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How to tell if something is ionic

1Ionic compounds have strong electrostatic attractions between their positive and negative ions. These take a lot of energy to break, so will have a very high melting and boiling point.

2Ionic compounds can conduct electricity when dissolved in solution as their ions are free to move and carry charge. When they are solids, however, their ions are held in a fixed lattice so they cannot move and conduct electricity.

3Ionic compounds are soluble in polar solutions like water. They are insoluble in organic solvents like cyclohexane.

4Ionic compounds all form crystal salts. If these are hydrated they will often be brightly coloured. If they are not hydrated they will usually be transparent or white.

5Ionic compounds are made from metal cations bonding to non-metal anions in a giant lattice.

How to tell if something is a giant covalent

1Giant covalent compounds are held together by incredibly strong covalent bonds. These take a lot of energy to break, so will have an incredibly high melting and boiling point.

2Giant covalent compounds do not have anything to carry charge (such as ions or delocalised electrons) so will not conduct electricity. The exception to this rule is graphite, as this has delocalised electrons so can conduct.

3Giant covalent compounds are insoluble in both polar and non-polar solvents. This is because their strong covalent bonds are too strong to be broken by the solvent.

4The three main forms (allotropes) of carbon that are giant covalent compounds are diamond (a beautifully shiny rock), graphite (which looks like the tiles on our roofs) and fullerines. Fullerines have a “football” shape.

5Apart from allotropes of carbon, the most commonly occurring giant covalent compound that crops up in exams is SiO2.

How to tell if something is a simple covalent

1Simple covalent compounds are held together by weak van der Waals forces. These take little energy to break, so have a very low melting and boiling point.

2Simple covalent compounds do not have anything that can carry charge (like ions or delocalised electrons), so they cannot conduct.

3Simple covalent compounds are soluble in non-polar solvents, and insoluble in polar solvents like water.

4Due to their low melting and boiling point, most simple covalent compounds are liquids or gases at room temperature. The halogens will give coloured gases- Cl is pale green, Br is orange, I is an almost black solid which sublimes to a purple gas.

5Simple covalent compounds are made from a non-metal bonding to a non-metal.

These relations can be summarised as: ATOMIC NUMBER = NUMBER OF PROTONS NUMBER OF PROTONS = NUMBER OF ELECTRONS MASS OF ATOM = PROTONS + NEUTRONS Examples: Element Atomic Number Protons Electrons Neutrons Mass Number Na 11 11 11 12 23 C 6 6 6 6 12 U 92 92 92 146 238 Electron Structure The electrons orbit the nucleus in 'shells'. These can hold the following numbers of electrons: The innermost shell can contain up to 2 electrons The next shell can contain up to 8 electrons The next shell can contain up to 8 electrons (although this can be expanded up to 18)

The atomic weight tells you the total number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus. Eg 23 Na The atomic number is 11 . The atomic weight (Ar ) is 23. 7 11 Isotopes are two different atoms of the same element that are only different because they have different atomic weights (different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei) Metals and Non-metals 70,71 Most elements are metals . All of the non-metals are in the top right hand corner of the periodic table.

A long time ago, scientists studied the elements Potassium, Sodium and Lithium and found that they all react alike with water, oxygen and chlorine to produce similar compounds. It had been shown that lithium has a lower rate of reaction than sodium, whereas potassium has a higher rate of reaction than sodium. When you link this with their atomic masses, sodium is yet again the middle element! This same pattern is repeated with other groups of threes, for example: Bromine, Iodine and Chlorine, which eventually became known as the Law of Triads.

Negatively charged electrons orbited the nucleus. Although Lord Rutherford's model of the atom was essentially the same as today's accepted model, its one flaw was that it proposed that the orbiting electrons would eventually lose energy and spiral in towards the nucleus. > 1913: Neils Bohr, a scientist who had studied with Rutherford, modified the model by suggesting that electrons orbit the nucleus at different energy levels. Only electrons with specific amounts of energy could exist at each level. His model proposed that electrons could move from one level to another by gaining or losing 'packets' of energy.

This is now a formula. Compounds A material that is made of more than one element joined together is called a compound. In a compound, the atoms are not just mixed, they are chemically bonded together. A compound such as water has particles known as molecules. Elements may join to become compounds and compounds can change to become other compounds. These changes that make new substances are called chemical reactions. Word equations: Hydrogen + oxygen water Reactants "give off" or "change into" Product In water, there are two hydrogen atoms for every oxygen atom.

In order for any reaction to happen, the particles must first collide. If the concentration is higher, the chances of collision are greater, thus resulting in a greater rate of reaction. Method: First I filled five different test tubes with the five different concentrations of the acid. I measured all of them to 20cm3. Then I collected five different pieces of zinc, and then weighed them on a scale. I recorded these results for later use. I made sure the temperature of the acids was the same using thermometers. I placed each piece of zinc in a different concentration and started the stop watch.

If acid does touch skin wash it off (immediately). - Don't run in labs, no food or drink. - No concentration of hydrochloric acid greater than 2 molar, anything larger is dangerous. - Clean up any spillages immediately. Equipment list: - Boiling tube = this is where the chemical reaction takes place. - Trough of water = contains the water and fills the beehive unit. - Beehive unit = this increases the surface so that the bubbles can be collected. - Delivery tube = carries the hydrogen bubbles. - Bung = stops the hydrogen bubbles from escaping into the surrounding environment.

There properties are similar to other metals: there similarities include malleability, ductility, high conductivity of heat and a high conductivity of electricity. The elements act as reducing elements or otherwise "Donors of electrons" meaning they would prefer to give away electrons in the process of electrovalence rather than gain one to become a noble gas the most stable of all elements. What are the differences between the two sets of elements? s The transition metals are like most metals and hence have the same sort of properties.

Polyethylene is the most widely used plastic that there is. Three polyethylenes are identified as being used in the manufacture of plastic bags because of their density: - Low-density polyethylene, or LDPE - Linear low-density polyethylene, or LLDPE - High-density polyethylene, or HDPE Branching is replacing the polymer chain with other forms or variations of the monomer. It can change the type of the plastic. For thinner plastics, polymers are branched highly. Also, for a plastic bag that is less see through, it needs to be more branched, but also the easier it is to tear.

How are elements arranged: The Periodic table is a display of all the elements that we know of, it is shaped like a rectangular box. The elements are sorted accordingly depending on their atomic structure, which shows their properties. They are arranged by increasing atomic number, which shows the amount of protons a certain element. Some elements have long names, that is why all elements are given an abbreviation which is shared throughout the scientific world. The atomic number could be found at the bottom left-hand corner of the abbreviation.

This ray is also known as an 'electron gun'. Thomson constructed his own electron gun and performed experiments on the rays given out of his gun. Through his experiment he found the rays were attracted to a positive charge. Thomson accurately deduced that the rays themselves must be negatively charged because opposites attract and if they were positive then they would repel. He performed additional experiments where he proved that it would take about 2000 electrons to equal the weight of the lightest atom on the periodic table of elements, hydrogen.

According to a few unofficial surveys, of the billions of people living in the world, only an extremely small percentage of people have heard of the concept of nanotechnology. As there are two sides to every story there are also two adverse effects and opinions of any scientific discovery or invention. Firstly, I will begin by saying that I believe that nanotechnology is the way forward but only to a certain limit of development as afterwards, in my opinion, scientists attempt to play the role of 'God' or whatever greater force they believe in.

Pure aluminum, a silvery-white metal, possesses many desirable characteristics. It is light, it is nonmagnetic and nonsparking, stands second among metals in the scale of malleability, and sixth in ductility.In its early days aluminium was too expensive to be used by everybody. It wasn't until a few discoveries in the 1800s that made extraction of aluminium cheaper. As it became easy to extract aluminium from aluminium oxide and extract large amounts of it from bauxite, hence began an era of cheap aluminium.

A poor heat conductor is a good insulator. Conduction works better in solids and gases because the particles are close together. It works better in carpets because carpets contain trapped air because of the feature it contains. Heat energy travels from hotter places to colder places. Heat will transfer between objects that are at the same temperature. Heat travels in solids bye conduction. Metal are good conductors unlike non-metals. Gases are called insulators as they are poor heat conductors. For example bubble wrap is a really good insulator as it contains pockets of air where the heat molecules can get stuck and cannot escape.

(the molecular mass is found by adding together the relative atomic masses of all the atoms of the molecule) MASS NUMBER, A=NUMBER OF PROTONS+NEUTRONS NUMBER OF NEUTRONS=MASS NUMBER-ATOMIC NUMBER Relative Formula Mass, Mr The relative formula mass is the relative mass of one formula unit of an ionic compound relative to the mass of an atom of carbon 12. (One atom of carbon 12 is given a relative atomic mass of exactly 12). Ions These are atoms which have lost or gained electrons, and are no longer neutral.

This is called a redox reaction. (Science diagrams) Method 1. Put 1.5g of malachite powder into a large test tube and heat it gently until it turns black and stops rising in the test tube. 2. Allow the tube time to cool 3. Add 1.5g of carbon powder and mix well. 4. Heat the mixture strongly until it turns red and you can see some of the pink copper. 5. Let the mixture cool. 6. Separate the copper from the waste by half filling the test tube with water and pouring the mixture into a beaker of cold water.

Buckminsterfullerene was not discovered because people wanted to discover it: it was discovered purely by chance. Scientists were trying to understand about the absorption of interstellar dust and the theorised that they must have long chains of atoms. Further research with a molecular beam proved their theory right (to some extent), as there were not long chains, just one big ball - hence the nickname "Bucky balls". The other allotropes of carbon (diamond and graphite are giant molecular structures whilst Buckminsterfullerene is simple molecular.

can be separated using chemical reaction. Most elements are metals reather than non-metals. Iron, magnesium and gold are examples of metal elements. Oxygen, carbon, sulphur and chlorine are examples of non-metal elements. Differences between metal and non-metal's properties- Metals Non-metals Appearance Shiny Dull State at room temperature Solid (except mercury, which is a liquid) About half are solids, about half are gases, and one (bromine) is a liquid Density High (they feel heavy for their size) Low (they feel light for their size) Strength Strong Weak Malleable or brittle Malleable (they bend without breaking)

This consists of two carbon atoms and four hydrogen atoms (C2H4). The carbon atoms and the hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon are bonded covalently, so each bond (a line on the diagram) consists of 2 electrons. You can see how the second line shows the two electrons separated, i.e. a bond is broken. Next, neighbouring monomers form covalent bonds, using the electrons from the double bond. Likewise, many monomers join together, forming a long chain of monomers, this is a polymer. The polymer of ethane can be called poly(ethane) or polythene or polyethylene.

Check the strip of plastic bag and loop of string hang over the floor. 8. Then the measurements start to be taken: hang the 100 gram weight stand on to the lower loop of string, this weighs 100g. Then slowly and carefully place one 100g weight at a time on to the weight stand until the plastic bag breaks and falls to the floor. 9. Count how many grams of weight have been added, (including the last weight put on which caused the break.) 10. Repeat this experiment with the two remaining strips of plastic from the same bag.

On the basis of solubility, we can determine what chemical ions solution has. For example, this #3 unknown solution have silver, strontium or zinc ions. When we put Cl- with Ag+ Pb2+ Ti+ Hg+ and Hg2+ together, they all have very low solubility, and product precipitate. This solution only probably has Ag+ in Ag+ Pb2+ Ti+ Hg+ and Hg2+, so if we put Cl-- into the solution and product precipitate. It means there is Ag+ in this solution. By parity of reasoning, if we put OH- into the solution, and product precipitate. It means there is Zn2+ in the solution; and also if we put SO42- into the solution, and product precipitate.

This means that it can be used over and over again, and for different purposes, without wearing out or losing colour. Gold only has one stable isotope, which is gold-197 (or ). An isotope is a different type of atoms, where the atomic number (number of protons) is the same, but the number of neutrons is different. Gold doesn't oxidise easily, which means that it doesn't bond with oxygen, as a result of being highly unreactive. It oxidises with nitric acid to Au3+, although to small amounts.