Global Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases

In recent years, the dominance of chronic diseases as major contributors to total global mortality has emerged and has been previously described in detail elsewhere. By 2005, the total number of cardiovascular disease (CVD) deaths (mainly coronary heart disease, stroke, and rheumatic heart disease) had increased globally to 17.5 million from 14.4 million in 1990. Of these, 7.6 million were attributed to coronary heart disease and 5.7 million to stroke. More than 80 percent of the deaths occurred in low and middle income countries (WHO, 2009e).

Based on 2007 to 2010 data, 33% of US adults ≥ 20 years of age have hypertension. This represents ~ 78 million US adults with hypertension. The prevalence of hypertension is similar for men and women. African American adults have among the highest prevalence of hypertension (44%) in the world.

Risk Factors for Peripheral arterial disease (PAD)

Dec 04, 2007 Viewed: 799

The risk factors for PAD are those that are expected for any patient population with atherosclerosis. The most potent risk factors for PAD are age, diabetes mellitus, and cigarette smoking. In addition, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, and elevations in plasma homocysteine levels play an important role in promoting peripheral atherosclerosis.

Age
All forms of cardiovascular disease become more prevalent with age, and PAD is particularly prevalent in the elderly. In several studies, the risk of PAD increased approximately twofold for every 10-year increase in age.

Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes is a major risk factor for PAD; persons with diabetes were four to five times more likely to develop claudication than nondiabetics. The major risk for PAD due to diabetes appears to be the association of smoking, hypertension, and byperlipidemia with diabetes, and not the degree of glycemic control per se. Thus, diabetes is a critical risk factor in the development of PAD, particularly in conjunction with other risk factors.

Cigarette Smoking
Cigarette smoking is associated with an approximate three- to fourfold increase in risk for peripheral atherosclerosis. In addition, current cigarette smoking also significantly affects PAD outcomes. For example, progression from intermittent claudication to ischemic rest pain with risk of amputation occurs significantly more frequently in patients who continue to smoke than those who are abstinent.

Hyperlipidemia
Independent risk factors for PAD include a reduced HDL cholesterol level, and elevations of total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and lipoprotein(a). For every 10 mg/dL increase in total cholesterol concentration, the risk of PAD increases approximately 10%.

Hypertension
The presence of hypertension increases risk of PAD approximately two- to threefold.

Homocysteine
Alterations in homocysteine metabolism are a recognized independent risk factor for PAD. Homocysteine promotes the formation of oxidized LDL cholesterol, endothelial dysfunction, and the proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells. Perhaps the most common cause of elevations in homocysteine levels are nutritional deficiencies of B vitamins, particularly folic acid and vitamins B6 and B12.

Additional Risk Factors
An elevated fibrinogen level is an independent predictor of PAD and also for the severity of claudication. Hypercoagulable states have not been extensively evaluated as risk factors in PAD. The lupus anticoagulant has been associated with peripheral atherosclerosis, as have markers of platelet activation such as increases in beta thromboglobulin levels. However, the frequency of these abnormalities is low and not fully substantiated and therefore does not warrant screening.

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