Reinhold Niebuhr, (born June 21, 1892, Wright City, Missouri, U.S.—died June 1, 1971, Stockbridge, Massachusetts), American Protestant theologian who had extensive influence on political thought and whose criticism of the prevailing theological liberalism of the 1920s significantly affected the intellectual climate within American Protestantism. His exposure, as a pastor in Detroit, to the problems of American industrialism led him to join the Socialist Party for a time. A former pacifist, he actively persuaded Christians to support the war against Hitler and after World War II had considerable influence in the U.S. State Department. His most-prominent theological work was The Nature and Destiny of Man, which was planned as a synthesis of the theology of the Reformation with the insights of the Renaissance.

Early life

Niebuhr was the son of Gustav and Lydia Niebuhr, who had emigrated to the United States at an early age from Germany. Gustav Niebuhr was a minister of the Evangelical Synod of North America, a denomination with a Lutheran and Reformed German background that merged into the Evangelical and Reformed Church in 1934. At an early age Reinhold Niebuhr decided to emulate his father and become a minister. He graduated from his denomination’s Elmhurst College, Illinois (1910), and Eden Theological Seminary, St. Louis, Missouri (1913), and completed his theological education at Yale University, receiving a bachelor of divinity degree (1914) and a master of arts (1915). He was ordained to the ministry of the Evangelical Synod in 1915.

Pastor and theologian

Niebuhr served as pastor of Bethel Evangelical Church in Detroit from 1915 to 1928. His earliest writings exhibit the religious liberalism and social idealism that pervaded the theological atmosphere of the time. But his experience in Detroit—and especially his exposure to the American automobile industry before labour was protected by unions and by social legislation—caused him to become a radical critic of capitalism and an advocate of socialism. His Leaves from the Notebook of a Tamed Cynic (1929) is an account of his years in Detroit. Niebuhr left the pastoral ministry in 1928 to teach at Union Theological Seminary in New York City, where he served as professor of applied Christianity (from 1930) and was a great intellectual and personal force until his retirement in 1960.

As a theologian Niebuhr is best known for his “Christian Realism,” which emphasized the persistent roots of evil in human life. In his Moral Man and Immoral Society (1932) he stressed the egoism and the pride and hypocrisy of nations and classes. Later he saw these as ultimately the fruit of the insecurity and anxious defensiveness of humans in their finiteness; here he located “original sin.” He emphasized the tendency for sin—in the form of destructive pride—to appear on every level of human achievement, especially where claims to perfection were made, either in religious or political terms. His powerful polemics against liberal beliefs in assured progress and radical utopian hopes have caused a neglect of his more-hopeful teaching concerning the image of God in all men that is never completely destroyed by sin and concerning “common grace” that is not dependent on recognized Christian redemption in personal or collective life. Also, he was himself a hopeful political activist and emphasized the good that could be achieved if pretentions were overcome. His outlook is well expressed in his statement that “the saints are tempted to continue to see that grace may abound, while sinners toil and sweat to make human relations a little more tolerable and slightly more just.” He always had faith in what he called “indeterminate possibilities” for humanity in history as long as men did not deceive themselves into thinking that absolute solutions of historical problems were in their control. Though he did much to encourage the revival of the theology of the Reformation, with its emphasis on sin and grace—so-called Neo-orthodoxy—his salient theological work, The Nature and Destiny of Man, 2 vol. (1941–43), was planned by him as a synthesis both of the insights of the Reformation and of the Renaissance, with its hopefulness about cultural achievements.

His distance from the strongly Christocentric forms of Protestant Neo-orthodoxy can be seen in his unusual attitude toward the Jewish community. He was perhaps the first Christian theologian with ecumenical influence who developed a view of the relations between Christianity and Judaism that made it inappropriate for Christians to seek to convert Jews to their faith.

Political activist

His early political activities were influenced by his socialist convictions (he was a founder of the Fellowship of Socialist Christians), and he ran for office several times on the Socialist ticket. In the 1930s he broke with the Socialist Party over its pacifist or noninterventionist attitude in foreign policy, and in the 1940s he became a left-wing, anti-Communist Democrat. He was a founder and for a time chairman of the Americans for Democratic Action and he was vice chairman of the Liberal Party in the state of New York. In the 1930s he was much influenced by Marxist theory, but he rejected Marxist absolutism and both the tactics of Communists in the United States and Stalinism in the Soviet Union.

He did much to persuade Christians influenced by pacifism to support the war against Hitler. He himself had been a pacifist as a result of his revulsion against World War I, but during the 1930s he became the strongest theological opponent of any form of pacifism that claimed to have universally applicable nonviolent solutions of political problems. Identifying himself with the resistance to Hitler within Germany, he opposed a vindictive peace after World War II, and he had considerable influence with the policy planners in the U.S. State Department. He was a strong supporter of the United States’ resistance to Soviet political expansion in Europe during the postwar years. His political activity ended during the early stage of the Cold War, but his later thought showed his capacity to transcend the outlook of that period. His book The Irony of American History (1952), while justifying American anti-Communist policies, gave much attention to criticism of American messianism and the American tendency to engage in self-righteous crusades. He always attacked American claims to special virtue. Early he favoured the recognition by the United States of Communist China, and he was an early opponent of American participation in the Vietnam War. He regarded as an error attempts to impose U.S. solutions on the new countries that emerged out of the colonial empires after World War II.

In addition to the works mentioned above, Niebuhr’s writings include Faith and History: A Comparison of Christian and Modern Views of History (1949), a theological orientation; The Self and the Dramas of History (1955), probably his profoundest philosophical work; and The Structure of Nations and Empires (1959), his chief systematic discussion of international relations. Four volumes of essays, some of which are essential for understanding Niebuhr’s thought and his influence on events, are Christianity and Power Politics (1940); Christian Realism and Political Problems (1953); Pious and Secular America (1958); and Faith and Politics: A Commentary on Religious, Social, and Political Thought in a Technological Age, ed. by Ronald H. Stone (1968). Love and Justice, ed. by D.B. Robertson (1957), is a collection of shorter writings showing Niebuhr’s response to events; Children of Light and Children of Darkness: A Vindication of Democracy and a Critique of Its Traditional Defence (1944), a brief but comprehensive discussion of social ethics.

Niebuhr was an editor of The World Tomorrow, a religious pacifist and socialist journal; Christianity and Crisis, a biweekly with wide-ranging social and religious concerns; and a quarterly, now discontinued, first named Radical Religion and later Christianity and Society. He married Ursula M. Keppel-Compton in 1931. His wife was herself a teacher of religion at Barnard College in New York City, and they worked closely together. After 1952 Niebuhr’s public activities were seriously limited as the result of a stroke, but he was able to continue much of his teaching and writing.

Assessment

Niebuhr’s enormous influence on political thought, both inside and outside the church, caused Hans J. Morgenthau, an eminent political scientist, to say that Niebuhr was “the greatest living political philosopher of America.” He was probably the most-popular preacher in university chapels from the early 1920s to the early 1950s. Many contemporary Christians trace their conviction that Christianity makes sense to the influence of his preaching. He was not a specialized scholar in any field, including theology, but his broad learning and his original and incisive thought made him the subject of many theses and other scholarly writings, and he exercised a seminal influence on scholarship and thought in a variety of fields.

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