945-712 BCE

Central to the ancient Egyptians was the belief in the afterlife. In order to ensure the survival of the ka, the immortal life-force, the body of the deceased was preserved as the ka’s eternal dwelling. The intricate process of embalming, or mummification, involved removing the internal organs for storage in separate containers, and treating the corpse with a type of salt called natron and various resins. Finally, the corpse was wrapped in linen bandages and enclosed in a cartonnage, a casing of plaster and linen molded to the body, then varnished and painted. This mummy is an exceptional case because X-rays show that an extra adult skull was placed in Teshat’s wrappings between her legs. This may have been the act of grave-robbers, who stole the jewelry and traditional amulets she probably wore.The hieroglyphs on the wooden coffin state that this mummy, Teshat, was the daughter of the treasurer of the Temple of Amon at Thebes. She died in her mid to late teens, one of several wives in a harem. Both coffin and cartonnage bear representations of Teshat’s face in an ideal youthful state. Many protective gods are pictured on the cartonnage in their symbolic forms, together with bands of prayers asking them to accept offerings made on her behalf. Teshat’s elevated status entitled her to burial in a elaborate stone tomb decorated with wall paintings and supplied with food, furniture and clothing to provide for her ka’s comfort in the afterlife.

The Egyptian Collection, described in this number of The Bulletin, has been installed in Gallery B7 on the main floor, and is now on public view. The collection was assembled for Anthony J. Drexel, Jr., some twenty years ago by Brugsch Pasha, who was at that time curator of the Cairo museum. The collection was presented by Mr. Drexel in 1895 to the Drexel Institute in Philadelphia. As the collection was unrelated to the rest of the material in the collections of the Drexel Institute, the Trustees were recently authorized by the donor to dispose of it, and our Society, very fortunately, was able to take advantage of this opportunity, making the purchase from the income of the Dunwoody Fund.The collection includes 701 objects, ranging from sculpture and painting to furniture and utensils of daily life. It forms an excellent nucleus for a department to which we hope it will be possible to add from time to time exceptional examples of Egyptian art. This programme, while optimistic, is still not impossible of execution, although the difficulty of securing important specimens of Egyptian art is increasing rapidly. In the meantime, the present collection affords an adequate illustration of the conditions under which art flourished in the ancient land of the Nile, and of the characteristic forms of art expression which were evolved to meet these conditions.It would be out of place in these pages to attempt anything like a comprehensive account of Egyptian history, religion, and customs. The art of Egypt, however, is so associated with the manners and belief of the ancient people that some account, although necessarily brief, appears desirable.Egypt: The LandThe fertile land of Egypt lies between two long, low chains of mountains, which separate it from the rocky deserts. This narrow valley is watered by the River Nile, which annually brings down from Central Africa and the Abyssinian hills a rich silt, and saturates the soil with moisture. The river served as an easy means of communication between the various settlements, fostering commerce and the wide dissemination of culture. From this resulted the homogenous character of Egyptian civilization. Physical conditions also influenced, as one might expect, the evolution of architectural forms. The rarity of certain classes of material, notably wood, led to the development of an extraordinary technical skill on the part of the craftsmen in the handling of such material more readily available as stone and metal.HistoryThe earliest dawn of Egyptian civilization occurred at so remote a period that it is impossible to establish dates with any certainty. About 4000 B.C., some six or seven hundred years before the beginning of the first historical dynasty, a race of primitive people occupied the Nile valley from the Delta through Upper Egypt into Nubia. They possessed many of the essential elements of civilization, and were skilled to some extent in the arts. In time these prehistoric settlers gradually became grouped into a number of town and village communities, each with its local chief, and, toward the close of the pre-dynastic period, had become merged into two kingdoms, one in the Delta, the other in the valley of Upper Egypt, the union of which, under Menes the first historical king of Egypt, marks the beginning of the dynastic period, about 3400 B.C.The first two dynasties, or royal houses, which succeeded the union of the country prepared the way for the first of the great historical epochs, the Old Kingdom (Dynasties II-VI), the age of the pyramid builders, with Memphis the capital. During Dynasties IV and V, the archaic civilization of Egypt reached its culmination. In art the canons of proportions became fixed, the conventions of representation established, and many technical methods fully developed. Old Kingdom art attainted an excellence seldom equalled and never surpassed in the later periods. At the close of the Old Kingdom, there followed a period of political disunion and economic depression.From this dark age, there emerged the next great period of Egyptian history, that of the Middle Kingdom (Dynasties XI and XII). The downfall of the Old Kingdom had been brought about by the ambition of powerful nobles in conflict with centralized authority. Feudalism was still powerful in the Middle Kingdom; but, by playing one great noble against another, the family of Thebes was able to hold the balance of power and to make Thebes the capital and metropolis. The Middle Kingdom (First Theban Period) was one of increased prosperity. The art of this period is marked by a revival of the archaic traditions of the Old Kingdom, and the crafts by a manifestation of great technical skill. Following the Middle Kingdom came another dark age, from Dynasty XIII to XVII, a period of invasion and subjection to the alien rule of the Hyksos, or shepherd kings, Semitic Bedouin of Palestine.With the expulsion of the Hyksos, there commenced the Second Theban Period, that of Egypt's greatest power and most abundant artistic production. This period (Dynasties XVIII-XXI) is known as the Empire. Instead of a government based on feudalism, as in the Middle Kingdom, we now find authority firmly centralized in the monarch. Foreign wars were carried on with great success, notably under Thothmes III, famous conqueror, organizer, and administrator. Foreign conquest brought with it intercourse and trade with other lands, resulting in a period of great economic prosperity and increased luxury. Art was at first traditional in the main, but architectural monuments were larger and more magnificent than in the preceding ages.At the height of the Empire, however, at a time when Egypt required a firm hand and despotic authority, there came to the throne a religious reformer, Akhenaten (Amenhophis IV). By establishing a new religious sect, Akhenaten attempted to destroy the growing power of the Amon priesthood, and, incidentally, to break with their ancient, heiratic traditions of art. He failed, and the domination of the priestly power over Egyptian society gradually became more and more firmly established. With the conquests of Rameses the Great, there followed a brilliant period of seeming prosperity, but the germs of decay were everywhere evident in the state, and with Dynasty XXI the power of the Amon priesthood had become so great that they placed upon the throne members of their own order. The Empire was at an end. The foreign possessions were lost, and Egypt fell prey to Libyan mercenaries and finally foreign conquerors.One again, however, there was to be a revival of national culture and political power. In Dynasty XXVI, we find for the last time native Egyptian monarchs upon the throne. This renaissance is known as the Saite Period, from the capital city of Sais. Art flourished in this period; but largely as a conscious and artificial revival of Old Kingdom traditions, lacking the vitality of the earlier manifestations. The close of Dynasty XXVI came with the conquest of Egypt, in 525 B.C., by the Persians under Cambyses. Hereafter Egypt was never again to gain her freedom, since whatever partial emancipation had been secured during the Persian occupation was ended by the foreign domination of Egypt under the Ptolmeys. In 30 B.C. Egypt became a Roman province. With the Byzantine and Moslem periods, we are not at present concerned. The ancient glory of Egypt had long departed.Chronological TablePre-Dynastic Period
About 4000-3400 B.C.Accession of Menes and Beginning of Egyptian History
3400 B.C.Early Dynastic Period, I and II Dynasties
3400-2980 B.C.Old Kingdom
III Dynasty 2980-2900 B.C.
IV Dynasty 2900-2750 B.C.
V Dynasty 2750-2625 B.C.
VI Dynasty 2625-2475 B.C.Transitional Period
VII-X Dynasties 2475-2160 B.C.Middle Kingdom
XI Dynasty 2160-2000 B.C.
XII Dynasty 2000-1788 B.C.Hyksos Period
XIII-XVII Dynasties 1788-1580 B.C.The Empire
XVIII Dynasty 1580-1315 B.C.
XIX Dynasty 1315-1200 B.C.
XX Dynasty 1200-1090 B.C.
XXI Dynasty 1090-945 B.C.Late Dynastic Period
XXII Dynasty 945-745 B.C.
XXIII Dynasty 745-718 B.C.
XXIV Dynasty 718-712 B.C.
XXV Dynasty 712-663 B.C.Saite Period
XXVI Dynasty 663-525 B.C.Persian Conquest of Egypt
525 B.C.Persian Period
XXVII and XXVIII Dynasties 525-338 B.C.
XXIX Dynasty 398-379 B.C.
XXX Dynasty 378-341 B.C.Ptolemaic Period
332-30 B.C.Roman Period
30 B.C.-364 A.D.Byzantine (Coptic) Period
364-640 A.D.Arab Conquest of Egypt
640 A.D.Referenced Works of Art

The Institute has recently acquired from the income of the Dunwoody Fund the Drexel Egyptian Collection of about 550 pieces. This collection, which has been on exhibition for many years at the Drexel institute in Philadelphia, was formed for Mr. Anthony J. Drexel, Jr. by Brugsch Pasha when that distinguished Egyptologist was curator of the Cairo museum. The collection was presented by Mr. Drexel to the Drexel Institute. As this collection is unrelated to the rest of the material in the collections of the Drexel Institute, the Trustees were recently authorized by Mr. Drexel to dispose of it.The packing and shipping of the collection will take considerable time and it will probably not be until next fall that the collection can be installed in our Institute and open to the public. In the meantime, a brief account of the material in the collection may be of general interest.Among the objects which will probably be of greatest interest to the public are a group of mummies and coffins dating from the Eighteenth Dynasty through the Ptolemaic period. Five stelae are valuable examples of relief sculpture. An excellent group of sixty-five scarabs illustrates the principal types. In connection with these may be mentioned a number of examples of jewelry and ornaments in gold and faience. To this group belongs seventy-eight small amulets. Twenty-five bronze statuettes of gods, together with seventy-seven small faience figures in particular are notable for their artistic value. Two bronze buckets ornamented with sculpture in relief are extremely important examples. Of the familiar "answerers" or ushabtis in blue faience or polychrome, the collection includes between sixty or seventy examples. A notable piece of sculpture is the Nineteenth Dynasty statuette in wood from Meir. A terracotta canopic head is another fine example. Of alabaster cups and kohl pots there is a representative group of thirty-eight pieces, to which may be added ten other examples in stone or faience. A collection of about one hundred pieces illustrates the principle types of pottery in Egypt. A funerary papyrus in the collection is a rather rare piece. The collection includes several groups illustrating the activities of daily life, examples of furniture and costume and utensils. The collection will form an excellent nucleus to which can be added from time to time fine individual examples of Egyptian art.

BACKGROUND
This mummy cartonnage and coffin of a young girl named Teshat are products of the Egyptian belief in an afterlife. Each person was thought to possess a ka, a spirit which survived death. The ka could live on after death only if it could reunite with the body of the deceased in the afterworld. To facilitate this, it was necessary to preserve the body and make it easily identifiable. This led to the elaborate process of mummification.

In order to provide the ka with the most pleasant possible living quarters for eternity, wealthy families often had the interior walls and ceilings of their tombs decorated with paintings and stone reliefs picturing a variety of everyday scenes and routine activities that reveal much about contemporary Egyptian life. The coffin was also surrounded by an elaborate array of grave-goods, including food, furniture and clothing, intended to provide for the ka 's essential needs in the afterlife. These sometimes included wooden figurines of offering-bearers and other servants; wooden model boats enabled the deceased to make the ritual voyage to Abydos, the cult center of Osiris, by magical proxy.

Ceremonials were performed at burial in the belief that they magically brought to life the deceased as well as the grave goods; they also activated the wall paintings and ritual prayers decorating the coffin and cartonnage.

STYLE
Notice that this cartonnage is divided into registers which underline the regularity and order of Egyptian society. In addition, notice how most of the scenes on the left side are duplicated on the right side, emphasizing the Egyptian love of balance and symmetry as well as their concern to depict the deceased as often as possible. These duplicate images of the deceased were like health insurance. In case something should happen to one of the images, the other would remain.

LADY TESHAT
Teshat was 15 years old when she died. She was entitled to this elaborate mummification because her father was the Treasurer of the Temple of Amon, whose priests chose and installed Pharaohs. (In fact, at this time the priests of Amon were so wealthy and powerful that the Pharaoh could only maintain his position with their consent. Her father therefore held a most prestigious position.) At the time of her death, she was married and a "lady of the house," a member of a harem. Her life must have been fairly leisurely. Many Egyptian women during this time experienced great social freedom including the ability to own property, to invest in businesses, and to learn to read and write.

X-rays reveal that Lady Teshat has no jewelry or amulets, but the presence of an opaque object in the area of her left breast suggests the inclusion of a wrapped heart or a scarab positioned there to replace her heart, which would have been removed during the mummification process.

The X-rays also reveal that an additional skull was placed between Teshat's legs before mummification. This is certainly unusual, and we can only speculate why it is there. It is possible that an embalmer could have made a mistake in an earlier mummification and included the skull here to cover up his mistake. It is impossible to know whether broken bones seen in the x-ray (including crushed ribs and a broken left arm) were sustained before or after Teshat's death.

DECORATION OF THE CARTONNAGE
The cartonnage surrounding the wrapped mummy of Lady Teshat is made of plastered linen which was then painted in flat colors. An analysis of the pigments done by conservation services (see whole report in docent file) yielded the following results:

Red — iron oxide

White — gypsum; calcium carbonate (chalk)

Green — green earth (terra verte)

Blue — Egyptian blue

Black — moderately coarse like bone or Ivory Black

The white fill material (which was applied over the face on the coffin prior to painting to give the wooden surface the proper facial shape) is gypsum with a large amount of quartz.

The face on the cartonnage has been rendered fairly naturalistically, although it is not meant to be "portraiture" in the strict sense of the word. Rather, the facial characteristics have been created in a stylized and idealized manner to symbolize eternal youth. It is clear that the "portrait" was supposed to be recognizable to the ka or spirit of the deceased, but an Egyptian portrait of any given time period bore certain standardized features and tended to resemble the king then in power.

The face is surmounted by a wig, which is dressed with a stylized, multicolored headdress made up of green, white, and light blue pendants divided by bands of vertical green, yellow, and red pigment. The headdress is completed by two finials capping the ends of two braids which have been rendered in a yellow pigment to simulate gold. At the neck of the cartonnage is a stylized funeral collar which is painted in a style and treatment similar to that of the headdress. This collar is included on the cartonnage as a symbolic reminder of those that were actually stitched to the mummy cloths in earlier periods. In the center of this collar is an inset with a depiction of the goddess Maat (goddess of truth, justice, righteousness, etc.) who wears a feather (a glyph for her name, and identical with the feather against which the heart of the deceased was weighed in judgment) and holds the symbol or sign for life, the ankh. The goddess is here depicted seated in the customary way.

Below is a detailed description of the images on the cartonnage (see the diagram on page 23).

A. Maat, the winged goddess of truth, kneeling and crowned by a sun disk and feather and holding an ankh.

B. Horus Behdety (or Horus of Edfu, a form of the Horus falcon as a son of Ra). This form of the Horus falcon depicts Horus in the shape of a winged sun disk and is related to a myth in which Horus assumes this shape in order to fly into the sky and attack the enemies of Ra. It also seems connected with the Horus-Set myths. The central sun disk is further flanked by uraeus serpents which were supposed to spit forth venom to protect the individual concerned from malevolent powers. Thus, the iconography of this piece is one of protective power-the power of the sun combined with the protective power of the uraeus serpent.

C. Osiris, god of the underworld and judge of the dead, is
depicted seated upon a throne. His skin is green like vegetation (an Egyptian convention for representing the deceased based on their belief in renewal following death in this life). He wears a mummiform red garment and the red crown of the Delta (Lower Egypt). He also wears the false beard (a symbol of nobility), the Menyat (a counterpoise to offset the weight of a necklace, often included in funerary settings), and a stole-like garment which has been found on mummies of the third intermediate period and probably bore a ritual significance. The Osiris depicted on the right side holds a flail, while the Osiris on the left (viewer's left) has both crook and flail (symbols of authority). The figure on the left also has an object before him (an offering?).

D. A shrine or facade upon which stand the sons of Horus. Because it was their duty to protect the four organs which were removed from the body during mummification, they were regularly represented on the storage (canopic) jars for these parts. From the viewer's left to right, they are:

jackal-headed Duamtef-protects the stomach

hawk-headed Qebehsenuf-protects the intestines

dog-headed Hapy-protects the lungs

human-headed Imset-protects the liver

Each of these four bear a stole-like garment (probably a kni) in their hands which probably serves a ritual purpose (as an offering?).

E. Osiris, wearing the typical plumed white crown of upper Egypt, false beard, mummiform costume, and menyat, bears the crook and flail and is seated upon a throne. Before him a female figure crowned by a sun disk and also green in skin color offers him an udjat (eye). The figure is clothed in a red garment of Old Kingdom style and wears a collar, bracelets, and anklets. Behind this figure is a composite beast (a winged serpent) seated on a throne, crowned by a sun disk, and grasping the uas scepter, a symbol of dominion and power.

F. The barque (boat or small ship) of Ra or Horus resting upon a shrine or facade and containing a falcon deity.

G. A nome (province) standard or temple standard surmounted by a ram [a representation of Khnum (?) or the sacred ram of Mendes (?)] stands before a composite beast (a lion headed, winged serpent) seated upon a throne. The composite beast holds the uas scepter ( ) and the symbols of life ( ) and eternity ( )—this latter is also rendered "infinity." This figure is crowned by the sun disk and uraeus serpent.

H. Osiris, again in mummiform shape wearing a collar and the stole-like garment as in C, raises himself upon a bier which is decorated with the head, tail, and paws of a lion. Below this bier are a series of crowns. They are from the viewer's left to right:

the blue war crown

the afnet crown

the red crown of Lower Egypt

the white crown of Upper Egypt

The whole scene takes place within an architectural setting. Note: at top of scene.

I. A falcon seated upon a throne, crowned with sun disk and uraeus serpent with an udjat before him. The glyphs identify him as "Horus of Edfu."

J. Two female figures with green flesh color wearing garments identical to those worn by the female figures in E, red hair bands, collars, armlets, and bracelets kneel upon throne-like objects, supporting and making an offering to a djed, a symbol of Osiris' backbone, which means stability, continuity, and eternity. This djed is crowned by the sun disk and feathered crown normally associated with Amon.

Behind these figures is a composite beast (a winged serpent as in E) seated upon a throne and bearing the uas scepter and the symbol for eternity. This beast is also crowned by the sun disk.

K. On the right (viewer's) of the djed (see L) is a standing jackal-headed figure flanking the base of the djed and holding a flail. To the left is a dog-headed figure who similarly supports the djed and holds a flail. Perhaps these two may be identified with the two sons of Horus, Duamutef, and Hapy. The two glyphs, " " and " ", are before the djed and bear the meaning, "lord of the underworld." Behind these figures and glyphs appears a winged serpent with four human (?) legs, wearing the white crown with plumes and the beard, and standing upon an oval form in which lies a mummy. An object or glyph is above the mummy on the right side of the cartonnage. This same sign also appears above the rising Osiris in H. (Possible meaning: "awakening.")

L. The Djed, symbolic of the backbone of Osiris, and meaning "stability."

M. A mummiform falcon wearing the menyat, collar, and the stole-like garment found on Osiris in E. He is flanked by mummiform serpents and by two jackals seated upon thrones (or shrines or facades). They are identified as Upuat (Wepawet) which is a wolf deity whose name means "Opener of the Ways" and who bears strong funereal significance.

N. Udjat, the eye of Horus.

O. The winged goddess Maat or truth (see above also) kneeling and crowned by a sun disk and feather. She wears a red garment, collar, armlets, bracelets, and red hair band as do the female figures in J and E. She is flanked by udjats and by four seated mummiform deities. All hold a cloth (as do the figures in E, the four sons of Horus in D. Perhaps these are the kni garments). Viewer's left to right, there are:

lion-headed figure crowned with two feathers (Renenet?)

serpent-headed figure crowned with two feathers

cow-headed figure holding two knives (Hathor?)

All of these figures wear collars, bracelets, wigs, and the stole-like garment (as Osiris in E). Above them is an inscription reading, "Sekhmet, leader of heaven," and another of uncertain meaning. Since the Sekhmet inscription is placed above the serpent-cow group and as Sekhmet is a lion-headed goddess, it is probable that the inscriptions have been mixed and that the lion-headed goddess to be seen on the extreme left is most likely to be identified as Sekhmet.

P. The uncertain inscription mentioned above.

Q. Division bands which divide the field into registers.

COFFIN INSCRIPTIONS
The hieroglyphic inscriptions on the coffin have been transcribed as follows:

"An offering which the king gives of Re-Harakhati; Atum, Lord of the Two Lands, the Heliopolite; Ptah-Sekar-Osiris, Lord of the Necropolis; Anubis, Lord of Ta-jeser(1) Osiris, Presider over the Westerners (2), Good God, Lord of Abydos, Lord of Eternity, King of Gods, Wenenofre (3), Ruler of Eternity - may they grant offerings and food, beef, fowl, clothing for the ka of the Osiris, the August Lady of the House, Teshat, Daughter of the Doorkeeper of the Gold-House of Amon, Jehutihotpe, beatified."

"The Brilliant land", euphemistic for the Acropolis.

The dead, buried in the western Acropolis.

Not a separate divinity, but an epithet of Osiris; meaning uncertain.

The inscriptions on the two sides are alike in content and written symmetrically:
"An offering which the king gives of Osiris, Presider over the Westerners, Great and Good God, Lord of Abydos, Lord of Eternity - may he grant offerings and food, beef, fowl, clothing for Osiris, the August Lady of the House, Teshat, Daughter of the Door-Keeper of the Gold-House of Amon, Jehutihotpe, beatified."

MUMMIFICATION PROCEDURE
Mummification took 70 days. Each step was coordinated with relevant priestly ceremonies and was watched over by Anubis, the god of mummification.

The brain was removed through the nostrils by metal probes and hooks and was discarded. Generally, the skull was then filled with resin, sawdust, or resin-soaked linen.

An incision was made in the left side of the body with a sharp stone. The liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines were then removed and dried in natron [a naturally-occurring salt which is a mixture of sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, and either sodium chloride (common salt), or sodium sulfate] for 40 days. The organs were then dressed with scented oil and molten resin, wrapped with linen into neat bundles, and placed in separate jars, the canopic jars, which were protected by particular divinities.

The heart was used to judge the deceased in the afterworld so it was wrapped and returned to the body.

The abdomen and chest cavity were then rinsed out with spices and palm wine and packed with temporary stuffing (rags, straw, dried grass, or anything else that was handy) to prevent disfigurement.

Next came preservation of the body itself. This was done with natron.

Small parcels of natron wrapped in linen were placed inside the body; the outside was covered with loose natron or packages of linen-wrapped natron, and the body was placed on a mat or sloping board for 40 days to dry out completely.

Then the stuffing was removed, the body was washed and dried, and the body cavity was refilled with linen soaked in resin. If the head cavity had not been stuffed earlier, that was also stuffed at this point.

The wound in the abdomen was then closed. Sometimes it was sewn, not with stitches, but with a piece of gold foil or a tablet of beeswax bearing the symbol of the udjat eye, which was kept in place by pouring molten resin over it.

The embalmers then rubbed the whole body with a lotion of juniper oil, beeswax, spice, and natron. The nose was plugged, and wads of linen were also pushed up into the sunken cheeks in an attempt to counteract the withered appearance which the drying-out caused. The eyes were pushed down into their sockets and covered with little pads of resinated linen. The eyelids were then pulled down over the pads.

The embalmers painted the entire body with molten resin to toughen the skin and make it waterproof. They now went over the body with cosmetics, adding color where needed. Often they painted the face-and sometimes the whole body-with ochre: red for men and yellow for women. After this, they put on any jewelry with which the dead person was to be buried.

Finally, the body was wrapped in 20 or more layers of linen bandages. This was accompanied by prayers and rituals. The embalmers began by wrapping the fingers and toes separately. After each finger and toe, they went on to each limb; and when the limbs were finished, the mummy-mask was placed over the head and shoulders. Then followed one or more shrouds held in place by some bandages stretched lengthwise and across. As they wrapped the corpse, the embalmers placed various amulets and sometimes the Book of the Dead1 papyrus among the bandages. As this wrapping was done, a coating of resin was applied as a binding agent between every few layers.

Then the cartonnage was added and decorated. The cartonnage consisted of strips of linen soaked in plaster which then hardened exactly like the casts used today for setting broken limbs. This was then painted in bright colors with hieroglyphs and figures of deities.

A stylized portrait mask was placed over this molded face. The lower part of the mask covered the upper breast and was painted to imitate a broad, brightly-colored bead collar.

When the process was completed, the dead body was borne down the Nile River in a boat.

SOURCES
Aldred, Cyril, Art of Ancient Egypt.

Hayes, The Scepter of Egypt, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1959.

Martin, Richard A., Mummies, Field Museum of Natural History.

TOUR TIPS
When using on tours, focus on what visitors can see. Mummification procedures should only be discussed on specialized tours, such as Egyptian tour workshops.

Use on the following tours:

Safari
Particularly emphasize the part-animal and part-human gods and the protective monsters.

How Was It Made?
Discuss the mummification process and the use of natural materials (i.e., linen from flax, natron, and paints from natural minerals).

Art of the Ancient Mediterranean or Art of the Ancient World
As representative of Egyptian culture.

Women and Art
A woman of rank was entitled to the same burial rites as a man of equal status.

Spirituality and Art
As an illustration of Egyptian religious beliefs and practices.

Death and Dying
An example of a culture that viewed death as a continuation of life on earth.

ENDNOTES

The Book of the Dead contained prayers and drawings to help the dead pass the many tests they needed to undergo in the afterlife before they could live eternally.