4 COMMON FUND FOR COMMODITIES Stadhouderskade 55, 1072 AB Amsterdam, The Netherlands Postal Address: P.O. Box 74656, 1070 BR Amsterdam, The Netherlands Tel: (31 20) Fax: (31 20) Telex cfc nl Website: Copyright Common Fund for Commodities 2004 The contents of this report may not be reproduced, stored in a data retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission of the Common Fund for Commodities, except that reasonable extracts may be made for the purpose of comment or review provided the Common Fund for Commodities is acknowledged as the source.

5 Foreword Groundnut production, marketing and trade are major sources of employment, income and foreign exchange in many West African countries. Groundnut products are of central economic importance to millions of smallholders in this region. It generates 60% of the rural cash income and accounts for about 70% of the rural labor force in Senegal and Gambia. However, groundnut trade remains heavily distorted, and this has affected the competitive position of various players in world markets. Previous investments by CFC and ICRISAT in groundnut research and development have concentrated on providing technology options to increase yields and tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses. While this has been highly successful in developing good varieties, attention needs to be devoted to factors of market demand. There is now clear evidence that incentives or opportunities for market surplus production provide the necessary pull for adoption of new varieties. This shift in paradigm for technology development and dissemination requires the identification of partners and market linkages beyond the common belief that markets are easily available if production is done well. The results of this study are meant to facilitate this process. A range of factors explains the limited competitiveness of groundnut in the domestic, regional and international markets. These include low production and strict rules on grades and standards, which most West African producers often find difficult to meet. Domestic policies have also limited trade. This study has provided background information on groundnut production in West Africa, constraints to groundnut production, processing and commercialization. Additionally, the study also presents some market prospects for groundnut and groundnut products, and explores ways to increase groundnut competitiveness in the domestic, regional and international markets. It is our hope and expectation that this report will be valuable in the promotion of groundnut production and trade not only in West Africa but also in all sub-saharan Africa countries where the economies are still agriculturedependent. WD Dar Director General, ICRISAT Amb. Ali Mchumo Managing Director, CFC iii

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7 Contents Executive Summary Introduction Groundnut and groundnut products in trade West African groundnut markets Recent trends in production and consumption Market characteristics of the study area Conclusions Strategies for West Africa Main producing countries on the international market Introduction: Groundnut and groundnut products in trade China The United States of America Argentina India Vietnam South Africa Other African origins World market trends and quality requirements Introduction Europe The United States of America South Africa Asian countries West Africa: Market profiles of Senegal, Mali, Niger and Nigeria Introduction Senegal Mali Niger Nigeria Sub-regional market price data: Mali, Niger and Nigeria ( ) Additional observations Background and methodology v

9 Executive Summary Groundnut trade in international markets accounts for a mere 4-6% of total world production, while the majority of world groundnut production serves subsistence needs and requirements of domestic markets. In general, recent decades have seen an increase in the consumption of groundnut for all uses. There has been a shift away from its use for oil and meal (for which there are substitutes, notably soya) and toward confectionary groundnut, for which there are no exact substitutes. However, as product quality standards are far higher for edible groundnut, this trend implies a corresponding increase in product quality (particularly in terms of Aspergillus, the source of aflatoxin). In general, the European groundnut market has become less diversified and more concentrated over the past decade. It is said that until the late1990s, large and small origin shellers/suppliers provided products to a range of large and small dealers, to serve a range of large and small consumers ie, from enduse manufacturing industries to supermarkets. Since the early 1970s, groundnut consumption patterns have shifted in West Africa as in other parts of the world. While total consumption in eastern and southern Africa has declined, groundnut utilization in West Africa has increased significantly due to a shift toward edible applications. Since the late 1980s, groundnut in West Africa has become primarily a food crop rather than oilseed. Between 1972 and 2000, the proportion of West African groundnuts consumed as food grew by an astonishing 209%, even as exports declined precipitously during the same period. The decline of African groundnut exports is related to the trend toward production of edible groundnut, which was poorly timed in respect to increasing aflatoxin restrictions as well as increasing industrial substitution by other oils, particularly soybean. Though all the countries which produce groundnut are prone to aflatoxin infestation, Africa is considered particularly problematic by international buyers, as the production chain in each country (with the exception of South Africa) is fragmented, production systems insufficient to address the problem, aflatoxin monitoring by crop virtually nonexistent, and pre-shipment inspection services perceived as lacking in reliability. Unfortunately, international trade in groundnut is based on confidence and reliability in terms of supply as well as product quality. The current EU regulations on aflatoxin have certainly contributed to an increasingly 1

10 conservative tendency among European buyers, who are unlikely to take any unnecessary risks as regards aflatoxin. An unfortunate and direct economic consequence is that for West Africa to re-enter the world groundnut market (and particularly the European market, which offers perhaps the greatest potential), export prices would have to compete favorably with Chinese groundnut, which is abundant, cheap and enjoys a favorable reputation in terms of reliable supply and reliable quality. Recent prices for Chinese groundnut are on the order of $650 per MT the same price as production of a ton of edible groundnut (arachide de bouche or ARB) under irrigation in Senegal. This means that the current and foreseeable margins of return are not in any case favorable to the re-entry of West African exports on to the world market, even without regard to product quality and perceptions of international buyers. On the other hand, though the trade linkages are not as established (or cheap) as between West Africa and Europe, the South African market does represent a significant potential opportunity for West African producers. Due to a poor harvest in 2003, South Africa has been importing groundnut from southern Africa and even Argentina at premium prices over $700 per MT (unsorted and CIF) in Malawi. There may be scope for entry into the South African market once aflatoxin has been addressed by improved management and monitoring of product quality at the crop level. The primary conclusion of this study is that resources should be devoted to improvement of the production chain of the groundnut sector in each producer country, with initial emphasis on production to satisfy national, subregional and even regional demand. While the structural details of such a program would be negotiated on a country-by-country basis and state intervention is in any case likely to remain limited common features might include the establishment of public warehouses and/or buying points, at which production would be sorted, graded and tested for aflatoxin contamination and other parameters of product quality. In assessing the current and foreseeable market opportunities for groundnut of West African origin, it will be crucial to build slowly and deliberately on existing strengths (including the availability of improved seed through the current project). It needs specific and focused attention to the production chain specifically cultivation, harvest and postharvest methods 2

11 which prevent infection of the product by Aspergillus, and thereby ensure product quality. It is thus strongly recommended that the project and ICRISAT consider the establishment of a harmonized sub-regional program to address the specific technical constraints of smallholder groundnut farmers of West Africa. These constraints currently stand as an obstacle to export development, and put national populations at risk of serious health problems through consumption of groundnut infected with aflatoxin. With such a program in place, a system of product quality certification may be developed over time, in collaboration with national and international analytical laboratories. In the meantime, the project could help to build national and regional trade opportunities for producers by monitoring groundnut supply and price information on local and national markets, and facilitate the diffusion of such crucial information to sector stakeholders via rural radio and other locally appropriate means. 3

12 4 1.0 Introduction This study was commissioned by ICRISAT, with financial support from the Common Fund for Commodities. The study was implemented in the United States, Africa and in Europe from 16 June to 15 December It will be presented to ICRISAT in Bamako at the annual project meeting for the CFCfunded project, Development of sustainable groundnut seed systems in West Africa. 1.1 Groundnut and groundnut products in trade Groundnut (also known as peanut) or Arachis hypogea is a domesticated pulse, a leguminous oilseed rich in protein and related to wild Arachis species indigenous to Brazil, Bolivia, Uruguay and northern Argentina. World trade in groundnut began with industrial extraction of groundnut oil in Marseilles in the mid-19th century (Purseglove 1968,1988). Groundnut is traded in a number of forms and the major markets have different patterns of consumption for each. Groundnut is designated by its type or variety (used in this sense as a generic term descriptive of a physical type, rather than a synonym for cultivar ), and the size of the seeds, which must pass through a set of screens calibrated by the number of nuts in an ounce. Groundnut known as 40/50 (the most common, medium-sized groundnut on the world market) would consist of between 40 and 50 seeds per ounce. The three basic groundnut types are the Virginia (the largest variety, used in the roasted snack industry), Runner (medium-sized, common in confectionary and as peanut butter) and Spanish/Valencia (smallest, high in oil content and also used in peanut candy, confectionary and as peanut butter). The most basic form of groundnut traded is groundnut in-shell, which accounts for the majority of transactions both within the producer countries and internationally. Second in terms of volume of trade is shelled groundnut. Groundnut products may be divided into edible groundnuts and oilseed groundnuts. The former are also known as confectionary groundnuts or arachide de bouche (ARB), and are traded whole for further processing while the oilseed variety lends itself to extraction of edible oil. About two-thirds of the world s groundnut production goes toward oil production. The main groundnut oil exporting countries in any given year are Senegal and Argentina. India has recently re-entered the market in response to unusually high prices in 2003, discussed further in Section 3.5.

13 As the oil content of the seed varies between 38-47% for confectionary and 47-55% for the oilseed varieties, the yield of oil is roughly equal to the yield of groundnut cake or meal. Quality standards for oilseed groundnut are much lower than those for edible groundnut, and groundnut meal may be chemically de-toxified of aflatoxin residues by a simple industrial process (Kettlewell 2003). While groundnut oil prices have remained fairly level over the past 25 years, groundnut meal prices have steadily declined, largely in response to competition from soya (Freeman et al. 1999). During , 30% of world groundnut oil originated from Africa (of which 14% was from Senegal), as did 40% of world groundnut cake, of which 15% originated from Senegal (Ntare et al. 2003). The protein content of groundnut ranges between 24-35% to that of the meal 40-50% (Rehm and Espig 1991). Alongside industrial production of groundnut oil in Niger, Senegal and Nigeria, household or artisanal extraction remains an important economic activity, particularly for rural women. After oil is extracted, the groundnut meal is used formulating animal feeds. It may also processed into human foods, such as kulikuli made from groundnut paste (by-product of traditional extraction) by women in Niger and Nigeria. This is both for household consumption as well as for sale. Edible groundnuts may be blanched by immersion in water. Most edible groundnuts are roasted and some are processed further. For example, the snack industry adds additional coatings, which requires a particularly consistent size and shape, and extra processes are needed to make peanut butter, which is also traded (and regulated) as a commodity. About 25% of the groundnut consumed on the world market is roasted, salted and eaten as a snack and more than half the groundnut consumed in the US is in the form of peanut butter (Onwueme and Sina 1991). On the international market, poor quality groundnut is used in the manufacture of animal feed and birdfood. In groundnut-producing countries, green groundnut (arachide vert), fresh groundnut (arachide frais) and groundnut seed are also traded. Groundnut is commonly exported in 50 kg sacks, in minimum shipments of 18 to 22 MT (a container load of in-shell and shelled groundnut, respectively). Buyers usually require a general phytosanitary health certification from a reputable laboratory, and possibly further certification that the product has been fumigated with an insecticide such as aluminium phosphide. This requirement has been identified as a major constraint to the development of an international trade in organic groundnut, for which the profit margins have not yet become compelling (Kettlewell 2003). 5

14 In general, recent decades have seen an increase in the consumption of groundnut for all uses. There has been a shift away from its use for oil and meal (for which there are substitutes, notably soya) and toward confectionary groundnut, for which there are no exact substitutes. Indeed, world imports of confectionary groundnut grew by an astonishing 83% from to (Freeman et al. 1999). However, as product quality standards are far higher for edible groundnut, this trend implies a corresponding increase in product quality (particularly in terms of Aspergillus, the fungal source of the carcinogen aflatoxin (see Appendix 5, Quality aspects of groundnuts in trade). 6

15 2.0 West African groundnut markets 2.1 Recent trends in production and consumption Since early 1970s, groundnut consumption patterns have shifted. While total consumption in eastern and southern Africa has declined, groundnut utilization in West Africa has increased significantly due to a shift toward edible applications. Since the late 1980s, groundnut in West Africa has become primarily a food crop rather than an oilseed, as indicated in the table below. Between 1972 and 2000, the proportion of West African groundnuts consumed as food grew by an astonishing 209% (Table 1). Table 1. West African utilization of groundnut by five-year average, Groundnut consumed (MT) 2,520,000 2,498,000 2,498,000 2,722,000 3,050,000 4,215,000 Proportion as food 29.9% 36.0% 43.3% 44.5% 51.0% 55.3% Proportion crushed 61.3% 53.4% 43.2% 45.1% 37.3% 32.5% Seed, feed and waste 8.9% 10.7% 13.5% 10.5% 11.7% 12.2% Source: Revoredo and Fletcher Trade patterns have also shifted significantly during the same period. From , the four project countries had a significant profile on the international market, together holding 14.5% of world exports (Nigeria had 7.3%, Senegal 4.6%, Mali 2.1% and Niger 1.6% of total world exports). By the period, only Senegal remained on the international market, with a mere 0.6% of world exports during that period (Revoredo and Fletcher 2002), 90% of which was destined for the European Union. The decline of African groundnut exports is related to the trend toward production of edible groundnut, which was poorly timed in respect to increasing aflatoxin restrictions as well as increasing industrial substitution by other oils, particularly cottonseed and soya. 2.2 Market characteristics of the study area As the Senegal market operates according to its own structures and procedures, with an overall net demand given its industrial base, and that of 7

16 Gambia as well, Mali and Niger serve as net providers of groundnut to the excess demand of the Senegalese and Nigerian markets. This is not to oversimplify the complex trade relationships discussed further in this section. The market is still based largely on the oilseed and meal, but the trend in the last 30 years has been increasingly toward edible groundnut. In each of the countries studied, groundnut quality is determined by condition (especially moisture content) in addition to characteristics (oil content and nut size). Results of the West Africa study indicate that national markets serve a diversity of buyer preferences, nationally and on the part of sub-regional traders, eg, Nigerian traders buying on the Maradi and Niamey markets. A high oil yield was the most favored characteristic cited by buyers, but other attributes of certain traditional varieties are known to appeal to regional traders. Buyers seem to show a general preference for larger nuts (1-2 per pod) rather than the early-yielding varieties, though others expressed a preference for the small reddish (Spanish) types, which are perceived as lower in humidity. Global trends (discussed above and in greater detail in Section 4) show broad displacement of groundnut as an oilseed crop, and indicate a movement toward edible products of a wide variety of trade and consumer preferences. Though oilseed groundnut still dominates national markets in each of the countries studied, country data shows a price lead above oilseed groundnut, but the significance of this premium is not strongly remunerative given higher production costs. Trends toward edible groundnut are reflective (or symptomatic) of market gains made by soya on the global market over a 30-year period, as a competitor to groundnut both as an oilseed and source of meal (Revoredo and Fletcher 2002). In West Africa, increasing competition is highest from cottonseed, production of which is rising in Mali and Nigeria, though palm oil and soya are also strong competitors. Production of sesame is also on the increase in Niger and Nigeria (Ndjeunga, Ntare and Schilling 2002). Like groundnut, and to a greater extent than soya, sesame has a great potential to meet nutritional needs as well as market potentials as an oilseed and source of meal. Unfortunately, West Africa is poorly situated to meet the demand for edible groundnut unless a commitment is made to address supply chain issues of postharvest processing and product quality. 8

17 The sub-regional market is constrained by high transaction costs, of which the highest is clearly transport accounting for more than half of transaction costs: 55% for regional or cross-border trade, and over 70% of domestically-traded groundnut. These estimates are consistent with Camara 1992, Gaye 1992, Savadogo et al and Gabre-Mahdin et al. 1992, as cited in Barry et al.: Transportation costs represent more than half of total transfer costs of agricultural products in West Africa. Transport costs for the Dosso region of Niger were also calculated in a previous study to be between 6 and 20 fcfa/dt*km (Abele 2000). Though most respondents expressed a strong desire to avoid storage for anything more than the required minimum (due to moisture content and related product quality considerations), storage costs were not found to be significant as compared to transport and related costs. The cost of trading groundnut nationally and regionally was considered in Niger, where the most detailed market information was obtained and corroborated. A model was established on the basis of interviews with traders on the national markets. A mid-level trader of Niamey moves 5,000 sacks of groundnut (in shell) each year, at an average value of fcfa 9,500. Based on the costs of transportation, storage, market dues and other costs, the transaction costs of a domestically-procured bag of groundnut total fcfa 615 above the farm-gate price, whereas the transaction costs of a sack obtained across the border rise to fcfa 2,615, a factor of more than 4. Transaction costs and their estimates, as both an element of total transaction costs, and as a percentage of total product value, is provided in Table 2. On the whole, transaction costs comprised roughly 7% of the value of a sack of groundnut (in-shell). However, on the regional market (with a single border crossing), this figure rises to more than 27%. It is important to note that these figures represent aggregate transaction costs and not necessarily those borne by a single party (ie, the trader himself). While national market transport costs are commonly borne by sellers (ie, by primary buyers, or by the producers themselves), regional trade is undertaken by specialists who hold strong preferences based on their consumers; for instance, in Ivory Coast variety 47-10, known for its high oil content is much preferred. A lack of reliable information on price and supply (as well as exchange rates) compounds risk and adds to transaction costs for both producers and traders. 9

18 Table 2. Transaction costs analysis. Percentage of total transaction cost Transaction Cost Domestic Export Sack 16% 3% Market tax 0.08% - Storage 9% 2% Loaders - 38% Vehicle 73% 17% Subtotal transport 73% 55% Percentage of average product value Transaction Cost Domestic Export Sack 1% 1% Market tax 0.05% 0.05% Storage 0.60% 0.60% Loaders - 10% Vehicle 4% 4% Subtotal transport 4% 14% 2.3 Conclusions Faced with competition from other oilseed crops and increased demand for edible groundnut (on a global scale as well as within West Africa), market trends favor a diversity of market applications, including oilseed and edible nuts (ARB). Oilseed and meal As an oilseed and meal crop, groundnut has steadily lost ground to its main competitors, cottonseed and soya, and there is no immediate prospect of a reversal of this trend. However, despite a largely unremunerative market for producers, comparative advantages of groundnut are the existence of wellestablished formal and informal market outlets and steady (mostly unmet) industrial demand, as well as the significance of groundnut in the West African diet, which is not the case for cottonseed or soya. Cottonseed represents a by-product of a more remunerative crop than groundnut, and as such, it is well-positioned to compete as an oilseed. As meal 10

19 it is less valued given its lower protein content and trace amounts of the toxic polyphenol gossypol, to which chickens in particular are sensitive. Though soya contains higher protein content than groundnut, its use as a foodstuff in West Africa is not well-established. Though it may find acceptance on urban markets, soya oil does not satisfy the local market s taste preferences, which favors groundnut oil. Sesame remains more of a food crop than an oilseed crop, with fewer product and market applications than groundnut. Given the subsistence status of most West African farmers, groundnut offers more versatility as a well-established food crop (unlike cottonseed and soya) with a diversity of market applications (unlike sesame). The strong traditional role of groundnut both in the kitchens and the markets of West Africa is likely to preserve the considerable market share for groundnut as an oilseed and meal in addition to the growing market share of edible groundnut. Edible groundnut While the West African oilseed and meal groundnut sub-sector is beset by competition, as an edible product groundnut has no direct competition it is a very specific commodity in confectionery and other applications, has high protein content, and is prevalent in West African diets. However, despite its great potential, the edible groundnut markets are constrained by quality concerns with regards to infection by Aspergillus. This entails increased risk as well as postharvest labor inputs by the producer, both of which are difficult to quantify. Aflatoxin not only represents a barrier to export, but considerable concern to public health, as groundnut provides a greater share of dietary protein than does meat. In managing supply-chain quality issues related to aflatoxin, the challenge will be to persuade producers to invest in improved postharvest processing methods, improved seed and other inputs, despite the fragile economic position of most groundnut farmers. In general, farmers in each of the four countries studied are highly riskaverse, serving subsistence needs more than market demands. That the vast majority of sales in each county takes place immediately after the harvest (when prices are lowest) partly reflects payment of credit arrangements and other accumulated debts, including those accrued through purchase of food crops to supplement those grown by the household. Transaction costs are high, 11

20 particularly as regards transport and border formalities in the case of regional trade. A major reason for high transaction costs is a general lack of information on price and supply for producers and small traders. While this aspect is problematic enough on national markets, the high cost of crossing borders and transport greatly multiplies the cost of a poorly-timed purchase or sale. 2.4 Strategies for West Africa Though all the countries that produce groundnut are prone to aflatoxin infestation, Africa is considered particularly problematic by international buyers. The perception is that production chain in all countries (with the exception of South Africa) is fragmented, production systems insufficient to address the problem, aflatoxin monitoring by crop virtually nonexistent, and pre-shipment inspection services lack reliability. Unfortunately, international trade in groundnut is based on confidence and reliability in terms of supply as well as product quality. The current EU regulations on aflatoxin have certainly contributed to an increasingly conservative tendency among European buyers, who are unlikely to take any unnecessary risks as regards aflatoxin. An unfortunate and direct economic consequence is that for West Africa to re-enter the world groundnut market (and particularly the European market, which offers perhaps the greatest potential), export prices would have to compete favorably with Chinese groundnut, which is abundant, cheap and enjoys a favorable reputation in terms of reliable supply and quality. Even without these perceptions, the current and foreseeable margins of return do not favor the re-entry of West African exports in world market: recent prices for Chinese groundnut are on the order of $650 per MT the same price as production of a ton of edible groundnut (ARB) under irrigation in Senegal. On the other hand, though the trade linkages are not as established (or cheap) as those between West Africa and Europe, the South African market does represent a significant potential opportunity for West African producers. Due to a poor harvest in 2003, South Africa has been importing groundnut from southern Africa and even Argentina at premium prices over $700 per MT (unsorted and CIF) in Malawi. There may be scope for entry on to the South African market once aflatoxin has been addressed by improved management and monitoring of product quality at the crop level. 12

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