Smallholder systems based on crop growing combined with
stall-fed improved dairy cows or goats have been successfully
developed in the high-potential areas of East Africa, and with
certain modifications could be adapted to the semi-arid regions.
As increasing population pressure results in progressively
smaller agricultural holdings, and traditional grazing areas are
taken over for crop growing, the introduction of more productive
integrated intensive systems is imperative if total ecological
and social collapse as a result of land degradation is to be
avoided in the semi-arid areas. Maximum sustainable productivity
can only be achieved by integrating intensive livestock keeping
with crop production and agroforestry. Dry season fodder supply
is the most limiting factor for livestock productivity in
semi-arid areas, but the problem can be solved by a combination
of conserved grasses and legumes, leaves and pods from trees or
bushes and crop byproducts and household waste.

The integration of zero-grazed improved dairy cows and small
livestock into smallholder systems results in increased availa-
bility of milk, meat and other animal products, improved soil
fertility, and removal of the risk of soil erosion as a result of
overgrazing. One disadvantage of such systems, however, is the
increased requirement for labour, although this could be reduced
by the use of pairs of cows or donkeys for ploughing.

A variety of highly productive small-scale intensive mixed
farming systems have developed in East Africa, almost exclusively
in areas of high population density where agricultural holdings
had become too small to support traditional farming practices.
These more intensive systems are generally based on crop growing,
integrated with milk production from small herds of dairy cows or
goats, and usually involve the recycling of organic matter in the
form of crop residues and manure, and some form of agroforestry.
Examples of such systems can be found in the Kenyan highlands,
and in Tanzania, for example on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro and
on islands in Lake Victoria. These are all relatively
high-potential areas, but similar systems are now developing in
semi-arid central Tanzania in areas in which agro-pastoralism was
the dominant agricultural form, and where uncontrolled
overgrazing was the main factor leading to severe land
degradation, threatening total ecological collapse. The
seriousness of the situation resulted in the initiation of a far
reaching, and in some respects unique programme - The HADO
Project (Hifadhi Ardhi Dodoma - Dodoma Region Soil Conservation
Project) (Christiansson et al 1987).

The HADO project was started in 1973 and was initially
concerned with arresting the accelerating land degradation
occurring in parts of Dodoma Region through physical soil
conservation measures. However,it quickly became apparent that
the terraces, bunds, cut-off drains etc. that had been
constructed were not having the desired effect due to their
destruction by grazing animals, and also due to uncontrolled
water run-off from higher slopes denuded by over-grazing. As a
result, a decision was taken in 1979 to close the most severely
affected area, of over 1,200 km2 - the so called
Kondoa Eroded Area - to all livestock, which involved the
eviction of over 85,000 cattle, goats, sheep and donkeys. A
smaller area of just over 700 km2 to the south of
Dodoma town was destocked in 1986.

The regeneration of the vegetation, and the arrest of
ecological degradation generally in these areas has been
dramatic. However, the livestock owners were originally given to
understand that some form of livestock keeping would be allowed
when the land had recovered, and as it is generally accepted that
attempting to restrict herd sizes under traditional extensive
grazing systems would not have been possible. Some form of
restricted grazing or stall-feeding (zero-grazing) system was
left as the only reasonable alternative. Accordingly, a number of
preconditions for the reintroduction of cattle were proposed:

Only improved dairy animals would be allowed.

A maximum of three cows and one breeding bull per
smallholding would be permitted.

A permanent water source should be available within
reasonable distance.

Some form of animal shelter should be constructed.

Animals must be kept in a limited-grazing or
stall-feeding system.

Veterinary drugs, and hand sprays against ticks etc.
should be available.

A number of smallholders have now satisfied these conditions,
and have purchased improved dairy heifers. The performance of the
holdings and the problems experienced will be monitored as part
of a long-term research programme.

Suggested livestock-based smallholder
systems for the hado area

The term "semi-arid" need not be precisely defined
here, but it is assumed that rainfall is sufficient for crop
growing to be a major activity. In the HADO areas, and similar
areas of East Africa, mean annual rainfall amounts to 500-800 mm,
and follows a bimodal pattern, with two short, intense rainy
periods and a long, dry season. The total productivity of
smallholder systems in such semi-arid areas would generally
increase in proportion to the amount of rainfall, all other
factors being equal.

As smallholder systems tend to be very labour intensive, high
yielding, improved animals are essential. For them to reach their
full genetic potential, strict disease and parasite control is
necessary, as is the provision of secure, year-round feed
supplies, with careful balancing of the different components of
the diet in order to achieve maximum productivity and efficiency
of feed utilization. It is important to emphasize that the
success of such systems depends on the adoption of a complete
package - ie the various interdependent components of the system
are all essential for sustainable high productivity.

1. The animal component

1.1. Improved Dairy Cows

One or two upgraded dairy cows will be the central feature of
smallholdings in the HADO areas, providing cash income from sales
of milk surplus to the family's requirements, and heifers not
needed as replacements. On a typical smallholding in a semi-arid
area of Tanzania, assuming an improved environment with respect
to feed quantity and quality, disease and parasite control, and
physical factors such as provision of adequate shade and water,
the most productive type of animal would probably be a Zebu x
Exotic cross, with the percentage of exotic blood being directly
proportional to the quality of the environment. From experiences
elsewhere it is likely that the optimum level of exotic blood
would be around 50%, possibly higher where management standards
and feed quality are good, and the climate not too harsh.
Ideally, the exotic should be a large-bodied breed, such as the
Friesian, sothat the crosses would be suitable for draught
purposes, and male calves not wanted for breeding could be reared
for meat. Upgrading using artificial insemination is possible in
the more accessible areas, but would obviously pose problems in
the remoter regions, as would using exotic bulls for natural
mating. An alternative approach could be to use a dual purpose
breed developed in a similar environment, such as the Mpwapwa
breed from central Tanzania, which is based on the Sahiwal,
Ayrshire and improved East African Zebu breeds.

Traditionally cows in Africa have not been widely used for
ploughing, presumably being considered to be too weak. Where
animals have been used, oxen have been preferred, but this means
that their usefulness is limited to the ploughing season,
although they must be supplied with feed all the year round.
However, pairs of well-fed, healthy cows, particularly the
large-bodied types, should be quite capable of meeting the
draught-power requirements of smallholdings, especially if
techniques such as mulching and the recycling of manure have been
applied, increasing the organic matter of the soils and thus
making them easier to work. Research in countries where a
considerable proportion of draught animal power is derived from
cows has shown that milk yields (Lawrence 1985) and calf growth
rates (Munzinger 1982) are not significantly reduced, provided
that the cows are adequately fed when working.

1.2. The calf

As male calves not required for breeding would be slaughtered
for meat, both a large-bodied type, and a milking system which
allows rapid calf growth are necessary for a successful calf
rearing system. Restricted suckling - using the calf to initiate
milk let-down, which can otherwise be a problem in cows with more
than 50% Zebu blood, and then allowing it access to the cow after
hand milking - has been shown to significantly improve calf
growth rates, particularly on poor quality rations, and to
increase total milk yield and reduce the incidence of mastitis
(Preston and Leng 1987).

1.3. Small ruminants

Sheep and goats are essential components of pastoralists'
herds, partly due to their abilty to withstand drought conditions
and,in the case of goats, due to their preference for browse,
which means that they do not compete with cattle for available
biomass. Although small ruminants would not be essential in a
smallholder system, goats, tethered and grazed, or housed and fed
on low quality crop residues and household waste, have, due to
their smaller body size, obvious advantages over cattle as
sources of meat and cash income. Zero-grazed exotic dairy goats
are also an alternative, particularly in the drier areas,
although they are probably less attractive than cows on all but
the smallest holdings due to their susceptibility to parasites
and higher requirements for both labour and more sophisticated
housing.

1.4. Poultry, pigs and rabbits

These small monogastrics would be useful additions to
smallholdings for a variety of reasons. Their main function would
be as consumers of household waste and various by-products,
providing meat, manure, and in addition eggs in the case of
poultry and skins in the case of rabbits. Chickens are
particularly attractive, as specialized housing need not be
provided, although if they were confined, the manure could be
collected and used as a supplement in dairy cow rations, being a
valuable source of non-protein nitrogen. Rabbits lack the homing
instinct, and must therefore be confined, but have an advantage
over other small non-ruminants in that they can efficiently
utilize fibrous plant materials. Pigs are omnivorous, converting
a wide variety of waste feedstuffs of both plant and animal
origin to meat. They would probably need to be confined in a
smallholder system, but could be used to clear fields of root
crops after harvesting, thus assisting in land preparation. All
these species have obvious reproductive advantages over domestic
ruminants.

1.5. Donkeys

Donkeys are an alternative source of draught power, hauling
small carts, carrying water, or produce to market, and in North
Africa are even used for ploughing, although they have an obvious
disadvantage compared to ruminants in that they are not normally
eaten.

2. Feeding strategies

Fodder supply during the dry season is the most important
single factor limiting livestock productivity in the semi-arid
areas of East Africa. In nomadic pastoral systems the problem is
solved by moving the herds vast distances in the constant search
for pasture, whereas in the smallholder system most of the feed
can be brought to the animal. There are several important
benefits associated with this, both in the context of soil
erosion and fertility, and also in relation to productivity and
feed utilization, compared to extensive grazing:

Considerable amounts of energy are expended by grazing
animals in their constant search for pasture, thereby
reducing productivity.

Time available for grazing in extensive systems is nearly
always limited, so feed intake will be higher in a
stall-feeding system.

With zero-grazing it is possible to balance the various
components of the diet so that they are utilized with
maximum efficiency.

Animals can be kept in the shade throughout the day, thus
reducing heat stress.

Exposure to parasites and disease vectors is reduced.

Manure is easily collected and spread, therefore
improving soil fertility and organic matter content, at
least of areas used for vegetable or crop growing.

Soil compaction and the risks of soil erosion through
overgrazing are completely eliminated.

Some form of restricted grazing is an alternative possibility,
involving for example rotational grazing of small, improved,
fenced pastures. The advantages of such systems are that once the
pastures have been fenced and established, labour requirements
are lower than for a zero-grazing system, although maintenance of
sown grass/legume pastures requires considerable inputs. Other
disadvantages of restricted-grazing systems include increased
exposure of the animals to parasites, loss of manure, and the
risk of soil compaction.

The range of potential animal feeds available on a
smallholding will vary with local soil and climatic conditions,
but a feeding strategy for both wet and dry seasons could be
based on the the following components:

Wet
season

Dry
season

1.
Improved grass/legume pastures, grazed or cut and fed
fresh

Grass/legume
pastures cut andconserved as hay (or silage) or left as
standing hay

2.
Leaves from legume trees and bushes

Leaves
and pods from legumetrees and bushes

3.
Fresh leaves from growing crops

Dried
crop residues and by-Products

4.
Agro-industrial by-products, poultry manure,
urea/molasses etc.

Agro-industrial
by-products,poultry manure, urea/molassesetc.

Each of these components will be considered in more detail
below;

2.1 Improved grass/legume pastures

In addition to providing fodder for animals, grasses and
legumes have a vital function on erosion-prone smallholdings in
binding and strengthening bunds and terraces, and providing
year-round vegetative cover, thus reducing run-off erosion.
Whether the improvement of native pastures through bush clearing
and oversowing, or the planting of mixed grass/ legume stands is
justified on an individual holding would depend on various
factors, in particular the size of the holding, or more precisely
the area available over that required for food crops. The most
suitable grass and legume species will depend on local climatic
and soil conditions, and in the semi-arid areas of East Africa
could include, for example:

Grasses:

Cenchrus ciliaris (Buffel grass)

Chloris gayana (Rhodes grass)

Panicum coloratum (Makarikari grass)

Legumes

Stylosanthes spp. (eg: Townsville stylo)

Macroptilium spp. (eg: Siratro)

Desmodium spp. (eg: Green-leaf desmodium)

However there are considerable difficulties in maintaining
sown grass/legume pastures in the semi-arid tropics unless they
consist of adapted species, are adequately fertilized, and are
not overgrazed. In addition to their higher digestibility and
protein, mineral and lipid content, legumes also increase the dry
matter production of the associated grasses by raising soil
nitrogen concentrations. Legumes also tend to be deeper rooted
than grasses, and continue to grow longer into the dry season.

Conservation by making hay usually involves losses of at least
25% of the original material, and as the forage should be
harvested well before maturity, before digestibility and nutrient
content has started to decline, drying conditions are often
unsuitable, and the risk of moulding and loss of nutrients by
leaching is high. Harvesting towards the end of the rainy season,
however, means that although total yields may be higher, the
forage is at an advanced stage of maturity, and digestibility and
feeding value are considerably reduced, and this also applies to
standing hay. Digestibility and feed intake of dried, low quality
forages can be improved by, for example, chopping or treating
with alkali or urea, but these techniques are usually difficult
to apply on a small scale.

The technique of ensiling forage has one important advantage
over haymaking in that the forage can be harvested well before
maturity, when digestibility and nutrient contents are still
high. However, tropical grasses usually have too low a sugar
content for ensiling, although immature maize or sorghum can be
used. Another problem is that a certain minimum quantity of
material is required, and it may be necessary for small farmers
to make silage on a communal basis. A promising technique for
preserving straw by "ensiling" with chicken manure or
animal urine has been developed in Bangladesh (Davis et al
1983).

2.2 Leaves and pods from legume trees and bushes

Legume trees must be considered essential components of
animal-based smallholder systems in semi-arid areas for a variety
of reasons. In addition to reducing soil erosion and improving
soil structure and fertility, the deeper roots of legume trees
allow exploitation of the reserves of water and minerals lower
down in the soil profile, providing green biomass of high
digestibility and nutritive value throughout the year.
Supplements of up to 30% of the diet with leaves and pods from
legume tree species such as Gliricidia, Leucaena, Prosopis and
Sesbania, which contain around 25-30% protein, much of it in a
protected form which is used more efficiently, can produce
considerable increases in milk yields of cows fed on basal diets
of hay or dried crop residues. Shade trees such as Acacia
albida drop up to 5 tonnes/ha of protein-rich pods at the end
of the dry season, and as this particular variety sheds its
leaves at the beginning of the rainy season it does not compete
with growing crops or pasture for light.

2.3. Leaves from growing crops and crop residues

In China, farmers traditionally cut off the green tops of the
maize plants immediately above the highest cob several weeks
before harvesting for use as animal feed, and in Ethiopia the
lower sorghum leaves are stripped off during the growing season
(personal observation). At this stage the leaves are more
digestible and have a higher nutritional value, and in both
instances the effect on crop yields is said to be minimal. In the
dry season, dried crop residues such as maize and sorghum stover
are of low nutritional value, and digestibilty and voluntary feed
intake are also low, but can be improved by, for example,
chopping or soaking in dilute alkali and supplementing with
leaves from legume trees or crops such as cowpea or pigeon pea
vines.

2.4. Agro-industrial by-products, miscellaneous feeds
and supplements

The availability of these potentially very useful feedstuffs
is often seasonal and localized. Agro-industrial by-products,
such as maize bran and rice polishings are relatively expensive,
and may be used more economically by monogastrics such as laying
hens or pigs, but the increase in milk yields resulting from
their use in dairy rations makes them extremely valuable dry
season supplements for lactating ruminants. Molasses/urea/mineral
blocks, if available, can result in significant improvements in
the productivity of, in particular, cows on poor quality
dry-season diets, and poultry manure is also an excellent low
cost source of non-protein nitrogen and minerals.

Conclusions

The total productivity of smallholder systems in the semi-arid
areas of East Africa can be increased considerably, but only
provided that a complete package of technical innovations and
improvements is adopted. For example, introduction of upgraded
dairy cows would be unsuccessful unless accompanied by
simultaneous improvements in housing and parasite and disease
control, and the provision of high-quality, correctly balanced
diets. The emphasis must always be on sustainability, which can
only be attained if the unit is in ecological balance, which
requires the recycling of soil nutrients and organic matter,
maintenance of soil fertility and prevention of soil erosion. The
transition from traditional extensive, to more intensive forms of
mixed agriculture in Africa has in the past been a gradual,
long-term process, but time is a luxury that the people of the
vulnerable, semi-arid lands of East Africa do not possess.