will be repeated in different language; and, as a
general principle, constant reference will be made to what has preceded, while
the maxim of varied repetition - repetition without monotony - will never be
lost sight of.</paragraph><paragraph> Each book will contain the largest possible collection of exercises - of
the most varied character, always carefully graduated, and, in general,
constructive as well as analytic. The pupil will be first led to a general
statement or rule, by a few easy exercises: he will then have more difficult
exercises founded upon that general statement or rule, and then exercises on the
exceptions to the rule. Perfect intelligence of a theory will thus be secured by
extraordinary fulness of practice - the method of nature in all intellectual
procedure.</paragraph><paragraph> The Editor and Writers of this Series are profoundly convinced that the
first feeling that should be instilled into a boy is the feeling of power; and
that, with this view, every subject ought to bo approached by the easiest steps
and the most gradual synthesis. The natural difficulties in the way of teachers
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one of mastery and zest. The distinctive features of these School Books will,
therefore, be SHORTNESS, CLEARNESS, GRADUATION, PRACTICALITY, and
CHEAPNESS.</paragraph><paragraph> Each Work of the Series will appear in two forms—one in a stout binding,
PRICE SIXPENCE; the other in extra binding, ONE SHILLING. ALEXANDER IRELAND
&amp; CO., PALL MALL COURT, MANCHESTER; AND DORSET STREET, SALISBURY SQUARE,
LONDON.</paragraph></div1><div1description="title_page"><paragraph><heading_undefined><small_caps>An Easy English Grammar for Beginners; being a
Plain Doctrine of Words and Sentences.</small_caps></heading_undefined></paragraph><paragraph><heading_undefined><small_caps>Book the First. Of Words and Their
Changes</small_caps></heading_undefined></paragraph><paragraph><small_caps>By J. M. D. Meiklejohn, M.A.</small_caps></paragraph><paragraph><italic>Here a little, and theire a little.</italic></paragraph><paragraph><small_caps>London: A. Ireland and Co. Dorset Street, Salisbury Square.
Manchester: Pall Mall Court. 1862.</small_caps></paragraph></div1><div1description="initial quotation"><paragraph><quotationauthor="Lucretius I.">Ut puerorum aetas improvida ludificetur
Labrorum tenus. LUCRETIUS I., 938.</quotation><quotationauthor="Horace Sat. I.">- ut pueris olim dant crustula bland
Doctores. elementa velint ut discere prima. Horace Sat. I., 1,26</quotation></paragraph></div1><div1description="preface"name="Notice to Teachers"><paragraph> The writer of this book has put just as much into it - and no more - as
can be learned by a child of average capacity, in five months. The book must be
judged of as adapted or not adapted to this purpose - as equal or unequal to
attaining this end. No more ought to be taught in that time. The child will have
quite enough of head-labour to work through the exercises within that time; and
a sufficient number of new ideas to assimilate and make part of its mental
being. It is advised that the children in whose hands it is placed begin with
the exercises before reading any of the text, except that small part which
relates to each exercise, and that the text be used not so much to impart new
ideas, as to give a clear and adequate expression to the notions the child must
have obtained - if the exercises have been worked in good faith and with any
thought at all.</paragraph><paragraph> The guiding idea of the formation of these has been to give always two
corresponding sets of exercises - an analytic and a synthetic. Whatever the
child has to put together, he has to take to pieces again; and whatever he has
taken to pieces, he once more recomposes. This plan is not followed in a dull,
mechanical way; but this is the chief idea of the general scheme.</paragraph><paragraph> No <italic>exceptional</italic> phrases, forms, or idioms have been
admitted into the exercises, - so far as it was possible to keep them out
without making them utterly dull. But the teacher is earnestly requested not to
give the child any explanation in the meantime of what is idiomatic and
exceptional, but to say at once: "I shall not answer that at present," and to
keep strictly to the inculcation of what is in the book, and nothing
more.</paragraph><paragraph> It is recommended that the child be now and then allowed the assistance
of his reading-book in making the sentences required in the
Exercises.</paragraph><paragraph> Many and strong objections may be made against the theory of this first
part.</paragraph><pagebreakpage_no="ii"/><paragraph> I do not assert that the system of definitions given here will enable
one to parse and explain every word or idiom in the language. Such an assumption
would be monstrous. In a homogeneous language, like the German, a claim of this
kind might be made, and might be satisfied. But in a language that has been
subjected to so many and so varying influences, it is almost impossible for even
the subtlest thinker, or the most learned philologist, to construct a theory
which will embrace and account for all the idiomatic expressions of the English
language. Nay, it may be boldly asserted, that there is a point in the English
language where all theory must break down, and where we can only say: Such and
such is the usage, but we cannot explain it, or point out how it has grown up.
The usual procedure of grammatical people, when they meet with an idiom which
their system does not explain, is to call it "bad grammar.” They have not the
courage to say the truth - to say: "We do not understand this phrase.” But this
confession must now and then b6 made - even by the most learned philologist. It
will be a good discipline, too, both for the teacher and the scholar - for the
teacher to confess, and for the scholar to know - that this or that phrase has
as yet baffled the ingenuity both of his teacher and of writers on grammar. The
English language contains more difficult and inexplicable forms and phrases than
either Greek or Latin - than Greek, as it is much less homogeneous; than Latin,
as it is a thousand-fold more subtle and more individual. A Latin translation of
Shakspere would be full of gaps and all kinds of inadequacies.</paragraph><paragraph> It is probable that numerous objections will be raised to the accuracy
of the definitions. This is not the place to defend them. One test of their
truth, however, may here be offered. If these definitions account for the
functions of a larger number of words than any previous definitions, they must
be truer, as they are profounder and more practical. The writer is well aware of
the exceptions that can be taken to them; but, in the following books of this
grammar, it will be clearly shown how these rudimentary types are compelled to
assume different forms to suit themselves to different conditions. Language is a
living existence, and not a manufactured product. The thorough study of it is
more difficult than the study of vegetable anatomy; and just as much of it, and
no more, should be taught to children as is requisite for their obtaining clear
ideas of words and sentences. This book differs from the books of preceding
grammarians in this: That most grammarians give definitions which have no
differentia, that is, which are loose and <pagebreakpage_no="iii"/> inadequate,
and yet compel you to bring every word in the language under one, and
<italic>only one</italic>, of these definitions; while this book indicates
shortly the <italic>function</italic> of a word, and shows that its name and
condition, for the time being, are given by one of these categories or
definitions. The old question was: “What <italic>is</italic> this or that word?”
And the dispute often cost much aimless thinking and writing. The new question
is, “What is it this or that word <italic>does</italic>? What is its function?”
The usual procedure is to give inadequate, inconsistent, and confused
definitions, and to insist that all idioms and forms of language shall be
conformed to these. The case is just reversed in the present grammar. The
definitions are thoroughly self-consistent and clear; but—as will be seen in the
following parts—the language will not be forced to fall in to those forms. On
the contrary, it will be clearly shown in what instances and for what reasons
this is impossible. At the same time, these definitions and primary grammatical
notions will show how far the language has fallen away from a strict logical
standard.</paragraph><paragraph> The strongest objection may perhaps be raised against the definition of
a preposition. I beg the teacher to suspend his judgment in the mean time; and I
am prepared to prove to him—and it will clearly appear in the subsequent
parts—that this definition is the result of the most thorough and complete
analysis. The cases in which verbs and adjectives exert an influence on
prepositions will of course demand, in a future part, a certain modification of
the original and strict demand which is made upon us <italic>always to
show</italic> the nouns which a preposition connects; but as the definition
gives the fundamental notion of a preposition, and as the last analysis would
always show this fundamental connection, it is well to make the pupil begin with
finding it in easy cases. The teacher might also call the preposition a
<italic>relation-giving word</italic>.—As regards the introduction of the
five cases, it is sufficient to say—that the language cannot be parsed without
them.</paragraph><paragraph> One word more: The grammatical views of the writer must not be judged by
this little book; his notions on grammar are here given in their barest and most
rudimentary condition. But it is true here as in so many other fields of
thought—that the profoundest conceptions are also the simplest. And, in
teaching, the first thing is to give the child a set of clear, strict, and
self-consistent notions, to keep him to these for a very long while, —and, when
these have become part of himself and his thinking powers, to let him know about
exceptions and aberrations.</paragraph><pagebreakpage_no="iv"/><paragraph> The statements in this book are not exhaustive—and are not intended to
be exhaustive—about any one part of any one subject. Each of the chapters here
given will be afterwards fully developed; and the consideration of idioms and
anomalies will then enter. The second part of this grammar will treat chiefly
about <small_caps>sentences and their organisation</small_caps>. J. M. D M.
Bowden, Cheshire, Christmas 1861.</paragraph></div1></div0><div0description="main_body"name="An Easy English Grammar for Beginners"><div1description="main_text"name="Part I. - Of Words"><headinglevel="1">PART I. - OF WORDS.</heading><paragraph><quotationauthor="Wordsworth, William"><lgmet=""rhyme=""><l>My heart leaps up when I behold</l><l>A rainbow in the sky.</l></lg></quotation><ed_notetype="addition"><referencetype="quotation"author="Wordsworth, William"judgemental="0"/></ed_note></paragraph><paragraph> It is plain that this sentence is made up of words. Words, like workmen,
are not all of the same kind; because they have not all the same kind of work to
do. Some workmen are carpenters, some masons, some blacksmiths. Each word, for
example, in the above sentence is of a different kind from the others.
<italic>My</italic> is a <italic>Pronoun</italic>; <italic>heart</italic> is
a <italic>Noun</italic>; <italic>leaps</italic> is a <italic>Verb</italic>, and
so on. These are some of the names that have been given by people to the
different kinds of words.</paragraph><paragraph> There are in our language <small_caps>seven kinds of words</small_caps>.
The first kind we shall talk about is the kind called
<small_caps>Nouns</small_caps>.</paragraph><pagebreakpage_no="2"/><div2><headinglevel="2">Chapter I. Nouns.</heading><paragraph> A Noun is a Name; and <linebreak/> A Name is a Noun.</paragraph><paragraph> The word <italic>John</italic> is a noun, because it is a name; the
word <italic>London</italic> is a noun, because it is a name; the word
<italic>orange</italic> is a noun, because it is a name; the word
<italic>fun</italic> is a noun, because it is a name; and the word
<italic>goodness</italic> is a noun, because it is a name.</paragraph></div2><div2><headinglevel="2">Chapter II. Verbs.</heading><paragraph>We come next to <small_caps>Verbs</small_caps>.</paragraph><paragraph> A Verb is a Telling Word. <linebreak/> A Telling Word is a
Verb.</paragraph><paragraph> Let us take the sentence: <lgmet=""rhyme=""><l>The stream that <italic>flows</italic> out of the lake,</l><l>As trough the glen it <italic>rambles</italic>,</l><l><italic>Repeats</italic> a moan, o'er moss and stone,</l><l>For those seven lovely Campbells.</l></lg></paragraph><paragraph> In this sentence, <italic>flows</italic>, <italic>rambles</italic>,
and <italic>repeats</italic>, are verbs; because they
<small_caps>tell</small_caps> that the river <italic>flows</italic> and
<pagebreakpage_no="3"/><italic>rambles</italic> and <italic>repeats</italic>. Again, let us take
the sentence, Jack <italic>saw</italic> Tom when he <italic>ran</italic>
down the road. Here <italic>saw</italic> and <italic>ran</italic>, are
verbs, because <italic>saw</italic><small_caps>tells</small_caps> something about Jack, and
<italic>ran</italic><small_caps>tells</small_caps> something about Tom.</paragraph><paragraph> A <small_caps>word that tells</small_caps>, therefore,
<small_caps>is a Verb</small_caps>; and <linebreak/><small_caps>A Verb is a word that tells, or a Telling Word</small_caps>.
</paragraph></div2><div2><headinglevel="2">Chapter III. Adjectives.</heading><paragraph>We come to <small_caps>Adjectives</small_caps>.</paragraph><paragraph> An Adjective is a Noun-Marking Word. <linebreak/> A Noun-Marking
word is an Adjective.</paragraph><paragraph></paragraph><paragraph> Thus: "<italic>The black man sold the spotted dog to the old
gentleman.</italic>" In this sentence the words <italic>black</italic>,
<italic>spotted</italic>, <italic>old</italic>, and
<italic>the</italic>, mark the nouns <italic>man</italic>,
<italic>dog</italic>, and <italic>gentleman</italic>.
<italic>Black</italic> marks the noun <italic>man</italic>, and helps me
to know that man among other men; <italic>spotted</italic> marks the noun
<italic>dog</italic>, and helps me to distinguish the dog we are talking
of from other dogs; and <italic>old</italic> marks the noun
<italic>gentleman</italic>, and helps me to mark out that gentleman from
gentlemen who are young or middle-aged. The word <italic>the</italic> marks
out <italic>the particular black man we are talking about</italic> from
among all other <italic>black men</italic>; and so of the rest. The word
<italic>the</italic> is like a ☞ on a fingerpost; <pagebreakpage_no="4"/> it <italic>points out</italic> the thing that we happen to be speaking or
writing about, but it has not any meaning of its own.</paragraph><paragraph> Thus we see that the words <italic>the</italic>,
<italic>black</italic>, <italic>spotted</italic>, and
<italic>old</italic> mark the nouns <italic>man</italic>,
<italic>dog</italic>, and <italic>gentleman</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph> They are therefore noun-marking words. But a noun-marking word is
called an Adjective.</paragraph><paragraph> We now know, therefore, that — <linebreak/><italic>An Adjective is a marking word</italic>; and that <linebreak/><italic>An Adjective always marks Nouns</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph> We may, therefore, say that — <linebreak/><small_caps>An Adjective is a Noun-marking Word</small_caps>; or that <linebreak/><small_caps>A Noun-marking Word is an Adjective</small_caps>.</paragraph></div2><div2><headinglevel="2">Chapter IV. Adverbs.</heading><paragraph>Next come <small_caps>Adverbs.</small_caps></paragraph><paragraph>An Adverb is also a <italic>marking</italic> word. But it does not
mark nouns. It marks only verbs, or adjectives, or other adverbs, like
itself. We may therefore call an adverb a <italic>verb-marking
word</italic>, or an <italic>adjective-marking word</italic>, or an
<italic>adverb-marking word</italic>. For example: "The
<italic>extremely</italic> black man <italic>yesterday</italic> sold
<pagebreakpage_no="5"/> the spotted dog to the <italic>very</italic>
old gentleman." In this sentence, <italic>extremely</italic> marks
<italic>black</italic>, and shows how black the man was — that is, that
he was <italic>extremely</italic> black; <italic>yesterday</italic>marks
<italic>sold</italic>, and shows <italic>when</italic> he sold the dog;
and <italic>very</italic> marks <italic>old</italic>, and shows
<italic>how</italic> old the gentleman was — that is, that he was
<italic>very</italic> old. In this sentence, therefore,
<italic>extremely</italic> is an <italic>adjective-marking
word</italic>, and <italic>yesterday</italic> is a <italic>verb-marking
word</italic>. When I say: “Tom runs very fast,” I use two adverbs,
<italic>very</italic> and <italic>fast</italic>. <italic>Fast</italic>
marks the verb <italic>runs</italic>, and shows <italic>how</italic> Tom
runs; and <italic>very</italic> marks the adverb <italic>fast</italic>, and
shows <italic>how</italic> fast the running is. <italic>Fast</italic> is
therefore an adverb or <italic>verb-marking</italic> word; and
<italic>very</italic> is an adverb or <italic>adverb-marking</italic>
word.</paragraph><paragraph> But, for the sake of convenience, it may be easier and become
afterwards more simple, to say that — <linebreak/><small_caps>An Adverb is a Modifying Word</small_caps>, or <linebreak/><small_caps>A Modifying Word is an Adverb</small_caps>.</paragraph><paragraph> The word <italic>modifying</italic> is, however, just at first a
hard word to understand. Let us try to understand it by the example of a cup
of coffee. Before I put either cream or sugar into the coffee, it has a
rather bitter taste. When I put some sugar into it, it becomes less bitter.
That is, the sugar has modified, or altered, or changed, the taste of the
coffee. If I add some milk or cream, the taste is still more modified or
changed or altered. Now let us take <pagebreakpage_no="6"/> the sentence:
"He runs." When I say <italic>He runs</italic>, I don’t tell you whether he
runs <italic>fast</italic> or <italic>slow</italic>, <italic>neatly</italic>
or <italic>awkwardly</italic>, <italic>here</italic> or
<italic>there</italic>. But when I say <italic>He runs fast</italic>,
the word <italic>fast</italic> modifies the word <italic>runs</italic>, and
lets us know what kind of running he is making; and when I say <italic>He
runs very fast</italic>, the word <italic>very</italic> modifies the
word <italic>fast</italic>, and lets us know that the fastness of the
running is very great. So that <italic>fast</italic> modifies
<italic>runs</italic>; and <italic>very</italic> modifies
<italic>fast</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph> Modifying words must then, we see, modify something.</paragraph><paragraph> Modifying Words or Adverbs always modify either Verbs, or
Adjectives, or other Adverbs.</paragraph><paragraphtype="example"> Here are examples of each: — <italic> (a) Tom reads
well. <linebreak/> (b) The potatoes are quite cold. <linebreak/> (c)
Jack walks very clumsily.</italic></paragraph><paragraph> In <italic>(a)</italic> the adverb well modifies the verb
<italic>reads</italic>; in <italic>(b)</italic> the adverb
<italic>quite</italic> modifies the adjective <italic>cold</italic>; and
in <italic>(c)</italic> the adverb <italic>very</italic> modifies the adverb
<italic>clumsily</italic>, which itself modifies the verb
<italic>walks</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph> We have found, therefore, that an <small_caps>Adverb</small_caps> is
either a — <linebreak/> (1) <small_caps>Verb-Modifying Word</small_caps>, or
<linebreak/> (2) <small_caps>An Adjective-Modifying Word</small_caps>, or
<linebreak/> (3) <small_caps>An Adverb-Modifying Word</small_caps>.
</paragraph></div2><pagebreakpage_no="7"/><div2><headinglevel="2">Chapter V. Prepositions.</heading><paragraph>We now arrive at <small_caps>Prepositions</small_caps>.</paragraph><paragraph>A Preposition is a joining word. If it is a joining word, it must
join something. What, then, does it join? It joins Nouns.</paragraph><paragraph> A Preposition is, then, a Noun-joining Word; and <linebreak/> A
Noun-joining Word is a Preposition.</paragraph><paragraph> Let us take a sentence or two: (1) "The man with the long nose is
dead." Here <italic>with</italic> joins <italic>man</italic> and
<italic>nose</italic>. (2) "I saw the gamekeeper <italic>with</italic>
his gun in his hand." Here <italic>with</italic> joins
<italic>gamekeeper</italic> and <italic>gun</italic>, while
<italic>in</italic> joins <italic>gun</italic> and
<italic>hand</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph> Sometimes a verb comes between the preposition and one of the nouns
it connects. Thus: "Oliver is in the garden." Here <italic>in</italic> joins
<italic>Oliver</italic> and <italic>garden</italic>, although the verb
<italic>is</italic> comes between them. Take another sentence: "The
mists sweep over the fields." Here <italic>over</italic> connects
<italic>mists</italic> and <italic>fields</italic>, although the verb
<italic>sweep</italic> comes between. Sometimes, too, an adjective comes
between the preposition and one of the nouns it connects; but the connection
between the nouns is not on that account destroyed. Take the sentence: "John
is uneasy about his brother." Here <italic>about</italic> connects
<italic>John</italic> and <italic>brother</italic>; although it seems to
connect <pagebreakpage_no="8"/><italic>uneasy </italic>and <italic>brother</italic>. This is a very
difficult case to understand; but it will be fully explained in a future
part.</paragraph><paragraph> We may also say that — <linebreak/><small_caps>A Preposition is a Noun-connecting Word</small_caps>, or <linebreak/><small_caps>A Noun-connecting Word is a Preposition</small_caps>.
</paragraph></div2><div2><headinglevel="2">Chapter VI. Conjunctions.</heading><paragraph>But there is another kind of joining word, called a
<small_caps>Conjunction</small_caps>.</paragraph><paragraph> A Conjunction is a Sentence-joining Word, or <linebreak/> A
Sentence-joining Word is a Conjunction.</paragraph><paragraph> But I have a right to ask what a sentence is. Well, then, <italic>a
sentence is a statement in which the sense is complete</italic>. If I
say, "<italic>Tom</italic>," there is no sense in that as yet — that is, I
have made no statement; but if I say, "<italic>Tom runs</italic>," the sense
is complete, and I have made a statement in which there is complete sense.
This definition will do for the present.</paragraph><paragraph> Let us take the sentence: "James looked sad, <italic>and</italic>
was very unhappy." Here the word <italic>and</italic> joins the sentence —
"James looked sad," to the sentence <pagebreakpage_no="9"/> "James was very
unhappy." Or take the sentence: "The keeper will seize you, if you take that
nest." Here the word <italic>if</italic> joins or connects the sentences —
"The keeper will <italic>seize</italic> you," and "You <italic>take</italic>
that nest." </paragraph><paragraph> Therefore, we have found that — <linebreak/><small_caps>A Conjunction is a Sentence-connecting Word</small_caps>, or
<linebreak/> A <small_caps>Sentence-connecting Word is a
Conjunction</small_caps>.<footnoteindicator="Asterisk"><paragraphtype="footnote">The only word to which this definition will not
apply is <italic>and</italic>. The reason for this will be
afterwards given.</paragraph></footnote></paragraph></div2><div2><headinglevel="2">Chapter VII. Pronouns.</heading><paragraph> We could manage to keep up any conversation, however long, or to
write a book, however big, with the aid of these six kinds of words, or — as
many people call them — parts of language, or parts of speech; that is, with
the help only of Nouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Adjectives, Prepositions, and
Conjunctions. But there is another kind of word we employ, not because we
must do so, but for the sake of convenience. This kind of word is called a
<small_caps>Pronoun</small_caps>.</paragraph><paragraph> A Pronoun is a word used instead of a Noun; or <linebreak/> A Word
used instead of a Noun is a Pronoun; or <linebreak/> A Pronoun is a
For-name; or <linebreak/> A For-name is a Pronoun.</paragraph><pagebreakpage_no="10"/><paragraph> For example, if I say: "Ned went to market; and, as Ned was
returning home, Ned fell into a ditch. Ned would have been there who knows
how long, if a man had not come up to Ned and pulled Ned out. Ned was a
pretty sight; Ned was caked with mud from Ned’s cap to Ned’s boots." So many
<italic>Neds</italic> are clumsy and troublesome; we therefore use the
word <italic>he</italic> instead of the word <italic>Ned</italic>. But the
word <italic>Ned</italic> is a noun; and a word used instead of a noun is a
pronoun. But <italic>he</italic> is used instead of the
<italic>noun</italic> Ned; therefore <italic>he</italic> is a
pronoun.</paragraph><paragraph> We know, therefore, that — <linebreak/><small_caps>A Pronoun is a For-name</small_caps>; or <linebreak/><small_caps>A For-name is a Pronoun</small_caps>.</paragraph></div2><div2><headinglevel="2">Chapter VIII. Interjections.</heading><paragraph> An Interjection is not properly a word. It may be a mere sound.
Dogs, pigs, and other animals, use interjections. When any one treads on our
toes, we say "O!" If the pain continues a long time, we may come to say "Oh!
Oh!" If we are pitying anybody, we may be brought to say "Ah!" If we think
very little of what a person is saying, we may feel <pagebreakpage_no="11"/> ourselves called upon to say "Pooh! pooh!" or, if he persists in talking
nonsense, we might venture so far as to utter "Pshaw!" But these are not
<italic>words</italic>, any more than the bark of a dog, or the grunt of
a pig. We sometimes, however, say "Dear me!" or you may hear silly people
say "Did you ever!" or "Lawk a-daisy!" These are words, to be sure, but they
are words with no sense in them; they are words used merely as
<italic>sounds</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph> We find, therefore, that — <linebreak/><small_caps>An Interjection is a Sound, or a Word used only as a
Sound</small_caps>.</paragraph></div2><div2><headinglevel="2">Chapter IX. The Seven Kinds of Words.</heading><paragraph> We now know that — <listrend="numbered"><label>1</label><item><small_caps>A Noun is a Name.</small_caps></item><label>2</label><item><small_caps>A Verb is a Telling
Word.</small_caps></item><label>3</label><item><small_caps>An Adjective is a Noun-Marking
Word.</small_caps></item><label>4</label><item><small_caps>An Adverb is a Modifying
Word.</small_caps></item><label>5</label><item><small_caps>A Preposition is a Noun-Connecting
Word.</small_caps></item><label>6</label><item><small_caps>A Conjunction is a Sentence-Connecting
Word.</small_caps></item><label>7</label><item><small_caps>A Pronoun is a
For-Name.</small_caps></item></list><foliofolio_no="B"/></paragraph><pagebreakpage_no="12"/><paragraph> Or we may put these facts another way, which comes to the same
thing. <small_caps>In Grammar</small_caps> — <listrend="numbered"><label>1</label><item>A Name is called <small_caps>A
Noun</small_caps>.</item><label>2</label><item>A Telling Word is called <small_caps>A
Verb</small_caps>.</item><label>3</label><item>A Noun-marking Word is called <small_caps>An
Adjective</small_caps>.</item><label>4</label><item>A Modifying Word is called <small_caps>An
Adverb</small_caps>.</item><label>5</label><item>A Noun-connecting Word is called <small_caps>A
Preposition</small_caps>.</item><label>6</label><item>A Sentence-connecting Word is called <small_caps>A
Conjunction</small_caps>.</item><label>7</label><item>A For-name is called <small_caps>A
Pronoun</small_caps>.</item></list></paragraph><paragraph> We see, too, that all words fall into groups or sets.</paragraph><paragraph> Adjectives and Prepositions are always in company with Nouns;
<linebreak/> Adverbs<footnoteindicator="Asterisk"><paragraphtype="footnote">It must not be forgotten that adverbs may also go
with adjectives and other adverbs. Why this is so will be afterwards
explained.</paragraph></footnote> and Conjunctions are always in
company with Verbs.</paragraph><paragraph><tablecols="2"rows="2"><row><cell><small_caps>Adjectives : Nouns</small_caps></cell><cell><small_caps>Adverbs : Verbs</small_caps></cell></row><row><cell><small_caps>Prepositions : Nouns</small_caps></cell><cell><small_caps>Conjunctions : Verbs</small_caps></cell></row></table></paragraph></div2><div2><headinglevel="2">Chapter X. How Words are Used.</heading><paragraph> A man may have two or three different trades, which he carries on at
the same time. He may be a shoemaker, and have a grocer’s shop, and at the
same <pagebreakpage_no="13"/> time be a pew-opener on Sundays. When he is
making shoes, he is a shoemaker; when he is selling sugar, he is a grocer;
and when he is taking charge of the church or chapel, he is a
pew-opener.</paragraph><paragraph> In the same way, a word may be of two or three or four kinds. That
is, it may belong to two or three or four different classes. That is to say,
a word is not always a verb, or <italic>always</italic> a noun, or
<italic>always</italic> an adjective.</paragraph><paragraph> For example, the word round may be — <listrend="numbered"><label>1</label><item>A Noun, or</item><label>2</label><item>An Adjective, or</item><label>3</label><item>A Verb, or</item><label>4</label><item>A Preposition.</item></list></paragraph><paragraph>In the sentence, "What a big round of beef," it is a
<italic>Noun</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph>In the sentence, "He showed me a round cheese," it is an
<italic>Adjective</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph>In the sentence, "Tom Jones rounded the point in his boat," it is a
<italic>Verb</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph>In the sentence, "Captain Cook sailed round the world," it is a
<italic>Preposition</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph> To find out what a word is, we must therefore <italic>not</italic>
look at the word itself, but consider what the word is
<italic>doing</italic>, or what <small_caps>use</small_caps> is made of
the word.</paragraph><paragraph> Thus in (1), <italic>round</italic> is <italic>used</italic> as a
name; in (2) it is <italic>used</italic> as a marking-word — to mark out the
cheese shown to me from other cheeses; in (3) it is <italic>used</italic> as
a telling-word — to tell something about Tom Jones; <pagebreakpage_no="14"/> and in (4) it is <italic>used</italic> as a preposition or
noun-connecting word, to connect the nouns <italic>Cook</italic> and
<italic>world</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph> Now all <italic>thinking</italic> is simply asking oneself
questions. When I ask myself questions I am thinking; when I leave off
asking myself questions I leave off thinking.</paragraph><paragraph> If, therefore, I want to find out what kind of word this or that
word is, I have only to ask myself the following questions, till I get hold
of the right answer: — <listrend="numbered"><label>1</label><item>Is this word <italic>used</italic> as a
<small_caps>name</small_caps>? <linebreak/> If it is, then it is
a Name or Noun.</item><label>2</label><item>Is this word <italic>used</italic> as a
<small_caps>telling-word</small_caps>? <linebreak/> If it is,
then it is a Telling-word or Verb.</item><label>3</label><item>Is this word <italic>used</italic> as a
<small_caps>noun-marking word</small_caps>? <linebreak/> If it
is, then it is a Noun-marking word or Adjective.</item><label>4</label><item>Is this word <italic>used</italic> as a
<small_caps>modifying-word</small_caps>? <linebreak/> If it is,
then it is a Modifying-word or Adverb.</item><label>5</label><item>Is this word <italic>used</italic> as a
<small_caps>noun-connecting word</small_caps>? <linebreak/> If
it is, then it is a Noun-connecting word or Preposition.</item><label>6</label><item>Is this word <italic>used</italic> as a
<small_caps>sentence-connecting word</small_caps>? <linebreak/>
If it is, then it is a Sentence-connecting word or
Conjunction.</item><label>7</label><item>Is this word <italic>used</italic> instead of a
<small_caps>noun</small_caps>? <linebreak/> If it is, then it is
a For-noun or Pronoun.</item></list></paragraph></div2><div2><headinglevel="2">Chapter XII. How Words Go with Each Other.<ed_notetype="note">There is no chapter XI in part 1</ed_note></heading><paragraph>From what we have already found out, it is quite plain that — </paragraph><pagebreakpage_no="15"/><paragraph>1. A <italic>Noun</italic> or <italic>Pronoun</italic> will not make
sense without a <italic>Verb</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph>Thus "John"—is not sense. <linebreak/> Thus "He" —is not
sense.</paragraph><paragraph>But "John walks" or "He walks" is sense.</paragraph><paragraph>2. A <italic>Verb</italic> will not make sense without a
<italic>Noun</italic> or <italic>Pronoun</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph>Thus — "Runs" is not sense. But "Tom runs" or "He runs" is
sense.</paragraph><paragraph>3. An <italic>Adjective</italic> cannot stand by itself, but must
always be joined to a <italic>Noun</italic>, expressed or
understood.</paragraph><paragraph>It is true we have such sentences as: "The good are generally loved"
and "The bad ought to be punished." But the <italic>full</italic> phrase
would be "The good men and women," "The bad men and women." So that we see
that the adjectives "good" and "bad" mark the nouns "men" and "women,"
although these words are not expressed, but only understood.</paragraph><paragraph>4. An <italic>Adverb</italic> cannot stand by itself, but must always
be joined to a <italic>Verb</italic>, or an <italic>Adjective</italic>, or
an <italic>Adverb</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph>Thus we cannot say "He is very;" but "He is very good." It is
nonsense to say "He beautifully;" but it is sense to say "He plays
beautifully." It is absurd to say "He writes extremely;" but it is sense to
say "He writes extremely well."</paragraph><pagebreakpage_no="16"/><paragraph>A <italic>Preposition</italic> cannot stand by itself, but must
always be found between a <italic>Noun</italic> and a <italic>Noun</italic>,
or a <italic>Noun</italic> and a <italic>Pronoun</italic>, or a
<italic>Pronoun</italic> and a <italic>Noun</italic>, or a
<italic>Pronoun</italic> and a <italic>Pronoun</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph>Thus we cannot say: "John was with;" but we must say "John was with
his brother," or some such noun. In this sentence <italic>with</italic>
joins the two nouns <italic>John</italic> and <italic>brother</italic>. We
can also say: — <listrend="numbered"><label>1</label><item>John was with him.</item><label>2</label><item>He was with James.</item><label>3</label><item>He was with them.</item></list></paragraph><paragraph>In (1) the preposition <italic>with</italic> joins a noun and a
pronoun; in (2) it joins a pronoun and a noun; in (3) it joins a pronoun and
a pronoun.</paragraph><paragraph>6. A <italic>Conjunction</italic> cannot stand by itself but must
always be found between a <italic>Verb expressed</italic> and a <italic>Verb
understood</italic>, or between a <italic>Verb understood</italic> and a
<italic>Verb expressed</italic>, or between a <italic>Verb
expressed</italic> and another <italic>Verb
expressed</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph>Thus we cannot say: "He will come, if;" but we must say something
like this: "He will come, if I tell him." Here the conjunction
<italic>if</italic> joins the sentence "He will come" to the sentence "I
tell him." Take the sentences: <listrend="numbered"><label>1</label><item>John went home, but not James.</item><label>2</label><item>John and James went home.</item><label>3</label><item>John went home, but James refused.</item></list></paragraph><pagebreakpage_no="17"/><paragraph>In (1) the conjunction <italic>but</italic> joins the sentence "John
went" to the sentence "James went not." The verb <italic>went</italic> is
<italic>understood</italic> in the latter sentence. In (2) the
conjunction <italic>and</italic> joins the sentence "John went" to the
sentence "James went." The <italic>verb</italic> went is
<italic>understood</italic> in the first sentence. In (3) the
conjunction <italic>but</italic> joins the sentence "John went" to the
sentence "James refused." In both these sentences the <italic>verbs are
expressed</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph> ☞ The reason why a conjunction is found only between verbs is the
following: — A <italic>verb</italic> is the chief word in a sentence,
because a verb is a telling-word. If there were no telling-word in a
sentence, there would be nothing told — there would be no statement, and
therefore no sentence. As a verb, then, is the chief word in a sentence, the
conjunction may be said to join verbs, as well as sentences; or, we may say
that — </paragraph><paragraph><small_caps> A Conjunction is a Verb-connecting Word</small_caps>; or <linebreak/><small_caps>A Verb-connecting Word is a Conjunction</small_caps>.
</paragraph></div2></div1><div1description="main_text"name="Part II. Of the Changes in Words"><headinglevel="1">PART II. - OF THE CHANGES IN WORDS.</heading><paragraph> Words are not always the same; they undergo changes in their spelling.
Thus <italic>horse</italic> becomes <italic>horses</italic>, when I want to talk
about more than one horse; man becomes <italic>men</italic>, when I want to
speak about more than one man. When a word is changed, it is said to be
<italic>inflected</italic>; and the change itself is called an
<italic>inflection</italic>. It is the <italic>endings</italic> of words
that are usually changed. When a boy puts on a new pair of boots or a new cap,
he may be said to be inflected or changed as to his endings or extremities, like
boy, boy<italic>s</italic>; when he enters on a new jacket, he is inflected
centrally, that is, in the middle, like goose, <italic>geese</italic>. The kinds
of words that can be changed or inflected are — 1. The Noun. 2. The Pronoun. 3.
The Adjective. 4. The Verb. 5. The Adverb. The Preposition and the Conjunction
are <italic>never</italic> changed or inflected.</paragraph><div2><headinglevel="2">Chapter I. Changes or Inflections in Nouns.</heading><headinglevel="3">Number.</heading><paragraph>If I am speaking about one boy, I say boy; if I am speaking about
two, I say <italic>boys</italic>.</paragraph><pagebreakpage_no="19"/><paragraph><italic>Boy</italic> is then said to be in the <italic>Singular
Number</italic>. <italic>Boys</italic> is said to be in the
<italic>Plural Number</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph><listrend="numbered"><label>1</label><item>In most nouns, the plural is made by adding
<italic>s</italic> to the singular. As book, books.</item><label>2</label><item>In nouns which end in <italic>s</italic>,
<italic>sh</italic>, <italic>ch</italic>, <italic>x</italic>, or
<italic>o</italic>, we add <italic>es</italic> to the singular.
As box, boxes.</item><label>3</label><item>In nouns which end in <italic>y</italic>,
<italic>with a consonant before it</italic>, we change
<italic>y</italic> into <italic>ies</italic>. As lady, ladies.
<linebreak/> ☞ If a vowel comes before the <italic>y</italic>, we
don't change the <italic>y</italic>, but only add
<italic>s</italic>. As toy, toys.</item><label>4</label><item>Nouns that end in <italic>f</italic> or
<italic>fe</italic> generally take <italic>ves</italic> in the
plural. As calf, calves; knife, knives.</item><label>5</label><item>Many nouns make the plural by changing the vowel
that is in the singular. As man, men. Here <italic>a</italic> is
changed into <italic>e</italic>.</item><label>6</label><item>A very few nouns make the plural by adding
<italic>en</italic> to the singular. As ox, oxen.</item><label>7</label><item>Some words have their plural like their singular.
As one sheep, ten sheep.</item></list></paragraph><headinglevel="3">Case.</heading><paragraph>When a person is very ill, we may say, "He is in a sad case" or "a
sad condition;" when he has done something far from right, we may say, "He
is in a bad case" or "a bad condition." Therefore the word <pagebreakpage_no="20"/><italic>case</italic> means <italic>condition</italic>. Nouns can be in
cases or conditions; just like people.</paragraph><paragraph> Nouns can be in five cases or conditions: — <listrend="numbered"><label>1.</label><item>The Nominative or Named Case.</item><label>2.</label><item><ed_notetype="addition">The</ed_note> Dative
<ed_notetype="addition">or</ed_note> Given-to, or Done-for
Case.</item><label>3.</label><item><ed_notetype="addition">The</ed_note><ed_notetype="addition">or</ed_note></item><label>4.</label><item><ed_notetype="addition">The</ed_note> Objective
<ed_notetype="addition">or</ed_note> Done-to Case.</item><label>5.</label><item><ed_notetype="addition">The</ed_note>Vocative
<ed_notetype="addition">or</ed_note> Spoken-to Case</item></list> Or, </paragraph><paragraph><listrend="simple"><item>The <italic>Named case</italic> of a noun is called the
<italic>Nominative case</italic>.</item><item><ed_notetype="addition">The</ed_note><italic>Possessing case</italic><ed_notetype="addition">of a noun is called</ed_note> Possessive
case.</item><item><ed_notetype="addition">The</ed_note><italic>Given-to or Done-for case</italic><ed_notetype="addition">of a noun is called</ed_note> Dative
case.</item><item><ed_notetype="addition">The</ed_note><italic>Done-to case</italic><ed_notetype="addition">of a noun is called</ed_note><italic>Objective case</italic>.</item><item><ed_notetype="addition">The</ed_note><italic>Spoken-to case </italic><ed_notetype="addition">of a noun
is called</ed_note><italic>Vocative case</italic>.</item></list></paragraph><paragraph> In the sentence, "John is sick," <italic>John</italic> is in the
Nominative case. <linebreak/> In the sentence, "John’s hat is lost,"
<italic>John's</italic> is in the Possessive case. <linebreak/> In the
sentence, "He gave John a book," <italic>John</italic> is in the Dative or
Given-to case. <linebreak/> In the sentence, "He made John a ship,"
<italic>John</italic> is in the Dative or Done-for case. <linebreak/> In
the sentence, "He struck John," <italic>John</italic> is in the Objective
case. <linebreak/> In the sentence, "John, come here," <italic>John</italic>
is in the Vocative case.</paragraph><paragraph> Many hundred years ago, our forefathers made a change in the ending
of every noun or pronoun, <pagebreakpage_no="21"/> according to whether it
stood in one or other of these cases. <italic>Now</italic>, the only change
that is made is for the <italic>possessive case</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph> 1. The Possessive is written, in the Singular, by adding an
apostrophe and <italic>s</italic>. Boy, boy's.</paragraph><paragraph> 2. The Possessive is written, in the Plural, by adding an apostrophe
Boys, boys'. But, when the plural does <italic>not</italic> end in
<italic>s</italic>, we must write <italic>both</italic> an apostrophe
and an <italic>s</italic>. As Men, men's.</paragraph><paragraph> ☞ The Possessive case is now kept chiefly for nouns which are the
names of living beings, and is not used for the names of things. We do not
often now hear such expressions as <italic>the house's roof</italic> or
<italic>the box's lid</italic>. Therefore we must carefully notice that
— The names of things have seldom any inflection at all for
<italic>case</italic>.</paragraph><headinglevel="3">Gender.</heading><paragraph><listrend="numbered"><label>1.</label><item>The names of male animals are said to be
<italic>masculine</italic>. As Horse, King, Uncle.</item><label>2.</label><item>The names of female animals are said to be
<italic>feminine</italic>. As Mare, Queen, Aunt.</item><label>3.</label><item>The names of things without life are said to be
<italic>neither</italic> or <italic>neuter</italic>. As Stable,
Throne, Shilling. <linebreak/> When we call them
<italic>neither</italic>, we mean <italic>neither
masculine</italic> nor <italic>feminine</italic>.</item><label>4.</label><item>The names of living creatures that may be either
masculine or feminine are said to be <italic>common</italic> or
<pagebreakpage_no="22"/><italic>either</italic>; that is, <italic>either masculine or
feminine</italic>. As Cousin, Bird, Parent.</item></list></paragraph><paragraph> There are therefore two genders: <listrend="numbered"><label>1.</label><item>Masculine</item><label>2.</label><item>Feminine.</item></list><italic> Neither of the two</italic> is called Neuter or Neither. <linebreak/><italic>Either of the two</italic> is called Common or Either.</paragraph><paragraph> When we want to change a masculine noun into the corresponding
feminine, we may do one of four things: <listrend="numbered"><label>1.</label><item>We may add <italic>ess</italic>, as Shepherd,
Shepherdess. <footnoteindicator="Asterisk"><paragraphtype="footnote">This addition sometimes also requires a
change in the spelling of the original noun: as
<italic>Actor</italic>, <italic>Actress</italic>;
<italic>Emperor</italic>,
<italic>Empress</italic>.</paragraph></footnote></item><label>2.</label><item>We may add <italic>ine</italic>, as Hero,
Heroine.</item><label>3.</label><item>We may use a different word, as Father,
Mother.</item><label>4.</label><item>We may prefix the word <italic>she</italic>, as
Goat, She-goat.</item></list></paragraph></div2><div2><headinglevel="2">Chapter II. Changes in the Pronoun.</heading><paragraph>The Pronoun, like the noun, is changed or inflected for Number, Case,
and Gender.</paragraph><headinglevel="3">Number.</heading><paragraph><listrend="simple"><item>I has in the plural We</item><item>Thou <ed_notetype="addition">has in the plural</ed_note> You [or
Ye]</item><item>He <ed_notetype="addition">has in the plural</ed_note>
They.</item><item>She <ed_notetype="addition">has in the plural</ed_note>
They.</item><item>It <ed_notetype="addition">has in the plural</ed_note>
They.</item></list></paragraph><pagebreakpage_no="23"/><headinglevel="3">Case.</heading><paragraph><listrend="simple"><item>I has My or Mine in the Possessive Case</item><item>Thou <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> Thy or Thine <ed_notetype="addition">in the Possessive Case.</ed_note></item><item>He <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> His <ed_notetype="addition">in the Possessive Case.</ed_note></item><item>She <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> Her or Hers <ed_notetype="addition">in the Possessive Case.</ed_note></item><item>It <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> Its <ed_notetype="addition">in the Possessive Case.</ed_note></item><item>We <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> Our or Ours <ed_notetype="addition">in the Possessive Case.</ed_note></item><item>You <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> Your or Yours <ed_notetype="addition">in the Possessive Case.</ed_note></item><item>Thou <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> Their or Theirs
<ed_notetype="addition">in the Possessive
Case.</ed_note></item></list></paragraph><paragraph><listrend="simple"><item>I has Me in the Dative Case</item><item>Thou <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> Thee <ed_notetype="addition">in the Dative Case.</ed_note></item><item>He <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> Him <ed_notetype="addition">in the Dative Case.</ed_note></item><item>She <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> Her <ed_notetype="addition">in the Dative Case.</ed_note></item><item>It <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> It <ed_notetype="addition">in the Dative Case.</ed_note></item><item>We <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> Us <ed_notetype="addition">in the Dative Case.</ed_note></item><item>You <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> You <ed_notetype="addition">in the Dative Case.</ed_note></item><item>Thou <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> Them <ed_notetype="addition">in the Dative Case.</ed_note></item></list></paragraph><paragraph><listrend="simple"><item>I has Me in the Objective Case</item><item>Thou <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> Thee <ed_notetype="addition">in the Objective Case.</ed_note></item><item>He <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> Him <ed_notetype="addition">in the Objective Case.</ed_note></item><item>She <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> Her <ed_notetype="addition">in the Objective Case.</ed_note></item><item>It <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> It <ed_notetype="addition">in the Objective Case.</ed_note></item><item>We <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> Us <ed_notetype="addition">in the Objective Case.</ed_note></item><item>You <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> You <ed_notetype="addition">in the Objective Case.</ed_note></item><item>Thou <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> Them <ed_notetype="addition">in the Objective Case.</ed_note></item></list></paragraph><paragraph>☞ The Dative and Objective Cases are exactly alike. Formerly, they
were different; but people <pagebreakpage_no="24"/> began to use the dative
case as an objective, and they have kept the habit up to this
time.</paragraph><paragraph> The pronoun I cannot have a Vocative or Called-to Case, because I
don't need to call to myself. <linebreak/> Thou has Thou in Vocative Case.
<linebreak/> You <ed_notetype="addition">has</ed_note> You <ed_notetype="addition">in the Vocative Case.</ed_note><linebreak/><italic>He</italic>, <italic>She</italic>, <italic>It</italic>, and
<italic>They</italic>, cannot have a Vocative case, because they are
always used when we speak <italic>of</italic> people and things, and not
when we speak <italic>to</italic> them.</paragraph><headinglevel="3">Gender.</heading><paragraph><italic>I</italic> and <italic>Thou</italic> have not a Feminine or
Neuter Gender. <italic>He</italic> has <italic>She</italic> in the Feminine
and <italic>It</italic> in the Neuter.</paragraph><paragraph>There is another pronoun, which is called the Relative Pronoun. When,
for example, we say, "I know the man who sells fowls," the word
<italic>who</italic> is said to stand for the noun <italic>man</italic>,
and is therefore a <italic>pronoun</italic>. But it also
<italic>relates</italic> to man, and therefore it is called a
<italic>relative</italic> or relating pronoun. It would be better to
call it a <italic>conjunctive</italic> or <italic>joining</italic> pronoun,
because it joins the sentence "I know the man" and the sentence "who sells
fowls."</paragraph><headinglevel="3">Gender of Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns.</heading><paragraph> Who is masculine or feminine. It has another form —
<italic>which</italic>. The form <italic>which</italic> is either
masculine or feminine or neuter; but it is used only when we are <pagebreakpage_no="25"/> speaking about irrational animals (all animals except men
and women) and things.</paragraph><paragraph><italic>That</italic> is also sometimes a relative pronoun, and can
be used at any time instead of <italic>who</italic> or
<italic>which</italic>.</paragraph><paragraph>This pronoun is not changed or inflected for anything but case. Thus
— <tablecols="2"rows="6"><rowrole="heading"><cell><ed_notetype="addition">Case</ed_note></cell><cell><ed_notetype="addition">Pronoun</ed_note></cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Nominative</cell><cell>Who</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Possessive</cell><cell>Whose</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Dative</cell><cell>(Wanting<footnoteindicator="Asterisk"><paragraphtype="footnote">You can say, "I gave
<italic>him</italic> the book," but you cannot say
"The boy, <italic>whom</italic> I gave the book, is
sick."</paragraph></footnote>)</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Objective</cell><cell>Whom</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Vocative</cell><cell>(Wanting)</cell></row></table></paragraph></div2><div2><headinglevel="2">Chapter III. Changes or Inflections in the
Adjective.</heading><paragraph> Let us take four pieces of paper. I can say: This one is
<italic>white</italic>, that is <italic>whiter</italic>, the other is
the <italic>whitest</italic>, and the fourth is only
<italic>whitish</italic>. <listrend="numbered"><label>1.</label><item>The word <italic>white</italic> is said to be in
the <italic>positive</italic> degree; because the paper is said to
be <italic>positively</italic> white.</item><label>2.</label><item>The word <italic>whiter</italic> is said to be in
the <italic>comparative</italic> degree; because the one piece of
paper has been <italic>compared</italic> with the other.</item><pagebreakpage_no="26"/><label>3.</label><item>The word <italic>whitest</italic> is said to be
in the <italic>superlative</italic> degree; because the paper is
whiter than all other paper compared with it, and
<italic>superlative</italic> means <italic>highest of
all</italic>.</item><label>4.</label><item>The word <italic>whitish</italic> is said to be
in the <italic>sub-positive</italic> degree; because it is
<italic>under the positive</italic>. <italic>Sub</italic> means
<italic>under</italic>.</item></list></paragraph><paragraph> The word degree means step. There are therefore four degrees or
steps — one down, two up, and one on the ground-level. Thus — <tablecols="4"rows="2"><rowrole="heading"><cell>Sub-positive</cell><cell><bold>Positive</bold></cell><cell>Comparative</cell><cell>Superlative</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Whitish</cell><cell><bold>White</bold></cell><cell>Whiter</cell><cell>Whitest</cell></row></table><graphicpage="26"image_id="0"url="images/0_0.jpg"desc="Steigerungsformen"filetype="jpg"/></paragraph><paragraph> The Comparative degree is formed by adding r or er. The Superlative
degree is formed by adding st or est. The Sub-positive degree is formed by
adding ish. Very few adjectives take the sub-positive degree.</paragraph><paragraph> ☞ <small_caps>But</small_caps>, when a word has two, or more than
two, syllables <linebreak/> The Comparative is generally formed by prefixing
the adverb <italic>more</italic>. <pagebreakpage_no="27"/> The Superlative
is generally formed by prefixing the adverb <italic>most</italic>.
<linebreak/> The Sub-positive is generally formed by prefixing the adverb
<italic>rather</italic>. <linebreak/> As Splendid, more splendid, most
splendid.</paragraph><paragraph> Some adjectives are compared in an irregular manner. Here are a few:
— <tablecols="3"rows="8"><rowrole="heading"><cell>Positive</cell><cell>Comparative</cell><cell>Superlative</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Good</cell><cell>Better</cell><cell>Best</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Bad</cell><cell>Worse</cell><cell>Worst</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Evil</cell><cell>Worse</cell><cell>Worst</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Ill</cell><cell>Worse</cell><cell>Worst</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Little</cell><cell>Less</cell><cell>Least</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Much</cell><cell>More</cell><cell>Most</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Many</cell><cell>More</cell><cell>Most</cell></row></table></paragraph></div2><div2><headinglevel="2">Chapter IV. Changes or Inflections in the Verb</heading><headinglevel="3">Time or Tense</heading><paragraph> Let us take the verb <italic>walk</italic>. When we want to join
<italic>walk</italic> to the pronoun <italic>I</italic> in the
<italic>present</italic> time or tense, we say "I walk;" if in the
<italic>past</italic> time or tense, we say, "I walked." </paragraph><paragraph> We see from this that verbs are changed or inflected for
<italic>time</italic>; and that to turn a verb into past time we have
only to add <italic>ed</italic>.</paragraph><foliofolio_no="C"/><paragraph> Many verbs are, however, changed or inflected for time centrally —
that is, in the middle. As <italic>present</italic>, "I write,"
<italic>past</italic>, "I wrote." </paragraph><paragraph> The following are a few of the verbs that are changed centrally for
time or tense: — <tablecols="2"rows="7"><rowrole="heading"><cell>Present</cell><cell>Past</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Think</cell><cell>Thought</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Make</cell><cell>Made</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Know</cell><cell>Knew</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Do</cell><cell>Did</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Have</cell><cell>Had</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Blow</cell><cell>Blew</cell></row></table></paragraph><paragraph> Many hundred years ago, all verbs were inflected centrally; but,
when the language came to be <italic>printed</italic>, the form of
inflecting for past time by adding <italic>ed</italic>, became more
usual.</paragraph><headinglevel="3">Person and Number.</heading><paragraph> It is plain that the pronouns or fornames <italic>I</italic>,
<italic>thou</italic>, <italic>he</italic>, <italic>she</italic>,
<italic>it</italic>, <italic>we</italic>, <italic>you</italic>, and
<italic>they</italic>, stand for the names of <italic>persons</italic>.
In order to distinguish, in <italic>grammar</italic>, these pronouns from
each other, different names have been given to them.</paragraph><paragraph><italic>I</italic> and <italic>we</italic> are called pronouns of the
<italic>first</italic> or <italic>speaking person</italic>. <linebreak/><italic>Thou</italic> and <italic>you</italic> are called pronouns of the
<italic>second</italic> or <italic>spoken-to person</italic>. <linebreak/><italic>He</italic>, <italic>she</italic>, <italic>it</italic>, and
<italic>they</italic> are called pronouns of the <italic>third</italic>
or <italic>spoken-of person</italic>. <linebreak/><italic>We</italic> is properly not a pronoun of the first person; it is
properly a mixed person. It is not = <italic>I</italic> and
<italic>I</italic>; but <pagebreakpage_no="29"/> it is =
<italic>I</italic> and <italic>You</italic>, or <italic>I</italic> and
<italic>He</italic>. <italic>You</italic> is = <italic>Thou</italic> and
<italic>Thou</italic>, or <italic>Thou</italic> and <italic>He</italic>.
<italic>They</italic> is = <italic>He</italic> and <italic>He</italic>,
or <italic>She</italic> and <italic>She</italic>, or <italic>It</italic> and
<italic>It</italic> — and so on. These different pronouns demand, then,
different forms of the verb to go with them. We cannot say <italic>I
walks</italic>, or <italic>They walkest</italic>. Again, we cannot say
<italic>They walks</italic>, because then we should have a pronoun in
the plural number going with a verb in the singular number — which would
never do.</paragraph><paragraph> If the pronoun is Singular, the verb must be Singular. If the
pronoun is Plural, the verb must be Plural. If the pronoun is of the First
Person, the verb must be of the First Person — and so on.</paragraph><paragraph> That is to say, a form of the verb that usually goes with a pronoun
of the second or third person, must not be put with a pronoun of first
person. This is all that is meant.</paragraph><paragraph><listrend="simple"><item>When I join <italic>walk</italic> to <italic>I</italic>, I say,
<italic>I walk</italic>.</item><item>When I join <italic>walk</italic> to <italic>Thou</italic>, I say,
<italic>Thou walkest</italic>.</item><item>When I join <italic>walk</italic> to <italic>He</italic>, I say,
<italic>He walks</italic>.</item><item>When I join <italic>walk</italic> to <italic>We</italic>, I say,
<italic>We walk</italic>.</item><item>When I join <italic>walk</italic> to <italic>You</italic>, I say,
<italic>You walk</italic>.</item><item>When I join <italic>walk</italic> to <italic>They</italic>, I say,
<italic>They walked</italic>.</item><item>When I join <italic>walked</italic> to <italic>I</italic>, I say,
<italic>I walked</italic>.</item><item>When I join <italic>walked</italic> to <italic>Thou</italic>, I
say, <italic>Thou walkedst</italic>.</item><item>When I join <italic>walked</italic> to <italic>He</italic>, I say,
<italic>He walked</italic>.</item><pagebreakpage_no="30"/><item>When I join <italic>walked</italic> to <italic>We</italic>, I say,
<italic>We walked</italic>.</item><item>When I join <italic>walked</italic> to <italic>You</italic>, I
say, <italic>You walked</italic>.</item><item>When I join <italic>walked</italic> to <italic>They</italic>, I
say, <italic>They walked</italic>.</item></list> You can do the same with <italic>write</italic> and
<italic>wrote</italic>, or any other verb.</paragraph><paragraph> There is, however, one verb, which is more changed or inflected than
any other; and that verb is the verb which is more used than any other — the
verb <small_caps>Be</small_caps>. We must therefore get it up thoroughly: </paragraph><headinglevel="3">Asserting Form</heading><paragraph><tablecols="2"rows="4"><head>Present Time or Tense</head><rowrole="heading"><cell>Singular Number</cell><cell>Plural Number</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>1. I am</cell><cell>1. We are</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>2. Thou art</cell><cell>2. You are</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>3. He is</cell><cell>3. They are</cell></row></table><tablecols="2"rows="4"><head>Past Time or Tense</head><rowrole="heading"><cell>Singular Number</cell><cell>Plural Number</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>1. I was</cell><cell>1. We were</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>2. Thou wast</cell><cell>2. You were</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>3. He was</cell><cell>3. They were</cell></row></table></paragraph><headinglevel="3">Conjunctive Form.</heading><paragraph><tablecols="2"rows="4"><head>Present Time or Tense</head><rowrole="heading"><cell>Singular Number</cell><cell>Plural Number</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>(Though) 1. I be</cell><cell>(Though) 1. We be</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>(Though) 2. Thou be</cell><cell>(Though) 2. You be</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>(Though) 3. He be</cell><cell>(Though) 3. They be</cell></row></table></paragraph><paragraph><tablecols="2"rows="4"><head>Past Time or Tense</head><rowrole="heading"><cell>Singular Number</cell><cell>Plural Number</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>(Though) 1. I were</cell><cell>(Though) 1. We were</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>(Though) 2. Thou wert</cell><cell>(Though) 2. You were</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>(Though) 3. He were</cell><cell>(Though) 3. They were</cell></row></table></paragraph><headinglevel="3">Commanding Form.</heading><paragraph> Be! </paragraph><headinglevel="3">Adjectival or Participial Form.</heading><paragraph><tablecols="2"rows="2"><rowrole="heading"><cell>Present</cell><cell>Past</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Being</cell><cell>Been</cell></row></table></paragraph></div2><div2><headinglevel="2">Chapter V. Changes or Inflections in Adverbs.</heading><paragraph> Adverbs, like adjectives, are changed or inflected for
degree.</paragraph><paragraph> 1. We form the Comparative by adding <italic>er</italic>. We form
the Superlative by adding <italic>est</italic>. As, Fast, faster,
fastest.</paragraph><paragraph> 2. In some adverbs of two, or more than two, syllables, we prefix
for the Comparative <italic>more</italic>, and we prefix for the Superlative
<italic>most</italic>. As, Gaily, more gaily, most gaily.</paragraph><paragraph> ☞ The Sub-positive is not generally used in Adverbs.</paragraph></div2></div1><div1description="exercises"><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 1. — Write out twelve <italic>Names</italic>
of things in the school-room.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 2. — Write out twelve
<italic>Names</italic> of things in the play-ground.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 3. — Write out twelve
<italic>Names</italic> of things in the fields.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 4. — Select and write
out the <italic>Nouns</italic> in the following sentences: — <linebreak/> 1. The
pig grunts. 2. The wind blows. 3. John rode to town. 4. The seal basks in the
sun. 5. The fox crept along the wall. 6. The sailor laid down his oar. 7. The
steeple totters. 8. Loud cracks the whip. 9. The huntsman shot a hare. 10. The
door is open. 11. The springs bubble up. 12. Lucy stood at her door.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 5. — Select and write
out, in columns, the <italic>Telling Words</italic> in the following sentences:
— <linebreak/> 1. The fishes sport. 2. The sexton walked. 3. Sugar melts. 4.
Horsemen ride. 5. The church bell tolls. 6. The gamekeeper shoots. 7. The lark
sings. 8. Steam engines work. 9. The saw cuts. 10. An arrow kills. 11. Mushrooms
grow. 12. Carts rattle.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 6. — Write out, in
separate columns, the <italic>Nouns</italic> and <italic>Verbs</italic> in the
following: — <linebreak/> 1. England and Scotland form one island. 2. We make
gas from coal. 3. I met a little cottage girl. 4. How many sticks go to the
building of a crow’s nest? 5. Cromwell was the Protector of England. 6. A black
man has woolly hair. 7. China gives us silk. 8. Ferns as tall as palm trees once
grew in England. 9. Icebergs sometimes dash ships in pieces. 10. The English
work very hard. 11. Negroes eat the flesh of snakes and vipers.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>7. — Make twelve
sentences, each containing one <italic>Noun</italic> and one
<italic>Verb.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 8. — Write, in columns,
the <italic>Nouns</italic> in the following sentences: — <italic>Africa,
gorilla</italic>, <italic>ostrich</italic>,<italic> monkey, whale, William, </italic><pagebreakpage_no="33"/><italic>Garibaldi, harts, thirst, glow, wren, Tom,</italic> and, opposite them,
the <italic>Telling Words</italic> which tell something about them. 1. Africa
abounds in buffaloes. 2. The gorilla was shot by Mr. Du Chaillu. 3. The ostrich
can kick like a mule. 4. The monkey sleeps in a tree. 5. The whale spouts water.
6. William invaded England. 7. Garibaldi, the true and modest patriot, lives in
Caprera. 8. Harts swim very well. 9 The thirst for vengeance glared in his eyes.
10. The glow from the flames lighted up the hall. 11. The wren makes its nest of
moss and grass. 12. Tom frightened the fox.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 9. — Write out, in separate columns, the
<italic>Nouns</italic>and <italic>Verbs</italic> in the following: —
<linebreak/> 1. The bear went across the field. 2. Go up the mountain. 2. There
are partridges and woodcocks in our field. 4. The dog saved many lives. 5. Robin
Hood was a robber. 6. The goats mounted the hill. 7. A storm arose in the
Atlantic. 8. Jack Horner sat in a corner. 9. The crew perished at sea 10. The
leopard jumped on the servant. 11. John wants to be a ploughboy. 12. The boy ran
to the village shop. 13. Chimney sweepers dance merrily on May-day.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 10. — Write out, in
columns, the <italic>Noun-marking Words</italic> in the following sentences, and
place opposite them the <italic>Nouns</italic> they mark: — <linebreak/> 1. Bold
Robin Hood was an archer good, as e’er drew bow in the merry green wood. 2. The
talkative parrot whistled a merry tune. 3. Bruin, the clumsy bear, went across
the fields, to seek the crafty fox. 4. There are no large birds of prey in Great
Britain, except eagles and hawks. 5. The poor children wandered up and down in
the dark wood. 6. A hungry wolf stood at the door of a house. 7. The angry nurse
threatened to put the crying child to bed. 8. A tremendous gale blew the stout
ship on shore. 9. The blind seal found its way to the cruel farmer’s door. 10.
The bubbling spring comes up beside the cottage window. 11. Margaret, the
milkman’s daughter, is a good and useful little girl. 12. The village children
played at the merry games of leap-frog, and ball, and puss in the comer. 13.
Little Two-shoes sat, like a busy little puss, in a corner, reading a
book.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 11. — Add
<italic>Adjectives</italic>, or <italic>Noun-marking Words,</italic> to the
following <italic>Nouns</italic> :— <linebreak/><italic>Terrier, room, rat, prisoner, penny</italic>, <italic>paper, ink, child,
fire, spider, whale, elephant.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 12. — What
<italic>Nouns</italic> would the following
<italic>Adjectives</italic>suitably mark: — <linebreak/><italic>Long, round, flat, sweet, rough, gentle, cruel,deep, green, pretty,
kind, square.</italic></paragraph><pagebreakpage_no="34"/><paragraphtype="exercise"><italic><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 13. — Make
twelve sentences, each containing a Noun, a Verb, and an Adjective, about
the following: — Waggon, cat, traveller, rabbit, brother, negro, swan,
field, child, fish, dog, duckling.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 14. — Write out, in
separate columns, the <italic>Nouns, Verbs,</italic> and
<italic>Adjectives</italic> in the following; and arrange the
<italic>Adjectives</italic> opposite the <italic>Nouns</italic> they
<italic>mark,</italic> and the <italic>Verbs</italic> opposite the
<italic>Nouns</italic> they <italic>tell</italic> about: — <linebreak/> 1.
Little puss sat in a dark corner. 2. Hark! how the strong winds blow. 3. The
strong horse fell on the slippery ice. 4. The angry nurse beat the squalling
child. 5. The golden eagle is a large bird. 6. The common seal has a beau- tiful
dark eye. 7. The gruff billy-goat went up the steep mountain. 8. The green
parrot talks cleverly. 9. I heard the dogs howl in the dark, wet night. 10. The
greedy wolf wanted to eat the poor child. 11. After mince-pies and plum pudding
come black draughts. 12. The poor boy went through the dark forest. 13. The
cruel farmer put out the seal’s eyes. 14. The speckled hen, black and white,
looked like a widow in half mourning.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 15. — Add
<italic>Telling Words</italic> to the following <italic>Nouns</italic>: — <linebreak/><italic>Hawk, battle, horse, river, bird, cage, cuckoo, snow, tree, gardener,
owl, cook.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 16. — Place suitable
<italic>Nouns</italic> before the following <italic>Telling Words:
</italic>— R<italic>un, creep, cut, see, jump, write, roll, flow, devour,
attach, shoot</italic>, <italic>grind.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 17. — Select the
<italic>Nouns</italic> and <italic>Verbs</italic> from the following list,
and join them so as to make sense: — <linebreak/><italic>Fast, horse, weasel, croak, sit, boy, river, pick, tear, stand, maiden,
sow</italic>, <italic>rat, wide, rich, raven, think, run, hen, gnaw, bite,
overflow, tall, tailor, captain, wonderful, mind.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 18. — Make twelve
sentences, each containing a <italic>Noun,</italic> an
<italic>Adjective,</italic> and a <italic>Verb.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 19. — Write out, in
columns, the <italic>Verb-modifying Words</italic> in the following sentences,
and, opposite them, the <italic>Verbs</italic> they modify: — <linebreak/> 1.
The man drove fast. 2. The hyena howled fiercely. 8. The train ran quickly down
the incline. 4. The clock soon stopped. 5. Meg Muggins quickly picked up her
basket. 6. Robinson kindly invited Friday to dinner. 7. The swan flew swiftly
over the lake. 8. The little boy skates well. 9. The miners shouted vehemently
to the man at the windlass. 10. The gorilla was mortally wounded. 11. The dog
shook the rat fiercely. 12. The lads behaved awkwardly at the party.</paragraph><pagebreakpage_no="35"/><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 20. — Write out, in
columns, the <italic>Adjective-modifying Words</italic> in the following
sentences, and, opposite them, the <italic>Adjectives</italic> they modify: —
<linebreak/> 1. Poor Tom is very cold. 2. The ostrich is a remarkably swift
runner. 3. The Marquis of Westminster is extremely rich. 4. Too early rising is
not good for the health. 5. I am truly glad to see that yon are well. 6. This
cheese is quite green. 7. Dodd staid out a very long time skating, and his
mother became exceedingly uneasy about him. 8. Dan is a really clever fellow. 9.
The fox, soon weary with the run, was caught and despatched by the hounds. 10.
The ugly duckling was too young to understand the world. 11. My dog is rather
lame. 12. The rats thought the honey awfully nice.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 21. — Write out, in
columns, the <italic>Adverb-modifying Words</italic> in the following sentences,
and, opposite them, the <italic>Ad- verbs</italic> they modify: — <linebreak/>
1. Mr. Dobbs spoke very slowly. 2. Arthur did not like the sousing, and the
medicine still less. 3. John returned almost directly. 4. Deerfoot ran
exceedingly fast over the course. 5. They danced quite merrily through the room.
6. The time passed too quickly. 7. He visited the house rather often. 8. The
glow of the sun-set was seen no longer. 9. He is almost always ill. 10. They
ride extremely well. 11. We can jump much further than you. 12. The pony gallops
twice faster than the cob.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 22. — Write out, in
columns, the <italic>Adverbs</italic> in the following sentences, and place
opposite them the <italic>Verbs, Ad- jectives,</italic> or
<italic>Adverbs</italic> which they modify: — <linebreak/> 1. Fairy rings
are very beautiful. 2. The two ships' companies drifted away into the frozen
seas. 8. The aloe blooms only once every hundred years. 4. The Warrior sails
very fast. 5. Now, the south wind softly blows. 6. How many sticks will it take
to reach the moon? 7. One, if it be long enough. 8. Whalemen often see polar
bears daily, nay, sometimes hourly. 9. Sir William Armstrong says that his brass
guns will never wear out. 10. Are you quite well, John? 11. Jemmy Wright shaves
as well as any man in England — almost, not quite. 23. — Make twelve sentences,
each with a <italic>Noun,</italic> a <italic>Verb</italic>, and an
<italic>Adverb.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 24. — Make twelve
sentences, each with a <italic>Noun,</italic>an <italic>Adjective,</italic> a
<italic>Verb,</italic> and an <italic>Adverb.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 25. — Add suitable
<italic>Adverbs</italic> to the following <italic>Adjectives</italic>: —
<pagebreakpage_no="36"/><italic>Dark, tall, easy, clever, clear, hard, able, glad, wonderful, slow,
willing, long, steady.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 26. — Put suitable
<italic>Adverbs</italic> to the following
<italic>Verbs</italic>:<italic>Jump</italic>, <italic>reach</italic>,
<italic>run</italic>, <italic>look</italic>, <italic>write</italic>,
<italic>walk</italic>, <italic>eat</italic>, <italic>play, hunt,
dance</italic>, <italic>see</italic>,<italic>sit.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 27. — Write out, in
columns, the <italic>Adverbs</italic> in the following sentences, and, opposite
them, the <italic>Verbs, Adjectives,</italic>or <italic>Adverbs</italic> which
they modify: — <linebreak/> 1. The sailor mounted instantly to see the light. 2.
The poor lion gradually declined, and soon died. 8. The steeple is scarcely
three hundred feet high. 4. It is very pleasant in the cool shade. 5. The
elephant can draw logs quite easily which twenty men could not move. 6. On the
mountain, the snow falls so thickly that one soon gets blinded. 7. Where did you
get that very beautiful ship? 8. The dikes, in Holland, have been almost all
carried away by the very high floods. 9. The ship was nearly ashore when the
sailor mounted the shrouds. 10. The boy cried out, "I am quite right, it is a
turkey's egg." 11. Said Bruin, slyly, "Help me at once to some of that honey,
and I will be your slave for ever." "Indeed,” said the fox,
sneeringly.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 28. — Make twelve
sentences, containing the following <italic>Adverbs: </italic>—
<italic>Scarcely, lately, quickly, very, disgracefully, sadly, soon,
too,</italic><italic>quite, nearly, seldom, clumsily</italic>.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 29. — Write out, in
separate columns, the <italic>Adverbs </italic>which modify (1)
<italic>Verbs,</italic> those which modify (2) <italic>Adjectives,</italic>
and those which modify (3) <italic>Adverbs,</italic> in the following: —
<linebreak/> 1. The ship sailed very swiftly to the Polar Seas in quest of
whales. 2. Bruin, the clumsily shaped bear, sent for Reynard, the too cunning
fox, to come and hunt. 3. The sportsman leapt quickly from the tree, ran rapidly
across the valley, and soon gained the wood. 4. The surly lion scratched the
poor child very dreadfully with his paw. 5. Reynard the fox came trotting up,
with his tail still more draggled than before. 6. Three billy-goats again went
up the mountain, to make themselves fat. 7. A goat had a pretty kid, which she
loved too dearly. 8. A most tremendous gale blew the ship on shore. 9. The
bubbling spring still comes up beside the cottage window. 10. She walked too
quickly to the farm- house, and consequently caught cold. 11. James Watt made a
very great improvement upon the steam engine. 12. Griper, the blind man’s dog,
was very savage; he often attacked little children.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 30. — Write out, in
separate columns, the <italic>Nouns, Adjectives</italic>,
<italic>Verbs,</italic> and <italic>Adverbs</italic> in following:—
<pagebreakpage_no="37"/> 1. Once on a time a beautiful seal lived in a
farmer's house in Ireland. 2. Away went Bruin the bear after the cunning fox. 3.
The parrot whistled shrilly, "I'm afloat, I'm afloat, and the rover is free." 4.
Merrily, merrily goes the bark, before the gale she bounds. 5. The children's
feet pattered slowly over the icy road. 6. Huge trees, of wonderful form, stand
far out in the deep water. 7. The real name of little Goody Two-shoes was
Margery Meanwell. 8. Far, far away, there is a fine country, full of rocky
mountains and crystal caves. 9. The crows thought it was a dangerous thing — a
very dangerous thing indeed. 10. There once lived in a farm yard, an old cock,
whose name was Crowell. 11. Farmer Meanwell had quite an extensive farm, and
good wheat fields, and immensely large flocks of sheep. 12. Poor Tommy, little
Margery's brother, had, indeed, two shoes, but Margery had but one.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 31. — Make twelve
sentences, four with <italic>Adverbs </italic>modifying <italic>Verbs</italic>,
four with <italic>Adverbs</italic> modifying <italic>Adjectives</italic>, and
four with <italic>Adverbs</italic> modifying
<italic>Adverbs</italic>.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 32. — Fill up the
spaces with <italic>Adverbs:</italic> — 1. They sailed <gap/> to the Polar Seas.
2. The sailor went aloft <gap/> to see the light. 3. The steeple is <gap/> three
hundred feet high. 4. Two goats had <gap/> fed together, in a meadow. 5. The
ships <gap/> met again. 6. A goat had a pretty kid, which she loved <gap/>. 7.
<gap/> upon a time a s wallow flew down upon a sheep's back. 8. "Dear mother,"
said a little fish, "pray is that <gap/> a fly?" 9. The bird was <gap/> as
pretty as Poll, nay, prettier. 10. There was <gap/> a boy who had a dog called
Griper. 11. The crows thought it a dangerous thing, a <gap/> dangerous thing.
12. The children's feet pattered <gap/> over the icy road.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 33. — Select the
<italic>Noun-connecting Words</italic> from the following sentences: —
<linebreak/> 1. The woodman carried the axe on his shoulder. 2. Mrs. Styles
travelled with twelve trunks. 3. The poor woman in the cottage was dangerously
ill. 4. Robert leapt into the river. 5. The bell-man spread the news over the
town. 6. The man with the wooden leg is a sailor. 7. He is going to cut up his
leg into lucifer matches, and buy a cork one. 8. The tiger tears the deer with
its strong, sharp claws. 9. Silk is the web of a caterpillar. 10. Amsterdam
stands on wooden piles. 11. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank! 12. I
saw Jones with his cousin.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 34. — Connect the
following <italic>Nouns</italic> and <italic>Pronouns </italic>by suitable
<italic>Noun-connecting Words: —</italic><pagebreakpage_no="38"/> 1. The cook went <gap/> the kitchen. 2. Three goats
climbed <gap/> the mountain's side. 3. <gap/> a barn he used to frolic, long
time ago. 4. A sportsman and his son were <gap/> the country, shooting. 5. Lucy
burst <gap/> a flood of tears. 6. The sportsman went <gap/> me, to teach me to
shoot. 7. The poor creatures ran up <gap/> us crying. 8. The lion-killer walked
<gap/> me as far as the waterfall. 9. A man went, one day, <gap/> the house of a
rich squire. 10. The servants all laughed <gap/> him. 11. A swallow flew down
<gap/> a sheep's back, to steal some wool. 12. The fisherman put the perch
<gap/> his basket, and walked away. 13. "Somebody has been sitting <gap/> my
chair," said the great bear.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 35. — Write, in columns, the
<italic>Prepositions</italic>, with the <italic>Nouns</italic> and
<italic>Pronouns</italic> they connect, in Exercise 34.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 36. — <lgmet=""rhyme=""><l>In the moonlight the sheperds,</l><l>Soft-lulled by the rills,</l><l>Lie wrapt in their blankets,</l><l>Asleep on the hills.</l></lg> In the above sentence, the noun <italic>sheperds</italic> is connected
with <italic>moonlight</italic> by the preposition <italic>in</italic>, with
<italic>rills</italic> by the preposition <italic>by</italic>, with
<italic>blankets</italic> by <italic>in</italic>, and <italic>hills</italic>
by <italic>on</italic>. Thus: — <tablecols="3"rows="5"><rowrole="heading"><cell><ed_notetype="addition">Shepherds</ed_note></cell><cell><ed_notetype="addition">Preposition</ed_note></cell><cell><ed_notetype="addition">Noun</ed_note></cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell><small_caps>Shepherds</small_caps></cell><cell>in</cell><cell>moonlight</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell><ed_notetype="addition"><small_caps>Shepherds</small_caps></ed_note></cell><cell>by</cell><cell>rillst</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell><ed_notetype="addition"><small_caps>Shepherds</small_caps></ed_note></cell><cell>in</cell><cell>blankets</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell><ed_notetype="addition"><small_caps>Shepherds</small_caps></ed_note></cell><cell>on</cell><cell>hills</cell></row></table><graphicimage_id="1"url="images/0_1.jpg"desc="Exercise 36. Prepositions with Sheperds"filetype="jpg"/> Show the
connection between the different Nouns in the same way, in the following
sentences: — <linebreak/> 1. The steam-engine at the Mint is set a-going at nine
o'clock. 2. Some fishes travel by land from one place to another. 3. In a little
paddock some horses are playing at follow-my-leader. 4. Camels walk through the
heavy sands in the deserts of Arabia. 5. Night, with her cold fingers, sprinkles
moonbeams on the sea-waste. 6. A captain bold, of Halifax, who lived in country
quarters — (Is this a sentence, or complete statement?) 7. At Woolwich, the
several parts of a wheel are put together with one squeeze. 8. My coat is all in
tatters, and my hat — is at the hatter's. 9. The man with the cocked hat stood
on a tub, speaking to the noisy crowd. 10. In the reign of Henry II., from
Temple Bar to the village of Westminster was a country road. 11. The cart, with
the Red King's body in it, rattled through the New Forest. 12. The cock and the
hen came originally from the east. 19. The negroes in many parts of the island
of Jamaica are lazy.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 37. — Make twelve sentences, each containing
one <italic>Preposition.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>38. — Arrange the <italic>Prepositions</italic>
in the following sentences in four columns — putting in the first column those
which join a <italic>Noun</italic> and a <italic>Noun</italic>, in the second
those which join a <italic>Noun</italic> and a <italic>Pronoun</italic>, in the
third those which join a <italic>Pronoun</italic> and a <italic>Noun</italic>,
and in the fourth those which join a <italic>Pronoun</italic> and a
<italic>Pronoun</italic>: — <linebreak/> 1. He came to me. 2. The vessel
sailed to the polar seas. 3. Bruin the bear sent for me. 4. The sportsman leapt
from the tree, ran across the valley, and into the wood. 5. They ran up to us
all in tears. 6. It scratched the poor child with its paws. 7. Reynard the fox
trotted up to her, with his tail lifted on high. 8. Three billy-goats went up a
mountain's side. 9. I ran to him with my clothes all in tatters. 10. She walked
to the farm-house with her cloak over her arm. 11. The lion stalked towards him,
snarling fearfully. 12. The canary flew to the little girl, and began to eat out
of her hand.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>39. — Make twelve
sentences, each with a <italic>Pre- position</italic> connecting a
<italic>Noun</italic> and a <italic>Noun</italic>.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>40. — Make twelve sentences, each with a
<italic>Pre- position</italic> connecting a <italic>Noun</italic> and a
<italic>Pronoun.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>41. — Make twelve
sentences, each with a <italic>Pre- position</italic> connecting a
<italic>Pronoun</italic> and a <italic>Noun.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>42. — Make twelve sentences, each with a
<italic>Pre- position</italic> connecting a <italic>Pronoun</italic> and a
<italic>Pronoun.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>43. — Write out, in columns, the
<italic>Prepositions</italic> in the following, and place on each side of
them the words they connect: — <linebreak/> 1. Wolves were on their track, and
almost dashed against the door of the carriage. 2. Robin Hood was born in the
reign of Henry II., at Locksley, in the county of Nottingham. 3. One morning,
away went Brain the bear across the fields, in quest of Reynard the fox. 4. Up
the airy mountain, down the rushy glen, we daren't go a hunting, for fear of
little men. 5. The sailors went trooping after each other in Indian file, with
heavy loads on their backs. 6. According to promise the man came in the evening.
7. There are several hares and pheasants in that coppice. 8. The captain, amidst
the hurry and confusion of the scene, preserved his calmness. 9. There are no
large birds of prey in this country except the eagle and a few kinds of birds of
the hawk tribe. 10. Far up the Great St. Bernard, one of those high mountains of
the Alps, stands a famous convent.</paragraph><pagebreakpage_no="40"/><paragraphtype="exercise"><italic><small_caps>EXERCISE</small_caps> 44. — Make sentences with the
following Pre- positions in them: —Of, with, in, on, at, about, under, over,
by, into, without, above.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>45. — Make sentences with the following
<italic>Pre- positions</italic> in them: — <italic>Across, against, along,
around, before, behind, down, except, upon, below, beneath,
besides</italic>.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>46. — Select <italic>Conjunctions</italic> from
the following: — <linebreak/> 1. The stag is found in France, and so is the wolf
2. The snipe is a small bird, but flies quickly. 3. Notwithstanding the ice, the
whalers attacked and killed the seals. 4. Although the birds of Australia have
beautiful plumage, they have very dis- cordant voices. 5. Gentle earthquakes
often occur in England, but are oftener felt at Comrie, in Scotland. 6. The
failure of the wine crop is a disastrous event, for the farmers depend upon it
for a living. 7. When we see animals change their colours in the winter, we must
believe that the alteration is best for them. 8. Willows are weak, but they bind
other wood. 9. Although Columbus really discovered America, yet it was known to
the Northmen some hundreds of years before. 10. London to-day is taller by some
fifteen feet than the London of the Romans was.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>47. — Arrange, in
separate columns, the <italic>Preposi- tions</italic> and
<italic>Conjunctions</italic> in the following: — <linebreak/> 1. In winter
the hare and the ptarmigan change the colour of their coats. 2. The Romans
possessed Britain for more than four hundred years, but they had to leave it at
last. 3. The mistletoe and holly now reign in every British house- hold, yet
very little is known about the rise of their sovereignty. 3. The sloth in Ceylon
moves slowly, and comes unawares upon a bird. 5. Elephants and seals are shot
for the sake of their ivory. 6. There are neither snakes nor vipers in Ireland,
for St. Patrick banished them all. 7. When the pools in Ceylon dry up, the chub
set out on their travels in search of water. 8. The arrow rebounded from the
boy's back as-if it had struck upon a rock. 9. Doctors themselves are not of
more importance than nurses are. 10. <lgmet=""rhyme=""><l>If the man who
turnips cries</l><l>Cry not when his father dies,</l><l>'Tis a proof that he would rather</l><l>Have a turnip than his father.</l></lg> 11. There are more than 80,000
pipes of wine in the London docks. 12. Lime injures the coats of the stomach
when we drink the water that contains it.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>48. — Write out, in a
column, the <italic>Conjunctions</italic> in the following sentences: —
<pagebreakpage_no="41"/> 1. I will stay at home, if you go to fish. 2.
Cherry pie is very nice, and so is currant wine, but I must wear my plain brown
gown, and never go too fine. 3. The wolf met the bear, and mocked him, because
he always carried his head so low. 4. The wolf would have eaten the little girl
up, but there were some wood-cutters hard by, so he thought better of it, and
didn't. 5. Give me a cake and a pat of butter, for my granny is ill. 6. The wasp
hummed his thanks, as he hummed from flower to flower. 7. The fish will not be
caught, unless the nets are mended. 8. Tell the green hunts- man, if you meet
him on the way, there’s game in the wind. 9. Thus wandered these poor children,
till death did end their grief. 10. I will bring the man here, since you think
so. 11. Robin Hood, although he was a robber, never injured poor people or
women. 12. The parrot, Nina, could whistle "Hearts of oak" better than any
sailor on board could.</paragraph><paragraph><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>49. — Make twelve sentences, each containing a
<italic>Conjunction.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise5</small_caps>0. — Write out, in columns, the
<italic>Prepositions</italic> and <italic>Conjunctions</italic> in the
following: — <linebreak/> 1. The seal delights to gambol in the water and is
fond of basking in the sun. 2. This world is large, but there are others which
are larger. 3. In Poland the wolves are not so big as they are in the South of
Russia. 4. Both mincepies and plum pudding are good at Christmas. 5. You could
see this little nut, Monkey, though your eyes were shut. 6. We should get no
tin, if the Cornishmen did not dig in their mines. 7. Tar at first is dark red,
but in a little time it becomes black. 8. The captain perished, but the sailors
of the Lap- wing were saved. 9. You yet may see the fawn at play, the hare upon
the green, but the sweet face of Lucy Grey will never more be seen.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>51. — Write out, in separate columns, the
<italic>Nouns</italic>, <italic>Adjectives</italic>, <italic>Verbs</italic>,
<italic>Adverbs</italic>, <italic>Prepositions</italic>, and
<italic>Conjunctions</italic> in the following: — <linebreak/> A young seal
once lived in the house of a farmer on the west coast of Ireland. The creature
was mild and gentle, and the family loved it dearly. In summer its delight was
to bask in the sun; in winter, to be before the fire, or, if it was per- mitted,
to creep into a large oven in the kitchen. In spring a strange kind of disease
attacked the cattle, many of which died. An old woman told the farmer that his
cattle would never re- cover, unless he put out the seal's eyes and turned it
adrift. The silly fellow consented to the cruel act; they carried the poor
animal away and pitched it into the sea. On the eighth night <pagebreakpage_no="42"/> after it had left, a tremendous gale arose in the Atlantic,
and, in the pauses of the storm, the family could at times hear a low wailing
noise at the door. Next morning they found the seal dead on the
threshold.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>52. — Make sentences with the following
<italic>Con- junctions</italic> in them: — <italic>Because, if, and, for,
therefore, wherefore, although, than, though, unless.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>53. — Arrange in
separate columns the <italic>Nouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions,
and Conjunctions</italic> in the following story: —<italic></italic>An Arab
had lost his way in the desert. Two days had he wandered about without finding
anything to eat; and he was now in danger of perishing of hunger. Suddenly he
saw one of those pools of water at which travellers water their camels, and he
ran up to it as fast as his tired limbs could carry him. What was his delight to
see, lying upon the green bank of the pool, a leathern bag. He was sure that it
con- tained food. He took it up, while his heart beat faster and faster with
expectation. "Dates! I hope," he cried. "Nuts! I think!!" "Pearls! by the beard
of the Prophet!!!" and the poor Arab sank fainting upon the sand.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>54. — Select the <italic>Pronouns</italic> from
the following story: — A drop of rain, one solitary drop, fell from a cloud into
the sea, and was swallowed by the enormous waste of waters in the bosom of the
Atlantic. Lost in the depths of the ocean, the little drop said to itself, "Ah!
what a tiny thing am I in this great world of water!" It happened that just at
this moment an oyster opened its shelly mouth, and swallowed the water drop. It
lay a long time in its pearly home. By degrees it ripened into a beautiful
pearl. At length it was found by a diver. He was in ecstacies with its beauty,
and gave it to a lady who knew him. She had it set in a bracelet; it became her
magnificently; and she prized it above all her other jewels.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>55. — Make sentences with the following
<italic>Pro- nouns</italic> in them: —<italic>Thou, him, her, them, it, he,
she, me, we, us, thee, you, him, his, they, its.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>56. — Substitute <italic>Pronouns</italic> for
some of the <italic>Nouns </italic>in the following story: — A poor labourer who
grew turnips in the garden of the labourer, found among the turnips a
turnip<footnoteindicator="Asterisk"><paragraphtype="footnote">For this
word <italic>one</italic> must be used, which — though really a
numbering ad- jective — is <italic>used</italic> as a kind of
pronoun.</paragraph></footnote> of immense size. <pagebreakpage_no="43"/> The labourer carried the turnip to the squire, who, as a reward for the
industry of the labourer, gave the labourer two pounds. A widow in the same
village, who was well-to-do in the world, but very greedy, heard of the affair,
and said to the widow that it would be no bad plan to offer the gentleman the
first of the widow’s sheep, for, said the widow, if the gentleman has given two
pounds for a turnip, the gentleman will surely give much more for a sheep. The
widow accordingly took the widow's sheep to the squire, and begged the gentleman
to accept the sheep. The squire immediately saw the widow's selfishness, and
refused to accept of the present. As the widow entreated the squire, the squire
answered that as the widow forced the squire to accent the widow's present, the
squire would give the widow something in return, which cost twice as much as the
value of the widow's sheep. So the squire presented the widow with the enormous
turnip.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>57. — Substitute <italic>Nouns</italic> for
<italic>Pronouns</italic> in the follow- ing fable: — A wolf, roving about
in search of food, passed by a door where a child was crying and its nurse
chiding it. As he stood listening, he heard her tell it to leave off crying or
she would throw it to him. So, thinking she would be as good as her word, he
hung about the house, in expectation of a capital supper. But as evening came
on, and it became quiet, he again heard her say that it was now good, and that
if he came for it they would beat him to death. He, hearing this, trotted home
as fast as he could.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>58. — Substitute the <italic>Nouns</italic> for
which <italic>Pronouns </italic>stand in the following story: — A sailor had a
parrot. To all the questions they asked it, it answered "There is no doubt about
it." <footnoteindicator="Asterisk"><paragraphtype="footnote">The pronoun
<italic>it</italic> stands in this sentence for some such noun as
<italic>"the fact."</italic></paragraph></footnote> One day he took
it to the market to sell it, and fixed the price at twenty pounds. A woman asked
the parrot if it was worth twenty pounds? It replied, "There is no doubt about
it." She, delighted with the bird, bought it, and carried it home. Some time
after she repented of her bargain, and said aloud to herself that she was a fool
for having thrown her money away! "There is no doubt about it," sang out the
bird.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>59. — Substitute <italic>Pronouns</italic> for
<italic>Nouns</italic> in the fol- lowing: — Long, long ago, a boy set out
to see the world. The boy wanted very much to see the world. So the boy left
home and walked on till the boy met a woman. The woman asked the <foliofolio_no="D"/><pagebreakpage_no="44"/> boy where the boy was going. The boy answered that the
boy was going to see the world. The world is large, said the woman, but the
woman will go with the boy to see the world. Well, the woman and the boy set
out, and the woman and boy's way led through a dark forest. In the forest there
was a gloomy den where a cruel wolf lived. The wolf came rushing out when the
wolf heard the footsteps of the woman and boy, tore the woman and boy to pieces,
and the cubs of the wolf devoured the woman and boy. So the woman and boy did
not see the world after all.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>60. — Make the following sentences into a con-
tinuous story: — <linebreak/> A bear was bred in the wilds of Siberia. The bear
thought the bear would like to see the world. So the bear travelled from forest
to forest, and from one country to another. One day the bear came by chance into
a farmer's yard. The bear saw a hen drinking by the side of a pool. At every sip
the hen turned up the head of the hen to the sky. The bear asked the hen the
reason. The hen told the bear that turning up the head to the sky was the way of
the hen for returning thanks to heaven. Here the bear burst into a fit of
laughter. The bear mocked the hen. At this the cock, with the cock's wonted
boldness, chided the bear thus: The cock thinks the bear a fool for laughing at
the hen. The hen shows the hen's piety in that way. The bear should not be rude
and mock the hen. The hen and the cock both request the bear to go away
quietly.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>61. — Parse the words in the following story,
according to the following model: — <linebreak/><tablecols="2"rows="10"><row><cell>John</cell><cell>a noun, because it is a name.</cell></row><row><cell>went</cell><cell>a verb, because it is a telling word, and tells some- thing about
<italic>John</italic>.</cell></row><row><cell>to</cell><cell>a preposition, because it connects the nouns <italic>John</italic>
and <italic>town</italic>.</cell></row><row><cell>the</cell><cell>an adjective, because it is a marking word, and marks
<italic>town</italic>.</cell></row><row><cell>old</cell><cell>an adjective, because it marks <italic>town</italic>.</cell></row><row><cell>town</cell><cell>a noun, because it is a name.</cell></row><row><cell>and</cell><cell>a conjunction, because it joins the sentences <italic>John
went</italic> and <italic>John bought</italic>.</cell></row><row><cell>bought</cell><cell>a verb, because it is a telling word, and tells some- thing about
<italic>John.</italic></cell></row><row><cell>two</cell><cell>an adjective, because it marks the noun
<italic>rabbits</italic>.</cell></row><row><cell>rabbits</cell><cell>a noun, because it is a name.</cell></row></table> A donkey, a dog, a cat, and a cock were once travelling together. When
it became dark, they saw a light in a cottage <pagebreakpage_no="45"/> some
distance off. So they made their way up to it, looked throngh the window, and
saw several robbers sitting at table. Well, they laid a plan to secure all the
victuals to themselves. The donkey put his forefeet on the window sill, the dog
mounted on his back, on his shoulders sprang the cat, and the cock flew on the
cat's head. Then the ass brayed and the dog barked, the cat mewed and the cock
crowed "cock-a-doodle- doo." All this so frightened the robbers that they rushed
out of the house and ran off as hard as they could, leaving everything behind
them.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>62. — Make twelve sentences, each containing
the seven kinds of words.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>63. — Write out, in columns, the seven
different kinds of words in the following: — In the pleasant valley of Ashton
lived an old woman. She had a small, neat cottage, and not a weed was visible in
her garden. She depended for support chiefly on her garden — which contained
several strawberry-beds, and two small borders for flowers. The pinks and roses
she made nosegays of, and sold them at Bristol. She did not send her
strawberries to market, because many people came, in the summer-time, from
Bristol, and ate strawberries and cream in her little garden.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>64. — Make twelve sentences, each containing
the seven kinds of words.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>65. — State in which of the following sentences
the following words are <italic>Nouns</italic>, and in which they are
<italic>Adjec- tives: Round, level, good, black, white, green, living, fat:
</italic>— <linebreak/> 1. The cheese is quite round. 2. The butcher sold me a
large round of beef. 3. The moor is one long, dreary level. 4. The ground we
play cricket on is not perfectly level. 5. Telford, the engineer, was a good and
clever man. 6. It is better to do good than to wish for good. 7. President
Lincoln has been much bothered about the blacks. 8. The black ox is not so large
as the white one. 9. The man turned up the whites of his eyes. 10. The country
is no longer green. 11. The boys play in the evening on the village-green. 12.
Tom Jones finds it hard to pick up a living. 13. A living dog is sometimes not
so good as a dead lion. 14. The sheep is very fat. 15. Fat is used to make
candles.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>66. — State in which of the following sentences
the following words are <italic>Nouns,</italic> and in which they are
<italic>Verbs: Round, command, cure, breakfast, hunt, fly, bite: — </italic>
1. We can round the lake in two hours. 2. Our Christmas- -time has been one
round of amusements and fun. 8. We command <pagebreakpage_no="46"/> you to do
this. 4. The sailor refused to obey the cap- tain’s command. 5. His cure was
very slow and tedious. 6. The workmen must have breakfast before we breakfast.
7. The hunt was short and exciting. 8. We hunt every day in the season. 9. The
common fly can walk on the roof. 10. Birds fly more steadily than bats. 11. The
dog recovered of the bite. 12. Cats bite and scratch furiously, when
irritated.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>67. — State what the following words are in
each of the following sentences: <italic>Round, for, still, only, pay, race,
run, people, evil, desire, fancy</italic>: — <linebreak/> 1. We will run
round the ring four times. 2. I gave him sixpence for the plant. 3. I won't go,
for I have been ordered to stay here. 4. Still waters run deep. 5. Johnnie is
still sickly and weak. 6. Jesus stilled the waves. 7. He was the only man in the
room. 8. The general has only two horses. 9. The captain offered to increase his
pay. 10. The race lasted two hours. 11. The horses raced over the moor. 12. The
native people of New Zealand are a long-headed race. 13. The Saxons have peopled
North America. 14. The evil is done. 15. The evil deed could not remain hid. 16.
I have a strong desire to go to Canada. 17. The officers desire their men to
march to London. 18. The dog had a great fancy for the horse. 19. I fancy you
will find him there.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>68. — State in which of
the following sentences the following words are <italic>Adverbs,</italic> and in
which they are <italic>Adjec- tives: Fast, quick, ill, well, little, only,
worse, deep,pretty</italic>: — <linebreak/> 1. Deerfoot is a very fast
runner. 2. The locomotive can run faster than the race-horse. 3. Run quick! 4.
This is not a quick train. 5. The sailor was ill and in bed. 6. He has done the
work ill. 7. John writes well. 8. Mary was quite well. 9. I little expected to
see Smith there. 10. The horse carried the little boys safely. 11. He is an only
son. 12. He gave me only ten apples. 13. The patient is worse. 14. Bob Stores
rode worse than John Gilpin. 15. We must plough deep in the deep, stiff clay.
16. That is a very pretty horse. 17. It is pretty hard to climb that
hill.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise69.</small_caps>— Add <italic>Verbs</italic> to the
following <italic>Nouns</italic> and <italic>Pro- nouns: He, John, she, Mary,
ploughman, cat, grass, they, it, we, cow, book</italic>.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>70. — Add <italic>Nouns</italic> or
<italic>Pronouns</italic> to the following <italic>Verbs: Run, jump, walks,
eats, finds, see, hobble, fly, tell.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>71. — Add <italic>Nouns</italic> to the
following <italic>Adjectives: Green, round, square, long, lame, awkward,
beautiful, nice, sweet, old </italic>.</paragraph><pagebreakpage_no="47"/><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>72. — Work the following like Exercise36: — 1.
All the little birds had laid their heads under their wings, sleeping in feather
beds. 2. Mr. Smith talked on that subject with Mr. Robinson in the mail train,
on the way from Bristol. 3. The labourer fell with his load from the ladder,
through the scaffolding, into a deep pit. 4. That host with their banners at
sunset were seen. 5. The house he built is on a hill, near a wood, beside three
elm trees. 6. Punch stood, in a deep study, on the stage, with his staff in his
hand. 7. The swallows are in their nests with their young ones. 8. Walking up to
the house, he climbed on a tree, and looked through the window, but saw no one.
9. The knight, with his vizor up, in a chain suit of mail, and with his lance in
rest, rode into the lists.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>73. — Write out the
following sentences, and state when the words in italics are
<italic>Verbs,</italic> when <italic>Nouns,</italic> when <italic>Ad-
jectives,</italic> when <italic>Prepositions,</italic> and when
<italic>Conjunctions</italic>: — <linebreak/> 1. We <italic>salt</italic>
fish with <italic>salt,</italic> and so make them <italic>salt.</italic> 2. Tom
can <italic>jump</italic> a long <italic>jump.</italic> 3. We took a long
<italic>walk.</italic> 4. The people <italic>rest</italic> on the day of
<italic>rest.</italic> 5. All the sailors of the Cygnet deserted,
<italic>save</italic> six. 6. God <italic>save</italic> the Queen! 7. The
<italic>master</italic> was unable to <italic>master</italic> his men. 8. He
<italic>works</italic> very hard at his <italic>work.</italic> 9. The
government will <italic>man</italic> the navy with great care; and every
<italic>man</italic> who enters will receive £6 bounty. 10. We had a long
<italic>run</italic> on the beach. 11. You <italic>run</italic> faster than
I. 12. What a dreadful <italic>bore</italic> Sir Peter Longjaw is! 13. The
speeches <italic>bore</italic> the audience extremely.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>74. — Make sentences in which the following
<italic>Adverbs</italic> will be added to <italic>Adjectives: Quite, very,
remarkably, ill, worse, more, extremely, awfully, too.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>75. — Make sentences in
which the following <italic>Adverbs</italic> will modify <italic>Verbs:
Remarkably, worse, abominably, entirely, fully, well, ill, virtuously,
mildly</italic>.<italic></italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>76. — Make sentences in
which the following <italic>Adverbs</italic> will modify <italic>Adverbs: Too,
quite, still, very, almost, entirely, less, more.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>77. — State when the following words, — dear,
cheap, close, hard, high, late, long, load, pretty, right, short, enough, little
— are used as <italic>adjectives</italic> and when as
<italic>adverbs</italic>;<italic></italic>and, when they are
ad<italic>jectives,</italic> place opposite to them, in columns, the nouns
they mark, when <italic>adverbs</italic>, place opposite them the verbs or
adjectives or adverbs they modify: — <linebreak/> 1. The merchant sells cloth at
a very dear rate. 2. I bought my cart very cheap. 3. Don't write so close! 4.
The room was ill ventilated and very close. 5. The ladies strove hard to
<pagebreakpage_no="48"/> ascend the hill. 6. John is a hard taskmaster. 7.
It was blowing very hard that night. 8. His heart beat high to hear the news. 9
Tommie was standing on a very high wall. 10. They arrived too late even for the
late train. 11. Have you waited long? 12. The procession was a mile long. 13.
The boy speaks too loud. 14. We heard a loud noise from the hall. 15. That is a
pretty good book. 16. The boys read pretty well. 17. He dropped right on his
left hand. 18. The short man stopped short in the middle. 19. Mr. Smith knows
that well enough. 20. He did not give the horse corn enough. 21. Little did he
think he would ever see his little boy again.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>78. — Make twelve sentences, each with a
<italic>Pre- position</italic> connecting a <italic>Noun</italic> and a
<italic>Noun.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>79. — Make twelve Sentences, each with a
<italic>Preposi- tion</italic> connecting a <italic>Noun</italic> and a
<italic>Pronoun.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>80. — Insert fitting
<italic>Prepositions</italic> in the blank spaces: — 1. This is the return
he made me <gap/> my attention <gap/> his business <gap/> his severe illness. 2.
I spent six months <gap/> this house <gap/> my uncle. 3. The river flows <gap/>
high banks covered <gap/> flowers. 4. They fell <gap/> the river <gap/> the
deepest part. 5. It happened <gap/> the ball, just as I was leaving the room
<gap/> Henry. 6. I met him <gap/> the room <gap/> the dining-hall. 7. The town
stands <gap/> the banks <gap/> the river Thames. 8. I gave the book <gap/> the
servant <gap/> all-work. 9. The roof <gap/> the house is decayed <gap/> some
places.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise81.</small_caps>— Make twelve sentences, each with a
<italic>Pre- position</italic> connecting a <italic>Pronoun</italic> and a
<italic>Noun.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise82.</small_caps>— Make twelve sentences, each with a
<italic>Pre- position</italic> connecting a <italic>Pronoun</italic> and a
<italic>Pronoun</italic>.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 83. — In the following sentences, the
<italic>Conjunctions </italic>stand between <italic>Verbs expressed</italic>
and <italic>Verbs understood.</italic> Write the <italic>Conjunctions</italic>
and the <italic>Verbs</italic> they connect in columns:— 1. He danced, but not
I. 2. They write better than we. 3. Jones rode all the way, and Smith also. 4.
He thinks more about himself than about his wife. 5<italic>.</italic> The ladies
left, and then the gentlemen. 6. No one grumbled but John. 7. I warned him,
though too late. 8. He worked hard, though so young. 9. He is old and therefore
feeble.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 84. — Make twelve sentences, each with a
<italic>Con- junction</italic> connecting a <italic>Verb expressed</italic>
and a <italic>Verb understood.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 85. — In the following sentences, the
<italic>Conjunctions</italic> stand between a <italic>Verb
understood</italic> and a <italic>Verb expressed.</italic> Write the
<italic>Conjunctions</italic> and the <italic>Verbs</italic> they connect in
columns: — 1. The smith and the carpenter worked in this shop. 2. Though very
sick, he wrote till he could no longer hold the pen. 3. Though lame, he managed
to walk very fast. 4. If dry, the hay will be all the better. 5. The captain and
lieutenant remained on the ground. 6. Though rich, for our sakes he became poor.
7. If mounted, I shall be the better pleased to meet him.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 86. — Write the <italic>Plurals</italic> of:
<italic>Book, stick, cow, horse</italic>, <italic>boy, bottle, field, tree,
hound, weight, thing</italic>, <italic>jug.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 87. — Write the
<italic>Plurals</italic> of: <italic>Box, church, switch, fox, ash, potato,
ass, brush, witch, leech, hero, tax</italic>.<italic></italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 88. — Write the <italic>Plurals</italic> of:
<italic>Lady, folly, toy, duty, day, glory, delay</italic>, <italic>valley,
chimney, baby, ruby, fancy.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 89. — Write the <italic>Plurals</italic> of:
<italic>Calf, knife, wife, leaf, thief, dwarf, grief, sheaf, loaf, chief,
shelf, wolf.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise 9</small_caps>0. — Write the <italic>Plurals</italic>
of: <italic>Man, woman, goose</italic>, <italic>tooth, foot, mouse, sheep, deer,
salmon, brace, score, fish, cannon.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>91. — Write the
<italic>Plurals</italic> of: <italic>Navy</italic>, <italic>king, army,
calf, man-trap, chair, moss, buffalo, sheaf, wish, chimney, body</italic>,
<italic>monarch, play, ox, father-in-law, court-martial.
</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 92. — Write the <italic>Plurals</italic>
of: <italic>Pond, penny, mouse, muff, brother, hoof, orange, city, journey,
deer, scholar, child.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>93. — Write out the words <italic>John,
Edward, Robert</italic>, <italic>Frank, and James,</italic> in the following
sentences, in separate columns, as they belong to either of the five cases: — 1.
John, come here. 2. I gave Frank a top. 3. Edward's cloak is lost. 4. Robert
struck John. 5. How do you do, Tom? <ed_notetype="addition">6.</ed_note>I will
go with you, Frank, to the fair. 7. The baker handed Robert a bun. 8. Edward
kicked James for drinking the cream. 9. The coachman brought Frank's brother
John home. 10. James felt the ant creeping up his leg. 11. John's father made
Frank a beautiful boat. 12. Robert, get Edward a few cherries. 13. John, the
gamekeeper, sent Charles a brace of pheasants. 14. Robert hopes, John, that you
will fetch Edward the stick with which you beat James's brother Frank last
night. 15. Pluck Harry some cherries.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>94. — Make twelve sentences, with four
<italic>Nouns in </italic>the <italic>Nominative</italic> case, four in the
<italic>Possessive,</italic> and four in the
<italic>Dative.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>95. — Make twelve sentences, with six
<italic>Nouns</italic> in the <italic>Objective,</italic> and six in the
<italic>Vocative.</italic></paragraph><pagebreakpage_no="50"/><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 96. — Place the
<italic>Nouns</italic> in the following sentences in five different columns,
for the <italic>Nominative, Possessive, Dative, Vocative</italic>, and
<italic>Objective</italic> cases: — 1. I gave him the book. 2. The
reading-room contains numerous maps. 3. General Baynes offered Colonel Bunch a
thousand pounds. 4. Guard, please unlock this carriage. 5. I want six buns, four
oranges, and two apples. 6. They went to Swan and Edgar's (What noun does the
word <italic>Edgar's </italic>possess?). 7. Have you seen the servant anywhere?
8. The soldier's child is dead. 9. The king granted the duke a hundred acres of
land. 10. They roasted chestnuts all the winter evening.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>97. — Make twelve sentences, with four
<italic>Nomina- tive</italic> cases, four <italic>Possessive</italic>, and
four <italic>Dative.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>98. — Make fifteen sentences, with three
<italic>Nomi- native,</italic> three <italic>Possessive,</italic> three
<italic>Dative,</italic> three <italic>Objective,</italic> and three
<italic>Vocative cases.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>99. — Work this Exerciselike Exercise96: — 1.
The squire gave every farmer a turkey for his Christinas dinner. 2. Robinson
Crusoe found a foot-print on the shore. 3. Tommie, come and help me to carry
this log. 4. The black- smith struck the carpenter with his hammer. 5. The man's
patience was quite worn out. 6. I fetched him the kite from the garret where it
was lying. 7. My uncle brought cousin Charles a brass spinning-top from London.
8. No eye has seen such sights. <italic>9.</italic> Farewell, dear old cottage!
10. The robin red-breast covered the children with leaves.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>100. — Make fifteen sentences, with three
<italic>Nouns </italic>in the <italic>Nominative,</italic> three in the
<italic>Dative,</italic> three in the <italic>Objective</italic>, three in
the <italic>Vocative</italic>, and three in the <italic>Possessive
case.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>101. — State the different cases in which the
<italic>nouns John</italic> and <italic>gardener</italic> are in the
following sentences: — 1. John gave me a nosegay. 2. Gardener, come and help me
to dig up this root. 3. John's hat is missing. 4. The puppy bit the gardener
severely. 5. He gave John a knife. 6. The smith made the gardener a new spade.
7. The coachman struck John with his whip. 8. I bought John a new hat. 9. The
gardener's wife is sick. 10. John, go and bring me some water. 11. The gardener
wants a new set of tools. 12. We gave John twenty new marbles.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>102. — Write eighteen sentences, three with a
<italic>Noun</italic> in the <italic>Nominative,</italic> three with a
<italic>Noun</italic> in the <italic>Possessive.</italic>three with a
<italic>Noun</italic> in the <italic>Dative</italic> or
<italic>Given-to</italic> case, three with a <pagebreakpage_no="51"/><italic>Noun</italic> in the <italic>Dative</italic> or <italic>Done-for
Case,</italic> three with a <italic>Noun</italic> in the
<italic>Objective,</italic> and three with a <italic>Noun</italic> in the
<italic>Vocative</italic> case.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>103. — Write down, in five columns, the
different cases in which <italic>Nouns</italic> are in the following sentences:
— 1. The duke led the army in person. 2. The king's son succeeded him. 3.
Richard pacified the rioters. 4. Ran as hard as you can, Tom! 5. The merchant
made the king a good offer. 6. My uncle bought Tom a Christmas-tree. 7. Henry's
father is now quite well. 8. The news hastened his death. 9. I shall not tell
you, John.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>104. — Write ten sentences, two with a
<italic>Noun</italic> in the <italic>Nominative,</italic> two with a
<italic>Noun</italic> in the <italic>Possessive,</italic> two with a
<italic>Noun</italic> in the <italic>Dative,</italic> two with a
<italic>Noun</italic> in the <italic>Objective,</italic> and two with a
<italic>Noun</italic> in the <italic>Vocative</italic>.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>105. — Write the
<italic>Possessive</italic> of: <italic>Boy, men, boys, man, women, cat,
cousin, fathers, unde, hen, brother, sister, brethren, child, mother,
children, mothers, aunts, cousins</italic>.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>106. — Place, in three
columns, those <italic>Possessives </italic>in the following, which are formed
(i.) by an ' and <italic>s</italic> for the singular, (ii.) by an ', and (iii.)
by an ' and <italic>s,</italic> for the plural: <italic>Horses', horse's,
friends', women's, mothers'</italic>,<italic> priests'</italic>,<italic>
friend's, Henry'</italic>s, <italic>kings', king's, brethren's</italic>,
<italic>men's, man's</italic>, <italic>children's, unde's,
uncles'.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>107. — Place, in separate columns, the
following <italic>Nouns</italic>, according to their gender: <italic>Cousin,
horse, queen, parent, shilling, mare, uncle, bird, cow, boy, book, army,
town, woman, person, grocer</italic>, <italic>shoemaker, miller,
spinner</italic>, <italic>impostor</italic>.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>108. — Write a list of
twelve <italic>Nouns,</italic> three <italic>Mascu- line,</italic> three
<italic>Feminine,</italic> three <italic>Neuter,</italic> and three
<italic>Common</italic>.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>109. — Give the <italic>Feminine</italic> of:
<italic>Boy, gentleman, giant, hunter, heir, he-bear, peacock, emperor,
uncle, brother, mayor, peer.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps>110. — Place, in separate columns, the
following <italic>Pronouns,</italic> as they are singular or plural: <italic>We,
you, thou, they, it, us, them, their, thee, him, her, thine, its.
</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 111— Write out the <italic>Possessive
Singular</italic> and <italic>Plural</italic> of: <italic>Boy, ox, man,
cousin, loaf, goose, tongs</italic>, <italic>echo, bottle</italic>,
<italic>tooth, mouse, bride, lady</italic>, <italic>John, horse</italic>,
<italic>Robert, Catherine, eagle</italic>, <italic>glass, Frank, Maria.
</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 112 — Arrange the
following in columns, as they happen to be <italic>Masculine or Feminine, Neuter
or Common Nouns: Bird, ant</italic>, <italic>countess, neighbour, peasant,
child, cousin, infant</italic>, <italic>servant, liar</italic>,
<italic>drunkard, darling, monk, singer</italic>, <italic>nun, mare, gander,
lady, calf, sheep, sow, duck.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise">Exercise 113. — Place, in five separate columns, the
follow- ing Pronouns, as they belong to each of the five cases: <italic>We,
mine, us, me, you, them, it, they, his, her, yours, my, our, thee, him, its,
theirs, ours, she, thou, your, their.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>114. — Give the <italic>Feminine</italic> of
the following twelve Names: <italic>Uncle, lion, tutor, sir, peer, master, lord,
duke, ram, giant, colt, father, hero.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>115. — Give the <italic>Masculine</italic> of
the following twelve Names: <italic>Prophetess, tigress, bride, lass, doe,
goose, hind, spawner, roe, belle, girl, queen</italic>.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>116. — Make fifteen sentences, three with
<italic>you</italic> in the <italic>Nominative,</italic> three with
<italic>you</italic> in the <italic>Possessive,</italic> three with
<italic>you </italic>in the <italic>Dative,</italic> three with
<italic>you</italic> in the <italic>Objective,</italic> and three with
<italic>you</italic> in the <italic>Vocative</italic> case.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>117. — In what cases
are <italic>he</italic> and <italic>you,</italic> in the following sentences: —
1. His father has sailed to the polar seas. 2. You are quite wrong. 3. Come up
here, you fellows! 4. I offered him a shilling for the boat. 5. He has quite
forgotten the circumstance. 6. The gardener struck him with a spade. 7. His
cousins played him a trick. 8. They promised you the book. 9. We did him an
injustice. 10. I saw you in the garden.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>118.—State the
<italic>Genders</italic> of the <italic>Conjunctive Pro- nouns</italic> in
the following sentences: <italic>— </italic> 1. Tom Jones, who drives the cart,
Is dead. 2. Sally, who lives in our alley, is not well. 3. The dog that barked
so loud, was shot. 4. The boys, who were skating, fell in. 5. I will shoot the
first person who attempts to leave the ship. 6. The people who were with him now
deserted their leader. 7. He recited to me the very words that were said. 8. The
boys, whose fathers were present, were glad to see them again. 9. They killed
the kittens which you saw.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>119. — Compare the following
<italic>Adjectives</italic>:<italic> White, round, green, brown, black,
tall,<footnoteindicator="Asterisk">It is not good taste to say tallish
or shortish; it is considered better to use the other form of the
Sub-positive, and to say, rather tall, rather short. The same is the
case with the other words marked so *.</footnote>short,* steep,* busy,*
high,* great,* smooth.*</italic></paragraph><!-- Repeating Footnotes, what to do? --><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>120. — Compare: Splendid, pleasant,
magnificent, interesting, welcome, accomplished, foolish, excellent.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise 121.</small_caps>— Select the <italic>Adjectives</italic>
in the <italic>Comparative</italic><pagebreakpage_no="53"/><italic>Degree</italic> in the following sentences, and place on each side of
them the two names that have been compared: — 1. John is taller than Tom. 2. I
don't think we have ever seen a finer building than this church. 3. The hippopo-
tamus is a fatter animal than the elephant. 4. A bloodier battle never was
fought. 5. His temper is pleasanter than Tom's. 6. Ben Nevis is higher than
Snowdon. 7. One good book is better than many bad books. 8. Mr. Hunt is a more
skilful artist than your friend. 9. The wind was higher yesterday than to-day.
(Is it the names <italic>yesterday</italic> and <italic>to-day</italic> that are
here compared, or two winds?)</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise 122</small_caps>. — State when the words in the
<italic>Comparative Degree</italic>, in the following sentences, are
<italic>Adverbs</italic> and when <italic>Adjectives</italic>: —
<linebreak/> 1. I like Tom better than his brother. 2. This flour is better than
that. 3. A more beautiful building has seldom been erected. 4. The wind blew
harder as night came on. 5. I dislike the place more and more. 6. There were
more people in the inn than you saw. 7. He writes worse than ever. 8. This
drawing is worse than your last. 9. The invalid is much better to-day. 10. He
reads better than he did last half.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>123. — Write the
<italic>possessive singular</italic> and <italic>possessive plural</italic>
of the following <italic>Nouns; Man, horse</italic>, <italic>sheep, goat,
glutton, sloth, child, woman, peasant, baby, wolf, lady, dog,
monarch.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>124. — Write out the
following <italic>Nouns</italic>, in four columns, — one for the
<italic>masculine gender,</italic> one for the <italic>feminine,
</italic>one for the <italic>neuter,</italic> and one for <italic>either gender:
Book, cow, eagle, cousin, shop, man</italic>, <italic>baron, patron, ink,
brother, baroness, lady, lion</italic>, <italic>apple, toy, friend</italic>,
<italic>neighbour, lad, street, widow</italic>.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>125. — Write out six
<italic>Nouns</italic> in the <italic>masculine gender; </italic>six in the
<italic>feminine;</italic> six that are <italic>neuter;</italic> and six
that are <italic>common.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>126. — Write the
<italic>feminine</italic> of the following: <italic>Shep- herd, hero,
father, goat, actor, emperor</italic>, <italic>brother, gentleman,
lion</italic>, <italic>author, landgrave, tiger, earl, uncle, monk, he-ass,
prophet, king</italic>, <italic>son, he-bear</italic>.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>127.—State the
<italic>gender</italic> of the following: <italic>Duchess, nun, niece,
bride</italic>, <italic>child</italic>, <italic>friend, princess, agent,
sultana, giantess, duke, emperor, table, chair, daughter, aunt,
hind.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>128. — Write out all the
<italic>Pronouns,</italic> in their <italic>singu- lar</italic> and
<italic>plural</italic> forms.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>129. — Select all the
<italic>Pronouns</italic> in the <italic>possessive </italic>case from the
following: — <linebreak/><pagebreakpage_no="54"/> 1. My box is quite as good as yours. 2. Our horse is
in the stable. 3. Her hat is on the table. 4. This stick is not his. 5. I lived
six months in their house. 6. Your plough is old and broken. 7. That book is not
theirs, but ours. 8. My cottage stands near a brook. 9. His foot is rather
short.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>130. — Write the <italic>Pronouns</italic> in
the following sen- tences, in different columns, according as they are in the
<italic>Dative</italic> or <italic>Objective</italic> case: — 1. Tom made me
a little cart. 2. His uncle promised him a gold watch. 3. The blacksmith struck
him on the head. 4. The cobbler told us a long story. 5. The boys love him much.
6. Her aunt showed her the workbox. 7. The fire caught her. 8. I gave them
half-a-crown. 9. Send us the boots as soon as possible. 10. Our uncle will bring
you a new set of books. 11. Mr. Scott Russell built him a yacht. 12. Lend us the
bats and wickets. 13. Our friend saw them in the field. 14. They dragged him
along. 15. The carpenter mended it very well. 16. We saw you first. 17. The
joiner made us a new chair. 18. The blow injured them very much.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>131. — State whether
the <italic>Pronouns</italic> in the following sentences are in the
<italic>Nominative,</italic> or <italic>Vocative</italic>, or
<italic>Objective</italic> cases: 1. They saw that the ship was sailing. 2.
You villains! what do you mean? 3. I shall never forget the horrors of that
night. 4. As we gazed where our ship had been, a blank was before us. 5. Go to
the ant, thou sluggard! 6. They hoisted us on board. 7. Andrew, what say you to
this? 8. We must not lose courage, but put our trust in Providence. 9. You
overlooked them.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>132. — Select all the
<italic>Conjunctive</italic> or <italic>Relative Pro- nouns</italic> from
the following sentences: — 1. You, who saw them, can tell. 2. I am sure that you
are wrong. 3. I see the golden helmet, that shines far off like flame. 4. And
many more, whose names on earth are dark. (Is this a complete statement?) 5.
There is a reaper, whose name is Death. (Is this a complete statement?) 6. The
man whom yon saw in the field has just come into the house. 7. A strong breeze
sprang up, which sent her at the rate of seven knots an hour. (To what does the
word <italic>which</italic> in this sentence relate?) 8. In that case, we shall
stop here; that will be better than running the risk that we ran before. (Which
of the three <italic>thats</italic> in this sentence is a <italic>Relative
Pronoun</italic>?) 9. The glittering summits of the iceberg were seen to
bear forward, and, with a crash which could be heard by us at so great a
distance, to fall prostrate in the water.</paragraph><pagebreakpage_no="55"/><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>133. — Work the
following like Exercise 131: — I. He is in town. 2. I saw him. 3. His aunt gave
him three shillings. 4. O Thou who dwellest in heaven! hear and aid me. 5. His
horse shied, and threw him heavily on his head. 6 Our house is smaller than
yours. 7. The directors have offered us the loan of their new hall. 8. We are
not so stupid as you would have us appear. 9. Nothing could have given them
greater pleasure.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>184. — Draw out a tabular form of the
<italic>Pronouns </italic>according to the following model: — <linebreak/><tablecols="5"rows="3"><rowrole="heading"><cell>Nom.</cell><cell>Poss.</cell><cell>Dat.</cell><cell>Obj.</cell><cell>Voc.</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>I</cell><cell>My or Thine</cell><cell>Me</cell><cell>Me</cell><cell>(Wanting)</cell></row><rowrole="data"><cell>Thou</cell><cell>Thy or Thine</cell><cell>Thee</cell><cell>Thee</cell><cell>Thou</cell></row></table></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>135. — Make three sentences containing the
pro- noun <italic>who</italic>, three with the word <italic>that,</italic> three
with the word <italic>which, </italic>three with <italic>whose</italic>, and
three with <italic>whom</italic>.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>136. — State, in
columns, in which degree the following <italic>Adjectives</italic> are: Afore,
<italic>less, best, most, excellent, wider, prettier, ill, most, more,
elegant</italic>, <italic>jolliest, thicker,
widest</italic>.<italic></italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>137. — State to what the word
<italic>who</italic> relates in the following sentences: — 1. The landlord,
who had just killed the pig, locked the door. 2. The thief, who was covered with
blood, was horribly frightened. 3. I saw the poor boy who was singing yesterday.
4. All the men, who knew this very well, came flocking about him. 5. Once on a
time there was a woman who went out to hire a herdsman. 6. An old man in Germany
had seven sons, who were each three feet and a half high. 7. Little Thumbikin,
who was drowned in a pot of melted butter, was very tiny. 8. A little further
on, I saw a man in a boat, who was catching eels in an odd way. 9. I am the man
who is lord over this island.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise</small_caps> 138. — Compare, that is, write out upon the
four steps, <italic>Sub-Positive<footnoteindicator="Asterisk">In all these
cases, the form "rather rich," "rather large," must be used for the
<italic>Sub-positive.</italic></footnote>, Positive, Comparative,</italic> and
<italic>Superlative</italic>, the following
<italic>Adjectives</italic>:<italic> Rich, large, little, good, bad, near,
gay, high, strong, sharp, ripe, late, old, far, noble, swift, brave.
</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>139. — Tell the degrees of comparison of the
following <italic>Adjectives</italic>:<italic> Blackish, darkest, neater,
pretty</italic>, <italic>prettiest, whitish, larger, best, clearest,
fresh</italic>, <italic>broadest, flatterer, most transparent</italic>,
<italic>weaker, elder, older, sunny, noisiest, more infirm, <pagebreakpage_no="56"/> braver, more wonderful, healthier, yellowish, most
beautiful, better, longest, most disobedient.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise 140.</small_caps>— Compare, that is, write out upon the
four steps the following <italic>Adjectives</italic>: <italic>Hard, dear,
imprudent</italic>, <italic>quick, strong, mountainous, fat, delicate,
sweet, wretched, rigorous, rich, happy</italic>, <italic>clever,
painful</italic>, <italic>monstrous</italic>, <italic>tempestuous, high,
low</italic>.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>141. — Join the present and past tenses of
<italic>think, make, know, do, have, and blow, </italic>to <italic>I, thou,
he, she, it, we, you</italic>, and <italic>they.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>142. — Write out every word in the following
sentences in this way: <linebreak/><tablecols="2"rows="2"><row><cell>He</cell><cell>He pronoun, nominative or named case, singular number, masculine
gender. This word is in the <italic>named case, </italic>because it
is named for the purpose of saying <italic>jumps</italic> about
it.</cell></row><row><cell>jumps</cell><cell>verb or telling word, asserted of the pronoun <italic>he,
</italic>— and therefore having the form for the third person and
singular number, — present time.</cell></row></table> 1. He jumps. 2. They sing. 3. She wrote. 4. We knew. 5. You thought. 6.
I do.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>143. — To what <italic>Pronouns</italic> can
the following <italic>Verbs </italic>be joined: <italic>Are, knew, runs, did,
dost</italic>, <italic>walk, walks, walked, is, am, were, was.
</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>144. — Write out the <italic>Verb Be</italic>
as given in the grammar.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>145. — Write about the parts of the
<italic>Verb Be,</italic> in the following sentences, in this way: — <tablecols="2"rows="2"><row><cell>Being</cell><cell>adjectival form of verb <italic>be,</italic> marking the noun John
(in Sentence 6) and in the present time.</cell></row><row><cell>Are</cell><cell>verb, asserted of the pronoun <italic>we</italic> (in Sentence 1),
and, therefore, in the first person, and plural number.</cell></row></table> Are 1. We are. 2. He is. 3. He was. 4. Be quiet! 5. You were. 6. Being
ill, John could not see me. 7. Thou art. 8. I am. 9. Being so big, Charles could
not come in at the door.</paragraph><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>146. — Write out the <italic>Verbs jump</italic>
and <italic>think,</italic> like the <italic>Verb Be</italic> in your grammar.
<paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>147. — State in what <italic>Tense</italic>
the <italic>Verbs</italic> in the following sentences are: — 1. He had no
thought of how strong a wind blew outside the bar. 2. We saw Tom in town. 3.
They were not aware of the fact. 4. The cook makes very good mince pies,
<pagebreakpage_no="57"/> 5. He thinks they like plum-pudding. 6. The ladies
have three boxes, four portmanteaus, eight band-boxes, two bird- cages, and a
small hamper. 7. That is all. 8. I wish I were two miles hence. 9. Captain
Wilkes knew very little about international law, though he had on board a great
many law books.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>148. — State in what <italic>Mood</italic> the
<italic>Verbs</italic> are in <small_caps>Exercise
147</small_caps>.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>149. — Write out all the parts of the
<italic>Verb Be </italic>that are <italic>singular,</italic> all that are
<italic>plural;</italic> all that are of the <italic>first person</italic>
and all that are of the <italic>second person;</italic> and all that are the
same in form, with the <italic>Pronouns</italic> they may go with.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>150. — Turn all the <italic>Past
Tenses</italic> in Exercise 147 into <italic>Present Tenses;</italic> and
all the <italic>Present Tenses</italic>.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>151. — State when the parts of the
<italic>Verb Be,</italic> in the following sentences, are in the
<italic>Conjunctive form</italic>: — 1. I would run down, if he were nearer,
and visit him. 2. I won’t go, unless you be there. 3. I will see him, though he
be a swindler. 4. I do not think you could do it, if you were ever so tall. 5.
We shall not find him at the station, unless we be in time. 6. We shall
certainly bring the eatables, if we be there at all.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>152. — State what
<italic>Conjunctions</italic> join the pairs of sentences in each of the
above examples.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>153. — Parse the <italic>Pronouns,
Conjunctions</italic>, and <italic>parts</italic> of the <italic>Verb
Be</italic> in the first three examples in Exercise 151, according to the
following pattern :— <linebreak/><tablecols="2"rows="4"><row><cell>I</cell><cell>pronoun of the first person, singular number, in the named or
nominative case.</cell></row><row><cell>him</cell><cell>pronoun of the third person, singular number, in the
<italic>done-to</italic> or objective case.</cell></row><row><cell>if</cell><cell>conjunction or sentence-connecting word, connecting the sentence
"I would visit him," with the sentence "he were nearer."</cell></row><row><cell>were</cell><cell>third person, singular number, past tense, conjunctive form of the
<italic>verb be</italic> — of the same person and number as the
word <italic>he</italic>.</cell></row></table></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>154. — Parse the last three sentences in
Exercise 151, according to the above model.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise </small_caps>155. — Make six pairs of sentences, joined by
the <italic><italic>Conjunctions</italic> though</italic>,
<italic>unless,</italic> and <italic>if.</italic></paragraph><pagebreakpage_no="58"/><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise 156.</small_caps> — Compare the Adverbs: <italic>Fast,
gaily, quick, soon, sulkily, angrily, often, seldom,
splendidly</italic>.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise 157.</small_caps> — Compare the following Adverbs, when
they can be compared: <italic>Ill, clumsily, gaily, cheap, once, sometimes,
ably, eloquently, fast, dear, likely, here, hence, why, perhaps, lately,
stupidly, warmly.</italic></paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise 158.</small_caps> — Make sentences, each containing one of
the Adverbs in Exercise 156.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise 159.</small_caps> — Make sentences, each containing one of
the Adverbs in the first half of Exercise 157.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise 160.</small_caps> — Make sentences,
each containing one of the Adverbs in the last half of Exercise 157.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise 161.</small_caps> — Make sentences,
each containing one of the Adverbs in Exercise 156, but in the
<italic>Comparative Degree</italic>.</paragraph><paragraphtype="exercise"><small_caps>Exercise 162.</small_caps> — Make sentences, each containing one of
the Adverbs in Exercise 156, but in the <italic>Superlative
Degree</italic>.</paragraph></div1></div0><div0description="back_matter"><div1description="imprint"><paragraph>A. Ireland and Co., Printers, Pall Mall Court, Market Street,
Manchester.</paragraph></div1></div0></grammar_text></grammar_book>