Bulgaria's population of 7.4 million people is predominantly urbanised and mainly concentrated in the administrative centres of its 28 provinces. Most commercial and cultural activities are centred on the capital and largest city, Sofia. The strongest sectors of the economy are heavy industry, power engineering, and agriculture, all of which rely on local natural resources.

First Bulgarian Empire

Khan Krum feasts with his nobles after the battle of Pliska. His servant (far right) brings the wine-filled skull cup of Nicephorus I.

In 680 Bulgar tribes[14] under the leadership of Asparukh moved south across the Danube and settled in the area between the lower Danube and the Balkan, establishing their capital at Pliska.[28][29] A peace treaty with Byzantium in 681 marked the beginning of the First Bulgarian Empire. The Bulgars gradually mixed up with the local population, adopting a common language on the basis of the local Slavic dialect.[30]

Wars with Magyars and Pechenegs and the spread of the Bogomil heresy weakened Bulgaria after Simeon's death.[37][38] Consecutive Rus' and Byzantine invasions resulted in the seizure of the capital Preslav by the Byzantine army in 971.[39] Under Samuil, Bulgaria briefly recovered from these attacks,[40] but this rise ended when Byzantine emperor Basil II defeated the Bulgarian army at Klyuch in 1014. Samuil died shortly after the battle,[41] and by 1018 the Byzantines had ended the First Bulgarian Empire.[42]

Kaloyan, the third of the Asen monarchs, extended his dominion to Belgrade and Ohrid. He acknowledged the spiritual supremacy of the pope and received a royal crown from a papal legate.[46] The empire reached its zenith under Ivan Asen II (1218–1241), when commerce and culture flourished.[46] The strong economic and religious influence of Tarnovo made it a "Third Rome", unlike the already declining Constantinople.[47]

The country's military and economic might declined after the Asen dynasty ended in 1257, facing internal conflicts, constant Byzantine and Hungarian attacks and Mongol domination.[46][48] By the end of the 14th century, factional divisions between the feudal landlords and the spread of Bogomilism had caused the Second Bulgarian Empire to split into three tsardoms—Vidin, Tarnovo and Karvuna—and several semi-independent principalities that fought each other, along with Byzantines, Hungarians, Serbs, Venetians and Genoese. By the late 14th century the Ottoman Turks had started their conquest of Bulgaria and had taken most towns and fortresses south of the Balkan mountains.[46]

Ottoman rule

Tarnovo was captured by the Ottomans after a three-month siege in 1393. After the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396 brought about the fall of the Vidin Tsardom, the Ottomans conquered all Bulgarian lands south of the Danube. The nobility was eliminated and the peasantry was enserfed to Ottoman masters,[49] with much of the educated clergy fleeing to other countries.[50] Under the Ottoman system, Christians were considered an inferior class of people. Thus, Bulgarians, like other Christians, were subjected to heavy taxes and a small portion of the Bulgarian populace experienced partial or complete Islamisation,[51] and their culture was suppressed.[50] Ottoman authorities established the Rum Millet, a religious administrative community which governed all Orthodox Christians regardless of their ethnicity.[52] Most of the local population gradually lost its distinct national consciousness, identifying as Christians.[53][54] However, the clergy remaining in some isolated monasteries kept it alive, and that helped it to survive as in some rural, remote areas,[55] as well as in the militant Catholic community in the northwestern part of the country.[56]

The Treaty of San Stefano was signed on 3 March 1878 by Russia and the Ottoman Empire, and included a provision to set up an autonomous Bulgarian principality roughly on the territories of the Second Bulgarian Empire.[60][61] The other Great Powers immediately rejected the treaty out of fear that such a large country in the Balkans might threaten their interests. It was superseded by the subsequent Treaty of Berlin, signed on 13 July, provided for a much smaller state comprising Moesia and the region of Sofia, leaving large populations of Bulgarians outside the new country.[60][62] This played a significant role in forming Bulgaria's militaristic approach to foreign affairs during the first half of the 20th century.[63]

The Bulgarian principality won a war against Serbia and incorporated the semi-autonomous Ottoman territory of Eastern Rumelia in 1885, proclaiming itself an independent state on 5 October 1908.[64] In the years following independence, Bulgaria increasingly militarised and was often referred to as "the Balkan Prussia".[65][66]

Between 1912 and 1918, Bulgaria became involved in three consecutive conflicts—two Balkan Wars and World War I. After a disastrous defeat in the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria again found itself fighting on the losing side as a result of its alliance with the Central Powers in World War I. Despite fielding more than a quarter of its population in a 1,200,000-strong army[67][68] and achieving several decisive victories, at Doiran and Dobrich, the country capitulated in 1918. The war resulted in significant territorial losses, and a total of 87,500 soldiers killed.[69] More than 253,000 refugees immigrated to Bulgaria from 1912 to 1929 due to the effects of these wars,[70] placing additional strain on the already ruined national economy.[71]

The political unrest resulting from these losses led to the establishment of a royal authoritarian dictatorship by Tsar Boris III (1918–1943). Bulgaria entered World War II in 1941 as a member of the Axis but declined to participate in Operation Barbarossa and saved its Jewish population from deportation to concentration camps.[72] The sudden death of Boris III in the summer of 1943 pushed the country into political turmoil as the war turned against Germany and the communist guerrilla movement gained momentum. The government of Bogdan Filov subsequently failed to achieve peace with the Allies. Bulgaria did not comply with Soviet demands to expel German forces from its territory, resulting in a declaration of war and an invasion by the USSR in September 1944.[73] The communist-dominated Fatherland Front took power, ended participation in the Axis and joined the Allied side until the war ended.[74]

The left-wing uprising of 9 September 1944 led to the abolition of monarchic rule, but it was not until 1946 that a one-partypeople's republic was established.[75] It became a part of the Soviet sphere of influence under the leadership of Georgi Dimitrov (1946–1949), who laid the foundations for a rapidly industrialising Stalinist state which was also highly repressive with thousands of dissidents executed.[76][77][78] By the mid-1950s standards of living rose significantly,[79] while political repressions were lessened.[80] By the 1980s both national and per capita GDPs quadrupled,[81] but the economy remained prone to debt spikes, the most severe taking place in 1960, 1977 and 1980.[82] The Soviet-style planned economy saw some market-oriented policies emerging on an experimental level under Todor Zhivkov (1954–1989).[83] His daughter Lyudmila bolstered national pride by promoting Bulgarian heritage, culture and arts worldwide.[84] In an attempt to erase the identity of the ethnic Turk minority, an assimilation campaign was launched in 1984 which included closing mosques and forcing ethnic Turks to adopt Slavic names. These policies (combined with the end of communist rule in 1989) resulted in the emigration of some 300,000 ethnic Turks to Turkey.[85][86]

Under the influence of the collapsing of the Eastern Bloc, on 10 November 1989 the Communist Party gave up its political monopoly, Zhivkov resigned, and Bulgaria embarked on a transition to a parliamentary democracy.[87] The first free elections in June 1990 were won by the Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP, the freshly renamed Communist Party).[88] A new constitution that provided for a relatively weak elected president and for a prime minister accountable to the legislature was adopted in July 1991. The new system initially failed to improve living standards or create economic growth—the average quality of life and economic performance remained lower than under communism well into the early 2000s.[89] A 1997 reform package restored economic growth, but living standards continued to suffer.[90] After 2001 economic, political and geopolitical conditions improved greatly,[91] and Bulgaria achieved high Human Development status.[92] It became a member of NATO in 2004[93] and participated in the War in Afghanistan. After several years of reforms it joined the European Union in 2007 despite continued concerns about government corruption.[94]

Geography

Bulgaria occupies a portion of the eastern Balkan peninsula, bordering five countries—Greece and Turkey to the south, Macedonia and Serbia to the west, and Romania to the north. The land borders have a total length of 1,808 kilometres (1,123 mi), and the coastline has a length of 354 kilometres (220 mi).[95] Its total area of 110,994 square kilometres (42,855 sq mi) ranks it as the world's 105th-largest country.[96][97] Bulgaria's geographic coordinates are 43° N25° E.[98]

The Balkan mountains run laterally through the middle of the country. The mountainous southwest of the country has two alpine ranges—Rila and Pirin, which border the lower but more extensive Rhodope Mountains to the east.[95] Bulgaria is home to the highest point of the Balkan peninsula, Musala, at 2,925 metres (9,596 ft)[99] and its lowest point is sea level. Plains occupy about one-third of the territory, while plateaus and hills occupy 41 per cent.[100] The country has a dense network of about 540 rivers, most of which are relatively small and with low water levels.[101] The longest river located solely in Bulgarian territory, the Iskar, has a length of 368 kilometres (229 mi). Other major rivers include the Struma and the Maritsa in the south.[95]

Bulgaria has a dynamic climate, which results from its being positioned at the meeting point of Mediterranean and continental air masses and the barrier effect of its mountains.[95] Northern Bulgaria averages 1 °C (1.8 °F) cooler and registers 200 millimetres (7.9 in) more precipitation annually than the regions south of the Balkan mountains. Temperature amplitudes vary significantly in different areas. The lowest recorded temperature is −38.3 °C (−36.9 °F), while the highest is 45.2 °C (113.4 °F).[102]Precipitation averages about 630 millimetres (24.8 in) per year, and varies from 500 millimetres (19.7 in) in Dobrudja to more than 2,500 millimetres (98.4 in) in the mountains. Continental air masses bring significant amounts of snowfall during winter.[103]

Environment

Bulgaria adopted the Kyoto Protocol[104] and achieved the protocol's objectives by reducing carbon dioxide emissions from 1990 to 2009 by 30 percent.[105] However, pollution from factories and metallurgy works and severe deforestation continue to cause major problems to the health and welfare of the population.[106] In 2013, air pollution in Bulgaria was more severe than any other European country.[107] Urban areas are particularly affected by energy production from coal-based powerplants and automobile traffic,[108][109] while pesticide usage in the agriculture and antiquated industrial sewage systems produce extensive soil and water pollution with chemicals and detergents.[110] Bulgaria is home to Maritsa Iztok-2, a lignite-fired power station causing the highest damage costs to health and the environment in the entire European Union according to the European Environment Agency.[111] It is the only EU member which does not recycle municipal waste,[112] although an electronic waste recycling plant opened in June 2010.[113] The situation has improved in recent years, and several government-funded programs have been put into place in an attempt to reduce pollution levels.[110] According to Yale University's 2012 Environmental Performance Index, Bulgaria is a "modest performer" in protecting the environment.[114] Over 75% of surface rivers meet the standards for good quality. An improvement of water quality began in 1998 and has maintained a sustainable trend of moderate improvement.[115]

In 1998, the Bulgarian government approved the National Biological Diversity Conservation Strategy, a comprehensive programme seeking the preservation of local ecosystems, protection of endangered species and conservation of genetic resources.[127] Bulgaria has some of the largest Natura 2000 areas in Europe covering 33.8% of its territory.[128]

Politics

Bulgaria is a parliamentary democracy in which the most powerful executive position is that of prime minister.[91] The political system has three branches—legislative, executive and judicial, with universal suffrage for citizens at least 18 years old. The Constitution of Bulgaria provides also possibilities of direct democracy.[129] Elections are supervised by an independent Central Election Commission that includes members from all major political parties. Parties must register with the commission prior to participating in a national election.[130] Normally, the prime minister-elect is the leader of the party receiving the most votes in parliamentary elections, although this is not always the case.[91]

Political parties gather in the National Assembly, which consists of 240 deputies elected to four-year terms by direct popular vote. The National Assembly has the power to enact laws, approve the budget, schedule presidential elections, select and dismiss the Prime Minister and other ministers, declare war, deploy troops abroad, and ratify international treaties and agreements. The president serves as the head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and has the authority to return a bill for further debate, although the parliament can override the presidential veto by a simple majority vote of all members of parliament.[91]

Until February 2013 GERB had 117 seats in the National Assembly, ruling as a minority government without support from the other political parties in the parliament.[133] The government resigned on 20 February 2013 after nationwide protests caused by high costs of utilities, low living standards[134] and the failure of the democratic system.[135] The protest wave was marked by self-immolations, spontaneous demonstrations and a strong sentiment against political parties.[136] As a consequence, the Parliament was dissolved and a new provisional government was set up by the President. The subsequent snap elections in May 2013 elections resulted in a narrow GERB win.[137] However, with no support from the other three political parties that entered the parliament, on 24 May, GERB leader Borisov returned the president's mandate to try and form a government. The Bulgarian Socialist Party nominated ex-Finance Minister Plamen Oresharski for the post of Prime Minister in May 2013.[138][139] Only two weeks after its initial formation the Oresharski government came under opposition criticism and had to deal with large-scale protests some with more than 11 000 participants.[140] The government survived five votes of no-confidence before voluntarily resigning[141] on 23 July 2014.[142] On 6 August, a caretaker government led by Georgi Bliznashki was sworn into office and the Oresharski government was officially dissolved.[143]

Bulgaria has a typical civil law legal system.[147] The judiciary is overseen by the Ministry of Justice. The Supreme Administrative Court and Supreme Court of Cassation are the highest courts of appeal and oversee the application of laws in subordinate courts.[130] The Supreme Judicial Council manages the system and appoints judges. Bulgaria's judiciary, along with other institutions, remains one of Europe's most corrupt and inefficient.[148][149][150][151]

Law enforcement is carried out by organisations mainly subordinate to the Ministry of the Interior.[152] The National Police Service (NPS) combats general crime, maintains public order and supports the operations of other law enforcement agencies.[153] NPS fields 27,000 police officers in its local and national sections.[154] The Ministry of Interior also heads the Border Police Service and the National Gendarmerie—a specialised branch for anti-terrorist activity, crisis management and riot control. Counterintelligence and national security are the responsibility of the State Agency for National Security, established in 2008.[155]

Administrative divisions

Bulgaria is a unitary state.[156] Since the 1880s, the number of territorial management units has varied from seven to 26.[157] Between 1987 and 1999 the administrative structure consisted of nine provinces (oblasti, singular oblast). A new administrative structure was adopted in parallel with the decentralisation of the economic system.[158] It includes 27 provinces and a metropolitan capital province (Sofia-Grad). All areas take their names from their respective capital cities. The provinces subdivide into 264 municipalities.

Municipalities are run by mayors, who are elected to four-year terms, and by directly elected municipal councils. Bulgaria is a highly centralised state, where the national Council of Ministers directly appoints regional governors and all provinces and municipalities are heavily dependent on it for funding.[130]

Foreign relations

The EU parliament in Brussels. Bulgaria is one of 28 member states of the European Union.

Bulgaria became a member of the United Nations in 1955 and since 1966 has been a non-permanent member of the Security Council three times, most recently from 2002 to 2003.[159] Bulgaria was also among the founding nations of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) in 1975. It joined NATO on 29 March 2004, signed the European Union Treaty of Accession on 25 April 2005,[93][160] and became a full member of the European Union on 1 January 2007.[94] Polls carried out seven years after the country's accession to the EU found only 15% of Bulgarians felt they had personally benefited from membership, with almost 40% of the population saying they would not bother to vote in the 2014 EU elections.[161] Euro-Atlantic integration became a priority for the country since the fall of Communism, although the Communist leadership also had aspirations of leaving the Warsaw Pact and joining the European Communities by 1987.[162][163][164]

Bulgaria's relationship with its neighbours since 1990 has generally been good. The country also plays an important role in promoting regional security.[165] Bulgaria has an active tripartite economic and diplomatic collaboration with Romania and Greece,[166] maintains strong relations with EU members, the United States, and Russia, and continues to improve its traditionally good ties with China[167] and Vietnam.[168] The HIV trial in Libya, which followed after the imprisonment of several Bulgarian nurses in Benghazi in 1998, had a significant impact on relations between Bulgaria, the European Union, and Libya. It resulted in the release of the nurses by Muammar Gaddafi's government, which was granted a contract to receive a nuclear reactor and weapons supplies from France in exchange.[169]

Military

Bulgaria hosted six KC-135 Stratotanker aircraft and 200 support personnel for the war effort in Afghanistan in 2001, which was the first stationing of foreign forces on its territory since World War II.[13] International military relations were further expanded in April 2006, when Bulgaria and the United States signed a defence cooperation agreement providing for the usage of Bezmer and Graf Ignatievo air bases, the Novo Selo training range, and a logistics centre in Aytos as joint military training facilities.[170] The same year Foreign Policy magazine listed Bezmer Air Base as one of the six most important overseas facilities used by the USAF due to its proximity to the Middle East.[171] A total of 756 troops are deployed abroad[when?] as part of various UN and NATO missions. Historically, Bulgaria deployed significant numbers of military and civilian advisors in Soviet-allied countries, such as Nicaragua[172] and Libya (more than 9,000 personnel).[173]

Domestic defence is the responsibility of the all-volunteermilitary of Bulgaria, consisting of land forces, navy and air force. The land forces consist of two mechanised brigades and eight independent regiments and battalions; the air force operates 106 aircraft and air defence systems in six air bases, and the navy operates a variety of ships, helicopters and coastal defence measures.[174] Following a series of reductions beginning in 1990, the number of active troops contracted from 152,000 in 1988[175] to about 32,000 in the 2000s,[176] supplemented in 2010 by a reserve force of 302,500 soldiers and officers and 34,000 paramilitary servicemen.[177] The inventory is mostly of Soviet origin, such as MiG-29 fighters, SA-10 Grumble SAMs and SS-21 Scarab short-range ballistic missiles. As of 2012[update], the government planned to spend $1.4 billion[clarification needed] for the deployment of new fighter jets, communications systems and cyber warfare capabilities.[178] Total military spending in 2009 cost $819 million.[clarification needed][179][needs update]

Economy

Bulgaria has an emerging market economy[180] in the upper middle income range,[181] where the private sector accounts for more than 80 per cent of GDP.[182] From a largely agricultural country with a predominantly rural population in 1948, by the 1980s Bulgaria had transformed into an industrial economy with scientific and technological research at the top of its budgetary expenditure priorities.[183] The loss of COMECON markets in 1990 and the subsequent "shock therapy" of the planned system caused a steep decline in industrial and agricultural production, ultimately followed by an economic collapse in 1997.[184][185] The economy largely recovered during a period of rapid growth several years later,[184] but the average salary remains one of the lowest in the EU at 952 leva (€488) per month in March 2016.[186] More than a fifth of the labour force are employed on a minimum wage of €1 per hour.[187] Wages, however, account for only half of the total household income,[188] owing to the substantial informal economy which amounts to almost 32% of GDP.[189] Bulgarian PPS GDPper capita stood at 47 per cent of the EU average in 2014 according to Eurostat data,[190] while the cost of living was 48 per cent of the average.[191] The currency is the lev, which is pegged to the euro at a rate of 1.95583 levа for 1 euro.[192] Bulgaria is not part of the eurozone and has abandoned its plans to adopt the euro.[193]

Economic indicators have worsened amid the financial crisis of 2007–2008. After several consecutive years of high growth, GDP contracted 5.5 per cent in 2009 and unemployment remains above 12 per cent.[194][195] Industrial output declined 10 per cent, mining by 31 per cent, and ferrous and metal production marked a 60 per cent drop.[196] Positive growth was restored in 2010,[195] although investments and consumption continue to decline steadily due to rising unemployment.[197] The same year, intercompany debt exceeded €51 billion, meaning that 60 per cent of all Bulgarian companies were mutually indebted.[198] By 2012, it had increased to €83 billion, or 227 per cent of GDP.[199] The government implemented strict austerity measures with IMF and EU encouragement to some positive fiscal results, but the social consequences of these measures have been "catastrophic" according to the International Trade Union Confederation.[200]Corruption remains another obstacle to economic growth. Bulgaria is one of the most corrupt European Union members and ranks 75th in the Corruption Perceptions Index.[201] Weak law enforcement and overall low capacity of civil service remain as challenges in curbing corruption. However, fighting against corruption has become the focus of the government because of the EU accession, and several anti-corruption programs have been undertaken by different government agencies.[202]

Bulgaria (orange) and its largest export partners by share of total exports.

Economic activities are fostered by the lowest personal and corporate income tax rates in the EU,[203] and the second-lowest public debt of all member states at 16.5 per cent of GDP in 2012.[204] In 2013, GDP (PPP) was estimated at $119.6 billion, with a per capita value of $16,518.[205] Sofia and the surrounding Yugozapaden planning area are the most developed region of the country with a per capita PPS GDP of $27,282 in 2011.[206] Bulgaria is a net receiver of funds from the EU. The absolute amount of received funds was €589 million in 2009.[207]

The labour force is 2.45 million people,[208] of whom 7.1 per cent are employed in agriculture, 35.2 per cent are employed in industry and 57.7 per cent are employed in the services sector.[209] Extraction of metals and minerals, production of chemicals, machinery and vehicle components,[210]petroleum refining[211] and steel are among the major industrial activities.[212] Mining and its related industries employ a total of 120,000 people and generate about five per cent of the country's GDP.[213] Bulgaria is Europe's sixth-largest coal producer.[213][214] Local deposits of coal, iron, copper and lead are vital for the manufacturing and energy sectors.[215] Almost all top export items of Bulgaria are industrial commodities such as oil products, copper products and pharmaceuticals.[216] Bulgaria is also a net exporter of agricultural and food products, of which two-thirds go to OECD countries.[217] It is the largest global producer of perfumery essential oils such as lavender and rose oil.[13][218] Agriculture has declined significantly in the past two decades. Production in 2008 amounted to only 66 per cent of that between 1999 and 2001,[216] while cereal and vegetable yields have dropped by nearly 40 per cent since 1990.[219] Of the services sector, tourism is the most significant contributor to economic growth.[220] In recent years, Bulgaria has emerged as a travelling destination with its inexpensive resorts and beaches outside the reach of the tourist industry.[221][222]Lonely Planet ranked it among its top 10 destinations for 2011.[223] Most of the visitors are British, Romanian, German and Russian.[224] The capital Sofia, the medieval capital Veliko Tarnovo,[225] coastal resorts Golden Sands and Sunny Beach and winter resorts Bansko, Pamporovo and Borovets are some of the locations most visited by tourists.[220]

Internet usage has increased rapidly since 2000—the number of users grew from 430,000 to 3.4 million (48 per cent penetration rate) in 2010.[242] Telephone services are widely available, and a central digital trunk line connects most regions.[243] More than 90 per cent of fixed lines are served by the Bulgarian Telecommunications Company (BTC),[244] while mobile services are provided by three operators—Mtel, Telenor and Vivacom.[245]

Miscellaneous

According to the organization Mensa Bulgarians are second in the world in test results for intelligence and Bulgarian students have the second highest results on SAT.[246][247] According to Mensa tests conducted in 2004, the most clever woman (among the smartest people) is determined Bulgarian Daniela Simidchieva who achieves IQ of 200.[248]

Infrastructure

Bulgaria's strategic geographic location and well-developed energy sector make it a key European energy centre despite its lack of significant fossil fuel deposits.[249] Nearly 34 percent of its electricity is produced by the nuclear power station at Kozloduy[250] and public opinion strongly supports nuclear energy development.[251] The rapid expansion of alternative energy sources such as wind and solar power stations[252] make Bulgaria one of the fastest-growing wind energy producers in the world.[253] The country aims to produce 16 percent of its electricity from renewable energy sources by 2020.[254]

The national road network has a total length of 40,231 kilometres (24,998 mi),[255] of which 39,587 kilometres (24,598 mi) are paved, but nearly half fall into the lowest international rating for paved roads.[243] Railroads are a major mode of freight transportation, although highways carry a progressively larger share of freight. Bulgaria has 6,238 kilometres (3,876 mi) of railway track[243] and currently a total of 81 km of high-speed lines are in operation.[256][257][258][259] Rail links are available with Romania, Turkey, Greece, and Serbia, and express trains serve direct routes to Kiev, Minsk, Moscow and Saint Petersburg.[260] Sofia and Plovdiv are the country's air travel hubs, while Varna and Burgas are the principal maritime trade ports.[243] Varna is also scheduled to be the first station on EU territory to receive natural gas through the South Stream pipeline.[261]

Demographics

The population of Bulgaria is 7,364,570 people according to the 2011 national census. The majority of the population, or 72.5 per cent, reside in urban areas;[262] approximately one-sixth of the total population is concentrated in Sofia.[263][264]Bulgarians are the main ethnic group and comprise 84.8 per cent of the population. Turkish and Roma minorities comprise 8.8 and 4.9 per cent, respectively; some 40 smaller minorities comprise 0.7 per cent, and 0.8 per cent do not self-identify with an ethnic group.[1]

All ethnic groups speak Bulgarian, either as a first or as a second language. Bulgarian is the only language with official status and native for 85.2 per cent of the population. The oldest written Slavic language, Bulgarian is distinguishable from the other languages in this group through certain grammatical peculiarities such as the lack of noun cases and infinitives, and a suffixed definite article.[266][267]

Government estimates from 2003 put the literacy rate at 98.6 per cent, with no significant difference between the sexes. Educational standards have been traditionally high,[268] although still far from European benchmarks and in continuing deterioration for the past decade.[269] Bulgarian students were among the highest-scoring in the world in terms of reading in 2001, performing better than their Canadian and German counterparts; by 2006, scores in reading, math and science had deteriorated. State expenditures for education are far below the European Union average.[269] The Ministry of Education, Youth and Science partially funds public schools, colleges and universities, sets criteria for textbooks and oversees the publishing process.[270] The State provides free education in primary and secondary public schools.[268] The educational process spans through 12 grades, where grades one through eight are primary and nine through twelve are secondary level.[270] High schools can be technical, vocational, general or specialised in a certain discipline, while higher education consists of a 4-year bachelor degree and a 1-year master's degree.[271]

The Constitution of Bulgaria defines it as a secular state with guaranteed religious freedom, but designates Orthodoxy as a "traditional" religion.[272] The Bulgarian Orthodox Church gained autocephalous status in 927 AD,[273][274] and currently has 12 dioceses and over 2,000 priests.[275] More than three-quarters of Bulgarians subscribe to Eastern Orthodoxy.[276]Sunni Muslims are the second-largest community and constitute 10 per cent of the religious makeup, although a majority of them do not pray and find the use of Islamic veils in schools unacceptable.[277] Less than three per cent are affiliated with other religions, 11.8 per cent do not self-identify with a religion and 21.8 per cent refused to state their beliefs.[276]

Bulgaria has a universal healthcare system financed by taxes and contributions.[278] The National Health Insurance Fund (NHIF) pays a gradually increasing portion of the costs of primary healthcare.[279] Projected healthcare expenditures for 2013 amount to 4.1 per cent of GDP.[280] The number of doctors is above the EU average with 181 physicians per 100,000 people,[281] but distribution by fields of practice is uneven, there is a severe shortage of nurses and other medical personnel, and the quality of most medical facilities is poor.[282] Personnel shortages in some fields are so severe that patients resort to seeking treatment in neighboring countries.[283] Bulgaria ranks 113th globally by average life expectancy, which stands at 73.6 years for both genders.[284] The primary causes of death are similar to those in other industrialised countries, mainly cardiovascular diseases, neoplasms and respiratory diseases.[278]

Bulgaria is in a state of demographic crisis.[285][286] It has had negative population growth since the early 1990s, when the economic collapse caused a long-lasting emigration wave.[287] Some 937,000 to 1,200,000 people—mostly young adults—left the country by 2005.[287][288] The total fertility rate (TFR) was estimated in 2013 at 1.43 children born/woman, which is below the replacement rate of 2.1.[289] A third of all households consist of only one person and 75.5 per cent of families do not have children under the age of 16.[286] Consequently, population growth and birth rates are among the lowest in the world[290][291] while death rates are among the highest.[292] The majority of children are born to unmarried women (of all births 57.4 per cent were outside marriage in 2012).[293]

While major sections of Bulgaria's media are controlled by state entities, including Bulgarian National Television, the Bulgarian National Radio, and the Bulgarian Telegraph Agency, reporting is generally deemed to be unbiased by direct government interference, although there is no specific legislation to maintain this.[322] Written media has no legal restrictions,[323] and a large number of private television and radio stations also exist. Despite this, traditional Bulgarian media outlets are experiencing negative economic and political pressures, and instances of self-censorship have emerged. Meanwhile, internet media is growing in popularity due to its lack of censorship and the diversity of content and opinions it presents.[324]

Stefka Kostadinova is the reigning world record holder in the women's high jump at 2.09 m, which she jumped during the 1987 World Championships in Athletics in Rome. Her world record is one of the oldest in modern athletics. Altogether Kostadinova set seven world records - three outdoors and four indoors. She also holds the women's world record for having jumped over 2.00 m 197 times.

^Roberts, Benjamin W.; Thornton, Christopher P. (2009). "Development of metallurgy in Eurasia". Department of Prehistory and Europe, British Museum. p. 1015. Retrieved 8 June 2012. In contrast, the earliest exploitation and working of gold occurs in the Balkans during the mid-ﬁfth millennium BC, several centuries after the earliest known copper smelting. This is demonstrated most spectacularly in the various objects adorning the burials at Varna, Bulgaria (Renfrew 1986; Highamet al. 2007). In contrast, the earliest gold objects found in Southwest Asia date only to the beginning of the fourth millennium BC as at Nahal Qanah in Israel (Golden 2009), suggesting that gold exploitation may have been a Southeast European invention, albeit a short-lived one.

^Thonemann, Peter; Price, Simon (2010). The Birth of Classical Europe: A History from Troy to Augustine. Penguin UK. ISBN978-0141946863. Darius extended the eastern and western boundaries of the empire still further, conquering the Indus Valley and much of modern Bulgaria (ancient Thrace)

^Nagle, D. Brendan (2006). Readings in Greek History: Sources and Interpretations. Oxford University Press. p. 230. ISBN0-19-517825-4. However, one of the Thracian tribes, the Odrysians, succeeded in unifying the Thracians and creating a powerful state

^Hornblower, Simon (2003). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 1515. ISBN0-19-860641-9. Shortly afterwards the first King of the Odrysae, Teres attempted to carve an empire out of the territory occupied by the Thracian tribes (Thuc.2.29 and his sovereignty extended as far as the Euxine and the Hellespont)

^Ivanov, Lyubomir (2007). ESSENTIAL HISTORY OF BULGARIA IN SEVEN PAGES. Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. p. 2. Retrieved 20 December 2011. In particular, in the mid-4th century a group of Goths settled in the region of Nikopolis ad Istrum (present Nikyup near Veliko Tarnovo in northern Bulgaria), where their leader Bishop Wulfila (Ulfilas) invented the Gothic alphabet and translated the Holy Bible into Gothic to produce the first book written in Germanic language.

^"The Spread of Christianity". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 27 July 2014. Although Boris's baptism was into the Eastern church, he subsequently wavered between Rome and Constantinople until the latter was persuaded to grant de facto autonomy to Bulgaria in church affairs.

^"Reign of Simeon I". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 27 July 2014. Bulgaria's conversion had a political dimension, for it contributed both to the growth of central authority and to the merging of Bulgars and Slavs into a unified Bulgarian people.

^Crampton, R.J. (2007). Bulgaria. Oxford University Press. p. 12. ISBN978-0-19-954158-4. No single act did more, in the long run, to weld Christian Slav and Proto-Bulgar into a Bulgarian people than the conversion of 864.

^"Reign of Simeon I". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 4 December 2011. Under Simeon's successors Bulgaria was beset by internal dissension provoked by the spread of Bogomilism (a dualist religious sect) and by assaults from Magyars, Pechenegs, the Rus, and Byzantines.

^Pavlov, Plamen (2005). "The plots of 'master Presian the Bulgarian'". Rebels and adventurers in medieval Bulgaria (in Bulgarian). LiterNet. Retrieved 20 December 2011. And, in the Spring of 1018, "the party of capitulation" prevailed and Basil II freely entered the then capital of Bulgaria Ochrid.

^Ivanov, Lyubomir (2007). ESSENTIAL HISTORY OF BULGARIA IN SEVEN PAGES. Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. p. 4. Retrieved 20 December 2011. The capital Tarnovo became a political, economic, cultural and religious centre seen as 'the third Rome' in contrast to Constantinople's decline after the Byzantine heartland in Asia Minor was lost to the Turks during the late 11th century.

^"The Golden Horde". Library of Congress Mongolia country study. Retrieved 4 December 2011. The Mongols maintained sovereignty over eastern Russia from 1240 to 1480, and they controlled the upper Volga area, the territories of the former Volga Bulghar state, Siberia, the northern Caucasus, Bulgaria (for a time), the Crimea, and Khwarizm

^ abc"Bulgaria – Ottoman rule". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 21 December 2011. With the capture of a rump Bulgarian kingdom centred at Bdin (Vidin) in 1396, the last remnant of Bulgarian independence disappeared. ... The Bulgarian nobility was destroyed—its members either perished, fled, or accepted Islam and Turkicization—and the peasantry was enserfed to Turkish masters.

^Chenoweth, Erica (2010). Rethinking Violence: States and Non-State Actors in Conflict. Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs. p. 129. ISBN978-0-262-01420-5. Bulgaria, for example, had a net surplus of refugees and was faced with the daunting task of absorbing thousands of Bulgarian refugees from Greece over a relatively short period. While international loans from the Red Cross and other organizations helped to defray the substantial costs of accommodating surplus populations, it placed a strenuous financial burden on states that were still recovering from the war an experiencing economic downturn as well as political upheaval.

^Domestic Policy and Its ResultsQuote: "...real wages increased 75 percent, consumption of meat, fruit, and vegetables increased markedly, medical facilities and doctors became available to more of the population..."

^Bohlen, Celestine (17 October 1991). "Vote Gives Key Role to Ethnic Turks". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 December 2011. in 1980s ... the Communist leader, Todor Zhivkov, began a campaign of cultural assimilation that forced ethnic Turks to adopt Slavic names, closed their mosques and prayer houses and suppressed any attempts at protest. One result was the mass exodus of more than 300,000 ethnic Turks to neighboring Turkey in 1989

^"Bulgaria – Late Communist rule". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 20 December 2011. Bulgaria gave the highest priority to scientific and technological advancement and the development of trade skills appropriate to an industrial state. In 1948 approximately 80 percent of the population drew their living from the soil, but by 1988 less than one-fifth of the labour force was engaged in agriculture, with the rest concentrated in industry and the service sector.

^"Bulgaria Automotive Report". Economist Intelligence Unit. 11 March 2011. Retrieved 20 December 2011. In particular, offset arrangements linked to the contract of Daimler (Germany) to supply vehicles to the Bulgarian armed forces have been boosting the local automotive parts sector.

^Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic culture: A historical encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 156. ISBN1-85109-440-7. Retrieved 20 December 2011. Their influence in Thrace (roughly modern Bulgaria and European Turkey) is very modest, with only occasional samples of armour and jewellery, but they established a kingdom known as Tylis (alternatively Tyle) on the Thracian coast of the Black Sea.

^Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí (2002). The Celts: A history. The Collins Press. p. 50. ISBN0-85115-923-0. Retrieved 20 December 2011. This, however, had little effect on the Celts, who within some years reached as far as Bulgaria. There, in 298 BC, a large body of them clashed with Cassander's army on the slopes of Mount Haemos. ... The power of the Thracians had been reduced by the Macedonians, and now much of the area fell into Celtic hands. Many placenames of that area in ancient times bear witness to the presence of Celtic strongholds

^MacDermott, Mercia (1998). Bulgarian Folk Customs. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. p. 226. ISBN1-85302-485-6. Retrieved 20 December 2011. While dancing round fires and jumping over fires forms part of many Slav customs, dancing on fire does not, and it is therefore likely that nestinarstvo was inherited by the Bulgarians from the Hellenized Thracians who inhabited the land before them.

^Riha, Thomas (1964). Readings in Russian Civilization. University of Chicago press. p. 214. ISBN0-226-71853-0. Retrieved 20 December 2011. And it was mainly from Bulgaria that a rich supply of literary monuments was transferred to Kiev and other centres.

^McNeill, William Hardy (1963). The Rise of the West. The University of Chicago Press. p. 49. ISBN0-226-56141-0. Retrieved 20 December 2011. Accordingly, when Bulgaria was converted to Christianity (after 865), bringing massive Slavic-speaking populations within the pale of Christendom, a new literary language, Old Church Slavonic, directly based upon Bulgarian speech, developed for their use.

^ ab"Bulgaria – The arts". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2011. Retrieved 20 December 2011. The early impetus of Bulgarian traditions in the arts was cut short by the Ottoman occupation in the 14th century, and many early masterpieces were destroyed. ... the foundations were laid for later artists such as Vladimir Dimitrov, an extremely gifted painter specializing in the rural scenes of his native country ... At the beginning of the 21st century, the best-known contemporary Bulgarian artist was Christo, an environmental sculptor known for wrapping famous structures

^"Bulgaria – The arts". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2011. Retrieved 20 December 2011. World classics and modern foreign dramas are typically produced, as well as both modern and traditional Bulgarian plays, including those by Ivan Vazov and poet Peyo Yavorov ... These included poets such as Pencho Slaveykov, Yavorov, and Dimcho Debelyanov ... More recent authors of note include poet Atanas Slavov, Yordan Radichkov, and Blaga Dimitrova.

^Kremenliev, Boris A. (1952). Bulgarian-Macedonian Folk Music. University of California Press. p. 52. Retrieved 20 December 2011. Bulgaria's scales are numerous, and it may be demonstrated that they are a fusion of Eastern and Western influences. ... first, Oriental scales; second, church modes: the osmoglasie ... third, the conventional scales of Western Europe. ... Among the scales which have comes to the Balkans from Asia, the pentatonic is one of the most widely used in Bulgaria. Whether it came from China or Japan, as Dobri Hristov suggests

^Lang, David Marshall (1976). The Bulgarians: from pagan times to the Ottoman conquest. Westview Press. p. 145. ISBN978-0-89158-530-5. John Kukuzel, the eminent Bulgarian/born reformer of Byzantine music.

^Library of Congress – Federal Research Division (October 2006). "Country Profile: Bulgaria"(PDF). Library of Congress. pp. 18, 23. Retrieved 4 September 2009. Mass Media: In 2006 Bulgaria's print and broadcast media generally were considered unbiased, although the government dominated broadcasting through the state-owned Bulgarian National Television (BNT) and Bulgarian National Radio (BNR) and print news dissemination through the largest press agency, the Bulgarian Telegraph Agency. [...]Human Rights: In the early 2000s, Bulgaria generally has been rated highly on the issue of human rights. However, some exceptions exist. Although the media have a record of unbiased reporting, Bulgaria's lack of specific legislation protecting the media from state interference is a theoretical weakness.

^ abc"Bulgaria- Sport and recreation". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2011. Retrieved 20 December 2011. In international sports competition, Bulgarians have excelled in tennis, wrestling, boxing, and gymnastics, but the country's greatest repute may be in weight-lifting. ... Fans of football (soccer), the most popular sport in Bulgaria, were buoyed by the success of the national team in the 1994 World Cup, when it advanced to the semi-final match under the leadership of forward Hristo Stoichkov. The premier league in Bulgaria has 16 teams, of which four play in Sofia: CSKA, Levski, Slavia, and Lokomotiv.