Our Inheritance, Our Future

Transcription

1 Our Inheritance, Our Future Realising the potential of genetics in the NHS Presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for Health By Command of Her Majesty June 2003

2 Any comments or queries on this document should be addressed to Genetics White Paper, Genetics Branch, Department of Health, Room 651C, Skipton House, 80 London Road, London SE1 6LH.

3 DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH Our Inheritance, Our Future Realising the potential of genetics in the NHS Presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for Health By Command of Her Majesty June 2003 Cm 5791 II Two volumes, not to be sold separately

4 Crown Copyright 2003 The text in this document (excluding the Royal Arms and departmental logos) may be reproduced free of charge in any format or medium providing that it is reproduced accurately and not used in a misleading context. The material must be acknowledged as Crown copyright and the title of the document specified. Any enquiries relating to the copyright in this document should be addressed to The Licensing Division, HMSO, St Clements House, 2 16 Colegate, Norwich, NR3 1BQ. Fax: or

5 Foreword by the Prime Minister Our country has a remarkable scientific tradition. The extraordinary achievements of Newton, Darwin and a host of other eminent scientists have both greatly increased the understanding of our world and improved the quality of life for everyone. Our record continues to be outstanding; with just one per cent of the world s population, we receive nine per cent of scientific citations. Nowhere has this record been more notable in recent decades than in bio-science and bio-technology. The discovery in Britain of the structure of DNA 50 years ago perhaps the biggest single scientific advance of the last century marked the beginning of a golden age of bio-science in Britain which continues today. It is likely to have as big an impact on our lives in the coming century as the computer had for the last generation. The more we understand about the human genome, the greater will be the impact on our lives and on our healthcare. As an increasing number of diseases are linked to particular genes or gene sequences, we will be able to target and tailor treatment better to offset their impact and even to avoid the onset of ill-health many years in advance. I am proud to know that much of this ground-breaking work is already taking place in our country. I am also absolutely determined that the National Health Service should be able to respond to these advances so the benefits of genetics and the more personalised and improved healthcare it will bring are available to all. It means we must prepare now for the future. We must invest in research and research facilities to drive further discovery. We must ensure the NHS has the skills and expertise to make best use of these advances. And we must also be ready to explain clearly and consistently to patients the new health care choices this will bring. Through the independent experts on the Human Genetics Commission we will ensure that people have access to advice about human genetics and the social and ethical issues involved. This is the best way of easing understandable public anxiety about the coming revolution in health care. 1

6 Our Inheritance, Our Future This White Paper sets out how the Government intends to achieve all these goals. It also underlines our determination to ensure the NHS and its patients get the maximum benefit from the pioneering work already under way and the transformation it will bring in the delivery of health care in this country. Tony Blair 2

9 Foreword Advances in human genetics will have a profound impact on healthcare. Over time we will see new ways of predicting and preventing ill health, more targeted and effective use of existing drugs and the development of new gene-based drugs and therapies that treat illness in novel ways. Above all, genetics holds out the promise of more personalised healthcare with prevention and treatment tailored according to a person s individual genetic profile. The Government recognises and welcomes the potential offered by genetics to improve our health and healthcare. Britain s academic and industrial research prowess means that we are already amongst the leading players in genetics research and development. We are determined to harness that potential and to ensure that the benefits of genetics are realised throughout the NHS. In April 2001, the Government announced new investment of 30 million to develop our specialised genetics services. This is already enabling them to see more patients and improve genetic testing provision. But there is much more to be done if the NHS is to be ready to cope with future demand and if genetic based healthcare is to expand and permeate every area of medicine as new genetics tests and therapies come on stream. Our vision is that the NHS should lead the world in taking maximum advantage of the application of the new genetic knowledge for the benefit of all patients. Over the next three years, the Government will invest an additional 50 million in England in developing genetics knowledge, skills and provision within the NHS. This document sets out how that money will be spent. By building on our strengths and starting to prepare now, genetic advances can deliver real and lasting benefits in health and healthcare for all of us. Secretary of State for Health 5

10 Our Inheritance, Our Future This White Paper sets out a plan of action and investment in genetics for the NHS in England, as well as covering wider UK genetics policy issues. Activity on genetics health services in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland is summarised at Annex A. 6

11 1. Recognising the potential 1.1 Our genes play a fundamental role in determining our health and our response to healthcare. Six out of ten people are likely to develop a disease that is at least partially genetically determined by the age of 60. Greater knowledge of genetics will have a major impact on our understanding of human illnesses and herald a stepchange in disease prevention, diagnosis and treatment. Although there are difficult moral issues raised by genetics advances we see enormous overall potential benefits for patients. 1.2 The year 2003 marks the 50th anniversary of Crick and Watson s discovery of the double helix structure of DNA the molecule of life from which our genes are made. It also marks the year in which the Human Genome Project has been completed. The three billion chemical letters that make up DNA have been fully sequenced, and this will allow all the 30,000 plus genes in the human genome to be identified. The UK is a leading player in this ambitious international project with a third of the genome being mapped at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute in Cambridge. 1.3 The Human Genome Project will pave the way for a revolution in healthcare. Research is already underway to turn the knowledge gained into new treatments for cancer, heart disease, diabetes and other conditions. Over the next few decades we will learn more about: how individual genes, or groups of genes interacting together, can make us more predisposed to certain diseases. And how external factors such as smoking, diet or infection can interact with our genetic make-up to make the development of disease more likely how some versions of genes can actually protect us from disease 7

12 Our Inheritance, Our Future how our genes can affect our response to medicines. Pharmacogenetics will lead to prescribing which is more effectively tailored to the needs of the individual how genetic testing can become an integral part of health care. It will become faster, more accurate and cheaper. Testing in GP surgeries or local pharmacies will become a real possibility how diseases such as cancer work at a cellular level. This will lead to new treatments that target the disease rather than just control the symptoms, bringing new hope to many patients. 1.4 Here in Britain we start with a great advantage. We have in this country some of the best scientists, academics and universities. A great deal of the research and innovation into genetics is happening here in both our pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries as well as in the public sector. Our NHS genetic services are admired throughout the world. We are well placed to lead the world in the discovery and realisation of the maximum benefits of genetics in healthcare. 1.5 The values of the NHS are particularly suited to capturing the benefits of genetic advances. The basis of the NHS universal health care funded from taxation protects people against discrimination on the basis of genetic information. As genetic testing becomes more widely available, people will not have to fear that they will lose cover for health care. Everyone regardless of their risk is insured by the NHS. Private health insurance usually bases how much you pay on how likely is the risk of your needing health care in future. Using genetic information private insurers, unless heavily regulated, could exclude benefits from policies, increase premiums (rendering them unaffordable for many) or simply refuse to insure people. In contrast, the values of Britain s NHS mean citizens can choose to take genetic tests free from the fear that should they test positive they face an enormous bill for insurance or become priced out of cover altogether. It provides a bulwark against the inequalities and inefficiencies of private insurance systems where the prospect of a genetic underclass of the unwell and uninsurable, unable to pay the premiums for medical care, is a very real threat. Already in the United States of America, where 40 million people have no medical cover, developments in genetics have stirred precisely these concerns. As our understanding of genetics advances, the case for private health insurance as an alternative to our universal tax financed NHS diminishes. 8

13 Recognising the potential Genes: what they are and how they work Nearly all of our characteristics, from the colour of our eyes to our response to infections, are at least partly determined by our genes. Genes are the blueprint for making and running the human body. They carry information that tells cells how to make proteins the basic building blocks of the human body. Almost all of our cells contain a complete set of the estimated 30,000 genes that make up the human genome. Genes are made up of a substance called DNA. DNA looks like a long spiral staircase the famous double helix. Each gene is a section of this DNA, like a piece of music on a cassette tape. Within each cell, the long strands of DNA are tightly packaged into structures called chromosomes. Our cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes, one of each pair inherited from each of our parents when the 23 chromosomes in our mother s egg combined with the 23 chromosomes from our father s sperm. In this way we inherit one set of chromosomes and hence one set of genes from each parent. Despite the fact that at the genetic level we are 99.9% the same, we are each of us genetically unique (except for identical twins). We owe our uniqueness to small differences in the remaining 0.1% of our genetic material. Some gene variations lead to only small differences between people, such as different blood group or height. Other differences are more important and may lead to disease. (continued overleaf) 9

14 Our Inheritance, Our Future Genes: what they are and how they work continued Mutations are changes in the structure of DNA that can occur spontaneously during our lives or as a result of exposure to things in the environment such as toxins or radiation. Most of these are fixed by special repair machinery in the cell. If uncorrected, mutations can accumulate in a cell during a person s lifetime and they may lead to diseases such as cancer. If mutations affect sperm or egg cells or occur around the time of conception they may be passed down from parent to child. Not all mutations are bad. Some can actually protect us from disease. Some genetic mutations are known as dominant. In these cases, inheritance of the mutation from one parent only can be sufficient to cause the disorder. An example is Huntington s disease. Other mutations are recessive and the mutation has to be inherited from both parents for the person to be affected. Such parents are usually unaffected carriers because they only have a single copy of the gene and may well not know that they have it. Common recessive disorders are cystic fibrosis and sickle cell disease. 10

15 Recognising the potential A gene is a stretch of DNA like a piece of music on a tape CELL cytoplasm CHROMOSOME tightly packed DNA nucleus with 46 chromosomes A Gene A GENE IS TO DNA A GENE ENCODING A PROTEIN A gene Control sequences Coding region Non-coding region Coding region DNA between genes AN AUDIO RECORDING ENCODING A SONG A song AS A RECORDING IS TO TAPE Dubbing cues First verse Silence Last verse Gaps between songs 11

16 Our Inheritance, Our Future Genetic testing 1.6 At present, most NHS genetics work is concerned with inherited disorders caused by a defect in a single gene or chromosome that results in a specific medical condition or syndrome. Examples of these disorders are cystic fibrosis, haemophilia and muscular dystrophy. 1.7 Genetic testing is currently used to: confirm a diagnosis where symptoms already exist indicate whether someone with a family history of a late-onset disease such as Huntington s is likely to develop the disease check whether someone is a carrier for a recessive disorder (where abnormal genes must be inherited from both parents to lead to the condition) such as cystic fibrosis screen before birth for genetic disorders such as Down s syndrome screen new born babies for genetic disease such as PKU (phenylketonuria). 1.8 There are around 10,000 single gene disorders. Most are rare, but taken together they are estimated to affect up to 5% of the population and cause considerable ill health and premature mortality. The treatment and care of patients with these disorders also costs health and social services about 2 billion each year. 1.9 Genetic tests now exist for about 200 of these disorders and more are being developed. The accuracy and potential impact of the diagnosis varies with the gene, the disease, and the family. People need professional help to understand what the result of a genetic test means for them Genetic factors also underlie many common diseases, including some of the country s biggest killers such as cancer, heart disease and diabetes. A substantial research effort is underway to investigate the genetic basis of these diseases, and important discoveries are already emerging Susceptibility to some rare subsets of common diseases, such as breast and colorectal cancer, can be caused by a single defective gene and have clear hereditary patterns. Where there is a significant family history, genetic testing can help predict the 12

17 Recognising the potential chance of healthy family members developing the disease in the future. Monitoring and preventive regimes can then be offered to those at high risk. A negative test result can also reassure family members who do not carry the faulty gene. If symptoms are already apparent, genetic testing can identify the particular variant of the disease so that the most appropriate treatment can be chosen An example is the BRCA1 gene. About 1 in 800 women are thought to have inherited a defect in this gene. This means they have a lifetime risk of developing breast cancer of up to 85% and up to 60% for ovarian cancer. This is their inherent personal risk because of their DNA and is irrespective of other risk factors. Women with a strong family history of breast cancer are already being offered testing for defects in this gene. Those who test positive may be offered regular mammograms to detect any cancer at an early stage. They can also be prescribed a drug such as tamoxifen, or opt for prophylactic surgery, to reduce the risk It is likely that more of these familial subsets of common diseases will be discovered and tests developed for them. Colon cancer A patient today: At the age of 49, Jeff is diagnosed with advanced colon cancer. Even with radical surgery and chemotherapy, his chances of surviving to 50 are slim. Although devastated by the news, Jeff isn t completely surprised. His older sister Jean and his uncle died of bowel cancer, and looking back he realises that the abdominal discomfort and tiredness he has suffered intermittently for a year may have been early signs. (continued overleaf) 13

18 Our Inheritance, Our Future Colon cancer continued In the future: When Jeff s sister Jean tells him that she has developed colon cancer, Jeff mentions this to his GP and is promptly referred to the primary care genetics counsellor. Jeff s family history of cancer is carefully pieced together, using the latest risk assessment software. At the counsellor s suggestion, Jeff and his son Steve each agree to have a genetic test. The test results show that Jeff has the same version of the gene that Jean has. Luckily Steve has a normal version and does not need to worry. Jeff s GP organises regular blood tests for him, to check for the first signs of any tumours. Five years later, when Jeff s blood test is found to be positive, he has a colonoscopy which confirms the presence of an early tumour. This is successfully treated without the need for radical surgery and he makes a good recovery Most of the more common diseases, such as heart disease and diabetes, also have a genetic component. An individual s susceptibility to these diseases is determined by a combination of genetic factors and environmental factors such as lifestyle and diet. The chances of someone developing a multifactorial disease are not nearly so clear-cut as with single gene disorders. A few tests already exist, but they have low predictive power and have not been used outside research settings. For example, a variation in the ApoE gene is associated with the development of Alzheimer s disease but only a proportion of people with this mutation go on to develop Alzheimer s. And not everyone who develops Alzheimer s has this variation. This indicates that many factors are involved Over the next decade, however, it should be possible to identify more genetic factors that increase the likelihood of people developing a given disease. There will then be the option to test people for a predisposition to that disease, or a higher-than-normal risk. Preventive and monitoring services could then be tailored to an individual s needs. 14

19 Recognising the potential 1.16 Following on from this, the way external factors and genes interact to cause disease or protect us from disease will be better understood. This information will allow people with certain genetic profiles to avoid foods, chemicals or environmental factors, such as smoking, which are particularly risky for them. Coronary heart disease A patient today: Ali has a heart attack and is lucky to survive. After returning from hospital, his doctor explains that coronary heart disease (CHD), which can lead to heart attacks and strokes, is one of the commonest causes of premature death in the UK, but action can be taken to reduce the chances of another attack. Ali is prescribed tablets for high blood pressure and high cholesterol. He resolves to try harder to lose weight, eat more healthily and take more exercise. Secretly, he wishes he had taken these things seriously before. In the future: Primary care teams are able to identify people at genetic risk before they develop heart disease. When Ali moves house and registers at a new practice, the nurse uses a genetic test to assess his risk of CHD. Although Ali does not yet have any symptoms, and his blood pressure is normal, the test shows him to be at high risk because of his genetic make-up. Ali and his GP are then able to make more personalised decisions on lifestyle changes or drug therapy to reduce his likelihood of developing heart disease Research into the genetic mechanisms underlying disease will lead to more accurate diagnoses and more effective treatment. For example, rather than simply diagnosing that a patient has hypertension, doctors could, in the future, identify which of the underlying molecular mechanisms has gone wrong in a patient. Different treatments could then be recommended for different versions of a disease. 15

20 Our Inheritance, Our Future Diabetes A patient now: Kate is 18 and has just started university. She should be making new friends and enjoying her studies, but instead she feels increasingly tired and lethargic. She is always thirsty, and starts to lose weight. Eventually she is diagnosed with diabetes, and is referred to a specialist team at the local hospital, where she is put on insulin treatment for life. Although she feels better, she will have to monitor her blood sugar levels from now on and inject herself with insulin every day. In the future: Kate talks to her GP about the history of diabetes in her family and they decide she could have an inherited form of the disease. After discussion with a genetic specialist nurse she agrees to have a genetic test done and is told that she has Maturity Onset Diabetes of the Young. Unlike most cases of diabetes which develop in younger people, this unusual form of the disease does not always require insulin treatment and can be managed by Kate taking tablets and adjusting her diet. Kate is relieved that she does not have the worry of injections, and she soon feels well enough to enjoy university life to the full. Other family members, including her younger sister Anna, are counselled about their risk and offered genetic testing. Pharmacogenetics 1.18 Variations in our genes mean that different people can respond differently to drugs. Some patients may not respond to a specific medicine, while others experience adverse reactions which can be serious. The science of pharmacogenetics looks at the underlying reasons for this, which can include: genetic differences in drug metabolism: Some patients metabolise certain medicines much more quickly than others, due to genetic differences in how their liver enzymes work. These patients will need a higher dose of the drug in order to obtain the blood concentrations necessary to work. Conversely, patients who metabolise more slowly might be at risk of accumulation of the drug and could experience toxic effects when given the normal dose. If 16

21 Recognising the potential doctors, nurses and pharmacists had information about a patient s metabolic patterns, they could work out the most appropriate dose for them idiosyncratic adverse reactions: Other patients experience severe reactions such as hypersensitivity, regardless of dose. Certain genetic features seem to predispose patients to these severe reactions. Testing for these genetic features would make it possible to identify vulnerable patients and avoid giving them the medicine concerned genetic predictors of response: Some patients fail to respond to the medicine at all, perhaps because they have a variant of disease that is triggered by a different genetic mechanism to the one the medicine is designed for. Where these differences are affected by genetic variations, the patients who are likely to respond, or not respond, could be identified before treatment starts With greater understanding about how genes and drugs interact, many patients could undergo a genetic test to predict their response and help ensure the medicine and dose is right first time. This could: improve therapeutic outcomes and reduce the wastage involved in having to try out several products before finding the best one for each patient avoid serious and sometimes catastrophic side effects. Adverse drug reactions are estimated to affect around 7% of patients or hospital admissions at an annual cost of about 380 million to the NHS in England alone. This adds up to a huge burden on patients and on the healthcare system. Some of this is avoidable through better application of what we already know about medicines. But pharmacogenetics has the potential to significantly reduce the risk and cost of adverse drug reactions New pharmaceutical products linked to a pharmacogenetic test are likely to become available within the next five years. Where pharmacogenetic testing is shown to be important, the organisation of testing services, and the speed with which the result of the test can be known and acted on, will become key factors in helping patients receive the treatment that is best for them. New technology is currently being developed that should allow pharmacogenetic tests to be carried out quickly and cheaply in primary care settings. 17

22 Our Inheritance, Our Future Pharmacogenetics and warfarin treatment A patient now: Mary has been feeling unwell recently, weak and shaky. At 58 years old she suspects it is just her age, but she goes for a check-up just in case. Her GP diagnoses a heart condition known as atrial fibrillation. This could cause Mary to have a stroke if small blood clots fly off the larger clot forming on the inside of her malfunctioning heart and travel through her blood to her brain. After several unsuccessful attempts to treat Mary s condition, her GP prescribes warfarin to reduce the risk of a stroke. But it also increases the risk of excessive bleeding and bruising. Mary s GP tells her what dose of warfarin to start taking but explains that she will need to have regular blood tests to measure the effect of warfarin on her blood. For the first month, tests will be required weekly to adjust the dose of the drug, and once it has stabilised, blood tests will be taken every 4-8 weeks. Mary s sister is suddenly taken ill, and Mary misses her first few blood test appointments. She carries on taking her tablets at the dose her GP recommended, but she suddenly collapses on the way to the shops. In hospital, Mary discovers that she has had severe internal bleeding and was lucky to survive. While her initial warfarin dose was the normal starting dose, it was too high for her personally, and her blood was not clotting when it needed to. In the future: Warfarin metabolism occurs at different rates in different people because of genetic variations in metabolism. It can also vary from day to day because of interactions with other medicines and other factors. Mary is one of the 4-5% of people who metabolise warfarin particularly slowly and therefore has a much higher risk of excessive bleeding and bruising, especially at the start of treatment. Mary s GP does a quick pharmacogenetic test using special equipment in the surgery. This enables her to identify Mary as a slow metaboliser and start her on a lower, safer, dose of warfarin that is better suited to Mary s personal genetic make-up. 18

23 Recognising the potential Other uses of DNA analysis in healthcare 1.21 Genetic technologies are already widely used in pathology in areas such as microbiology and cancer. Genetic techniques can enable a much more detailed analysis of patients cancer cells or of pathogens such as tuberculosis. This information can allow clinicians to predict with much greater accuracy which treatments will work In the next few years we can expect to see small scale technology able to carry out DNA analyses of viruses and microbial infections in primary care and emergency settings. Where a rapid result is required this could be preferable to sending a sample to a laboratory for analysis. For example it could allow a doctor or nurse to find out immediately whether someone with symptoms of meningitis had the disease or not, or whether a person was suffering from flu or just a cold. Gene-based treatments 1.23 Greater understanding of human genetics will lead to a significant increase in the number of new drugs and novel therapies. It will allow the development of genebased drugs and treatments targeted at the disease-causing fault rather than at the control of symptoms Unlike more conventional treatments, gene-based medicines work towards a direct interaction with the function of our genes within the body. For example gene-based medicines can aim to switch a helpful gene on or a harmful gene off. Such medicines are designed to work on our genetic material, DNA or the related molecule RNA. Gene therapy is the best known type of gene-based medicine Gene therapy is the deliberate introduction of genetic material into a patient s cells in order to treat or prevent a disease. As well as replacing defective copies of genes, a variety of sophisticated techniques are being developed that may allow the activity of genes to be turned up or down. Although this new branch of medicine is still at the research stage, we expect to see licensed gene therapy medicines within a decade. More than 600 trials have been approved world-wide and more than half of all European gene therapy clinical trials take place in the UK. These are targeting a wide range of conditions, from rare inherited disorders through to cardiovascular disease, cancers and infectious diseases such as HIV. 19

24 Our Inheritance, Our Future 1.26 The full promise of gene therapy won t be known for at least another five years. At the current rate of development we can expect to see the first licensed gene therapy medicines coming on stream within five to ten years. In the longer term gene therapy may become a cornerstone of modern medicine Gene therapy offers hope to people suffering from those single gene disorders where there is currently no treatment at all, or where treatment options are very limited. It may also bring more patient friendly treatments for example in haemophilia, potentially replacing a lifetime of injections with a single treatment to correct the genetic defect which causes the disease. Gene Therapy for Haemophilia A A patient now: Wayne was diagnosed with haemophilia A when he was 6 months old. Haemophilia A is a blood clotting disorder caused by the disruption of a gene on the X-chromosome. Uncontrolled internal bleeding can occur in haemophiliacs. Wayne s disrupted version of the gene means his liver does not produce the Factor VIII protein which circulates in the blood, helping to make clots in wounds and limit bleeding. Any minor knock can cause bleeding, and Wayne has to have clotting factor injections twice a week to try to preserve his joints from the crippling effect of bleeding as he grows through the rough and tumble of a normal childhood. He faces the possibility of a lifetime of injections, serious bleeds and added complications to any operations he might need. In the future: Wayne s parents are offered the possibility of treating his haemophilia using gene therapy. They agree, and a healthy copy of the Factor VIII gene is transferred into Wayne s liver via gene therapy. This allows his liver to produce effective levels of the Factor VIII clotting agent on its own, without the need for twice weekly protein injections. This effectively cures his his haemophilia and Wayne can lead a normal life without the need for further treatment. 20

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1007029 CM1053CS Alzheimer s disease and diabetes Nearly 21 million Americans in the United States have diabetes, a disease that makes the body less able to convert sugar to energy. More than 6 million

BRCA1 & BRCA2 GeneHealth UK BRCA1 & BRCA2 What is hereditary breast cancer? Cancer is unfortunately very common, with 1 in 3 people developing cancer at some point in their lifetime. Breast cancer occurs

Homelessness: A silent killer A research briefing on mortality amongst homeless people December 2011 Homelessness: A silent killer 2 Homelessness: A silent killer December 2011 Summary This briefing draws

Talking diabetes No.42 what is diabetes? Diabetes is the name given to a group of different conditions in which there is too much glucose in the blood. The pancreas either cannot make insulin or the insulin

INTRODUCTION Thrombophilia (Hypercoagulability) is a condition in which a person forms blood clots more than normal. Blood clots may occur in the arms or legs (e.g., deep vein thrombosis DVT), the lungs

Acute Myeloid Leukemia Introduction Leukemia is cancer of the white blood cells. The increased number of these cells leads to overcrowding of healthy blood cells. As a result, the healthy cells are not

1 61.02 Acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) in children AML can affect children of any age, and girls and boys are equally affected. Leukaemia Acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) FAB classification of AML Causes of

Introduction This factsheet will tell you about the range of tests that can be carried out to try to find the cause of your child s hearing loss. The process to find out why a child is deaf is sometimes

What are the different medications that can help to feminize me? Estrogen - Different types of the hormone estrogen can help you appear more feminine. Estrogen is the female sex hormone. Androgen blocker

1. What is cancer? 2. What causes cancer?. What causes cancer? 3. Can cancer be prevented? The Facts One out of every two men and one out of every three women will have some type of cancer at some point

Information about hepatitis C for patients and carers What is hepatitis C? Hepatitis C is an illness caused by a virus which can be passed through blood from one person to another. It mainly affects the

Web Quest Abstract Students explore the Using Family History to Improve Your Health module on the Genetic Science Learning Center website to complete a web quest. Learning Objectives Chronic diseases such

Stem Cells and Hope for Patients by Maureen Condic, Ph.D. Most Americans know someone afflicted with an incurable medical condition. The possibility of stem cell cures has given hope to many who face such

About Cancer Cancer is a disease where there is a disturbance in the normal pattern of cell replacement. The cells mutate and become abnormal or grow uncontrollably. Not all tumours are cancerous (i.e.

ESSENTIALS Lynch Syndrome Understanding Lynch Syndrome Certain cancers can run in families. Sometimes this happens because of harmful changes (called mutations) in our genes that are passed from one generation

Statement by Vivian S. Lee, M.D., Ph.D., M.B.A., Senior Vice President for Health Sciences, Dean of the School of Medicine, and CEO of University of Utah Health Care on FY 2015 Appropriations for the Department

Impact of Breast Cancer Genetic Testing on Insurance Issues Prepared by the Health Research Unit September 1999 Introduction The discoveries of BRCA1 and BRCA2, two cancer-susceptibility genes, raise serious

A Health and Wellbeing Strategy for Bexley Listening to you, working for you www.bexley.gov.uk Introduction FOREWORD Health and wellbeing is everybody s business, and our joint aim is to improve the health