ABSTRACT
High Altitude Wind Power uses flying electric generator (FEG) technology in the form of what have been more popularly called flying windmills, is a proposed renewable energy project over rural or low-populated areas, to produce around 12,000 MW of electricity with only 600 well clustered rotorcraft kites that use only simple autogyro physics to generate far more kinetic energy than a nuclear plant can.
According to Sky WindPower; the overuse of fossil fuels and the overabundance of radioactive waste from nuclear energy plants is taking our planet once again down a path of destruction, for something that is more expensive and far more dangerous in the long run. FEG technology is just cheaper, cleaner and can provide more energy than those environmentally unhealthy methods of the past, making it a desirable substitute/alternative.
The secret to functioning High Altitude Wind Power is efficient tether technology that reaches 15,000 feet in the air, far higher than birds will fly, but creating restricted airspace for planes and other aircraft.
The same materials used in the tethers that hold these balloons in place can also hold flying windmills in place; and with energy cable technology getting ever lighter and stronger .Flying windmills appear to be 90 percent more energy efficient in wind tunnel tests than their land-based counterparts; that is three times more efficiency due to simple yet constantly abundant and effective high altitude wind power, available only 15,000 feet in the air by way of clustered rotor craft kites tethered with existing anti-terrorist technologies like those used on the Mexican/American border radar balloons.
High Altitude Wind Power offers itself as a clean and more powerful source of power generation than anything available on-the-grid at present and if Sky WindPower Corp. has their way, FEG technology and flying windmills will take the lead of a more sustainable future within the decade.
Flying electric generators (FEGs) are proposed to harness kinetic energy in the powerful, persistent high altitude winds. Average power density can be as high as 20 kW/m2 in a approximately 1000 km wide band around latitude 30in both
Earth hemispheres. At 15,000 feet (4600 m) and above, tethered rotorcraft, with four or more rotors mounted on each unit, could give individual rated outputs of up to 40 MW. These aircraft would be highly controllable and could be flown in arrays, making them a large-scale source of reliable wind power. The
aerodynamics, electrics, and control of these craft are described in detail, along with a description of the tether mechanics. A 240 kW craft has been designed to demonstrate the concept at altitude. It is anticipated that large-scale units would make low cost electricity available for grid supply, for hydrogen production, or for hydro-storage from large-scale generating facilities.
INTRODUCTION
Two major jet streams, the Sub-Tropical Jet and the Polar Front Jet exist in both Earth hemispheres. These enormous energy streams are formed by the combination of tropical region sunlight falling and Earth rotation. This wind resource is invariably available wherever the sun shines and the Earth rotates. These jet stream winds offer an energy benefit between one and two orders of magnitude greater than equalrotor-
area, ground mounted wind turbines operating in the lowest regions of the Earthâ„¢s boundary layer. In the USA,Caldeira and Oâ„¢Doherty and Roberts have shown that average power densities of around 17 kW/m2 are available. In Australia, Atkinson et al show that 19 kW/m2 is achievable.These winds are available in northern India, China, Japan,Africa, the Mediterranean, and elsewhere.
Various systems have been examined to capture this energy, and these include tethered balloons, tethered fixed-winged craft, tether climbing and descending kites, and rotorcraft.
Our preferred option is a tethered rotorcraft, a variant of the gyroplane, where conventional rotors generate power and simultaneously produce sufficient lift to keep the system aloft. This arrangement, using a twin-rotor configuration, has been
described and flown at low altitude by Roberts and Blackler (Fig. 1). More recent developments have produced a quadruple rotor arrangement (Fig. 2). Commercialization of the quad-rotor technology could significantly contribute to
greenhouse gas reductions.
Tethered rotorcraft, with four or more rotors in each unit, could harness the powerful, persistent jet streams, and should be able to compete effectively with all other energy production methods. Generators at altitude also avoid community concern associated with ground-based wind turbine appearance and
noise. Bird strike problems are also less. However, tethered generators would need to be placed in dedicated airspace, which would restrict other aircraft. Arrays of tethered
generators would not be flown near population centers unless and until operating experience assured the safety of such a configuration.
Fig. 1. Photograph of early two-rotor prototype in flight.
At this time, the best tether for the rotorcraft appears to be a single, composite electro-mechanical cable made of insulated aluminium conductors and high strength fiber. When operating as a power source, two, four, or more rotors are inclined at an
adjustable angle to the on-coming wind, generally a 40angle. The wind on the inclined rotors generates lift, gyroplane-style, and forces rotation, which generates electricity, windmill-style. Electricity is conducted down the tether to a ground station.
The craft simultaneously generates lift and electricity. However, it can also function as an elementary powered helicopter with ground-supplied electrical energy, and with the generators then functioning as motors. The craft can thus ascend or descend from altitude as an elementary, tethered helicopter. During any lull periods aloft, power may be supplied to maintain altitude, or to land on a small groundbase. A ground winch to reel the tether could be used to retrieve the craft in an emergency.
Fig. 2. Rendering of Sky WindPower Corp.â„¢s planned 240
kW, four-rotor demonstration craft.
NOMENCLATURE
ac = Rotorâ„¢s control axis angle
ÃƒÅ¸ = Angle of cable to the horizontal
T, H, P = Thrust, H-force and power output of a single
rotor
Cp, Ã‚Âµ= Power coefficient and tip speed ratio,
component of the wind normal to the rotorâ„¢s
control axis divided by the speed of the rotor
blade's tip
R, = Tip radius and angular velocity of rotors
V, = Velocity and air density of the free stream
M, g = Craft mass and acceleration due to gravity
X, Y, Z = Wire fixed, orthogonal set of axes also forces in
these directions. Alternatively wind axes are
used.
x, y, z = Displacements in X, Y, Z directions
, _ = Angular displacements about X, Y, Z axes
o = Rotorâ„¢s collective pitch angle
Lc = Tether length from ground to craft
a1 = Rotorâ„¢s fore and aft flapping angle
II THE BEST SPOTS TO PLACE FEGs
Based on the ERA-15 reanalysis of the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, we calculated the seasonal-mean, climate-zone wind power density from December 1978 to February 1994 .Computed power densities in high altitude winds exceed a 10 kW/m2 seasonal average at the jet streamâ„¢s typical latitudes and altitudes. This is the highest power density for a large renewable energy resource anywhere on Earth. It exceeds the power densities of sunlight, near surface winds, ocean currents, hydropower, tides, geothermal, and other large-scale renewable resources. For comparison, Earth surface solar energy is typically about 0.24 kW/m2 , and photovoltaic cell conversion of energy into electricity has an efficiency several times less than that of wind power.
High power densities would be uninteresting if only a small amount of total power were available. However, wind power is roughly 100 times the power used by all human civilization. Total power dissipated in winds is about 15 times 10 W. Total
Human thermal power consumption is about 13 times 10 W. Removing 1% of high altitude windsâ„¢ available energy is not expected to have adverse environmental consequences.
High altitude winds are a very attractive potential source of power, because this vast energy is high density and persistent. Furthermore, high altitude winds are typically just a few kilometres away from energy users. No other energy source combines potential resource size, density, and proximity so attractively.
The wind speed data from across the globe is recorded at heights from 263 feet to almost 40,000 feet over the last 30 years, and calculated which regions would generate the most power. According to the study, Tokyo, Seoul, Sydney and New York City all sit on a goldmine of stratospheric wind power.
During the summer months, Delhi and Mumbai could also benefit from sky high turbines. But unfortunately for India, the gusts die down in the fall and spring, reducing the energy density in the atmosphere.
IV DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED ENERGY CONVERSION
SYSTEM
The currently proposed new tethered craft consists of four identical rotors mounted in an airframe which flies in the powerful and persistent winds. The tetherâ„¢s insulated aluminum conductors bring power to ground, and are wound with strong Kevlar-family cords. The conductor weight is a critical compromise between power loss and heat generation. We propose employing aluminum conductors with tether transmission voltages of 15 kV and higher, because they are light weight for the energy transmitted. To minimize total per kWh system cost and reduce tether costs, the design allows higher per meter losses and higher conductor heating than does
traditional utility power transmission. Depending on flight altitude, electrical losses between the tether and the converted powerâ„¢s insertion into the commercial grid are expected to be as much as 20%, and are included in energy cost estimates
described in Section IX.
The flying electric generator units (FEGs) envisioned for commercial power production have a rated capacity in the 3 to 30 MW range. Generators arrays are contemplated for wind farms in airspace restricted from commercial and private
aircraft use. To supply all U.S. energy needs, airspace for power generation is calculated to restrict far less airspace than is already restricted from civil aviation for other purposes. While similar in concept to current wind farms, in most cases
flying generator arrays may be located much closer to demand load centers.
When operating as an electrical power source, four or more rotors are inclined at an adjustable, controllable angle to the on-coming wind. In general the rotors have their open faces at an angle of up to 50to this wind. This disk incidence is reduced in various wind conditions to hold the power output at the rated value without exceeding the design tether load.Rotorcraft can also function as an elementary powered
helicopter as described in section II.
The capacity, or generating factor calculations account for wind lulls or storms during which the generators must be landed. However, the projected capacity for flying electric generators is far higher than for the best ground-based wind
turbine sites because of the persistent winds at high altitudes.
High altitude wind speeds and other conditions are measured at 12 A.M. and P.M. at major airports worldwide by radiosonde weather balloons, and are reported on NOAA and other government websites. It is thus possible to calculate what the past capacity of flying generators at those locations would have been.
The U.S. average capacity factor would have been about 80% for craft flying at 10,000 meters. At Detroitâ„¢s latitude, the capacity factor was calculated at 90%, at San Diegoâ„¢s, 71%. This compares to capacity factors of about 35 percent for
ground-based wind turbines operating at the best sites.
Fig. 2 above and Fig. 3 below show the four-rotor assembly with four identical rotors arranged, two forward, and two aft. The plan-form of the rotor centerlines is approximately square. Adjacent rotors rotate in opposite directions; diagonally
opposite rotors rotate in the same direction.
In this particular four rotor assembly, craft attitude in pitch, roll, and yaw can be controlled by collective rotor pitch change. No cyclic pitch control is needed to modify the bladesâ„¢ pitch as they rotate, as is needed in helicopter technology.
This should help reduce maintenance costs. Rotor collective pitch variation then varies the thrust developed by each rotor in the format described below using GPS/Gyro supplied error signal data.
(1) Total craft thrust (and total power output) is controlled by simultaneously equal, collective pitch action on all rotors.
(2) Roll control is by differential, but equal, collective pitch action between the port and starboard pair of rotors.
(3) Pitch control is by differential, but equal, collective pitch action between the fore and aft pair of rotors.
(4) Yaw control, via differential torque reaction, is by differential, but equal, collective pitch changes on pairs of opposing rotors.
Ground-based wind turbines experience surface feature turbulence not present at high altitude. In addition, turbulence reaction is different for a FEG. Ground-based turbines are, more or less, rigidly mounted on support towers. Even when flexible units and procedures are used, direct and gust-induced moment loads are significant for these ground-based facilities. Considerable European and US research and development has been directed towards relieving load excursions from nearsurface
wind gusts.
Flying electric generators have a great, inherent advantage over equivalent ground-based facilities in their ability to reduce gust loads. This is due to tether cable flexibility, both as built-in elasticity and as changeable shape (drape) under gust conditions. This flexibility very significantly alleviates gust loads and torques applied to the rotors, gearboxes, etc. This means that gust loads in flying units are reduced by more than an order of magnitude compared to ground-based turbine gust loads. Sky WindPower Corp. has developed programs that demonstrate this gust alleviation process. Section V details the flight performance of these flying generators.
Electrodynamic tether
Tether is the connecting media between the turbines up in the air to the grid on the surface. Electrodynamic tethers are long conducting wires, such as the one deployed from the tether satellite, which can operate on electromagnetic principles as generators, by converting their kinetic energy to electrical energy, or as motors, converting electrical energy to kinetic energy. Electric potential is generated across a conductive tether by its motion through the Earth's magnetic field. The choice of the metal conductor to be used in an electrodynamic tether is determined by a variety of factors. Primary factors usually include high electrical conductivity, and low density. Secondary factors, depending on the application, include cost, strength, and melting point.
An electrodynamic tether is attached to an object, the tether being oriented at an angle to the local vertical between the object and a planet with a magnetic field. When the tether cuts the planet's magnetic field, it generates a current, and thereby converts some of the orbiting body's kinetic energy to electrical energy. As a result of this process, an electrodynamic force acts on the tether and attached object, slowing their orbital motion. The tether's far end can be left bare, making electrical contact with the ionosphere via the phantom loop. Functionally, electrons flow from the space plasma into the conductive tether, are passed through a resistive load in a control unit and are emitted into the space plasma by an electron emitter as free electrons. In principle, compact high-current tether power generators are possible and, with basic hardware, 10 to 25 kilowatts appears to be attainable.
V. FLYING GENERATORS AERODYNAMIC PERFORMANCE
The flying generatorâ„¢s side view in Fig. 3 is for a typical flight configuration in a wind of velocity V. A single tether of length Lc is attached to the craft at a point A on the craftâ„¢s plane of symmetry. The aircraftâ„¢s center of mass is at C. The tether is assumed, herein for simplicity, to be mass-less and non-extendible.
For low altitude flight, around 1500 ft (< 500 m), the assumption of a straight, mass-less tether is reasonable. However, for higher altitudes, the analysis has been extended to included tether mass and tether air-loads. Higher altitudes are achievable using an aluminium-Kevlar composite or an aluminium-Spectra composite for the
electro-mechanical tethering cable.
This windmill, pictured below, is in the prototype stage. This project is called high altitude jetstream windpower, and itâ„¢s wind energy that literally captures the jetstream. Why do they want to use the jetstream Because mid-level wind at a high altitude in the jetstream produces winds of 125-160 mph, so itâ„¢s like capturing the power of a hurricane.
Fig. 3. Diagram of the FEG in flight, showing the craft's
nose-up angle, _, which is identical to the control axis
angle, _c, as no cyclic pitch use is planned. The rotor's fore
and aft flapping angle, a1, is shown as the angle between
the normal to the tip-path plane and the control axis. The
total rotor thrust component along the control axis is T,
and normal to this axis is the component force H. If T and
H forces are combined vectorally the total rotor force is
almost normal to the tip-path plane.
Fig. 4 shows the power output coefficient, Cp, for each rotor
where
Cp = P/ (Rsqr*Ã‚Â½ Vcube)
The power output is plotted against the control axis angle a c, for values of constant tip speed ratio Ã‚Âµ .
By reference to Fig. 3 it can be seen that
a c =
and
Ã‚Âµ= (Vcos a c)/ R
The dotted curve represents the maximum power output under conditions of zero profile drag on the rotor blades. Hence it follows that when _c = 90Ã‚Â° the value of Cp will equal the Betz Limit of 0.593. Using the methods of Gessow and Crim the practical values of Cp have been calculated for a rotor solidity of 0.05. For a fixed value of Ã‚Âµthe power coefficients adopt an inverted U-curve shape. On each of these curves, the power coefficient can be zero. These are the autorotation conditions where no power is being developed or supplied to the rotors. The favored autorotation condition, to be discussed below, is the left-hand side zero crossing of each inverted U-shaped curve. In these conditions the craft is selfsustaining in the prevailing wind, V, and rotor speed
The autorotation conditions physically relate to conditions when wind speed is insufficient to support the craft and its tether, and the system is on the point of collapse. The left-hand side cutting of the inverted U-shape curves in Fig. 4 with the
ordinate axis, implies that all the windâ„¢s kinetic energy is being used to generate lift and that no power is being developed. The left-hand cutting with the ordinate is preferred because in this condition it favors the tether cable more than does the companion right-hand crossing of the ordinate. This implies that the craftâ„¢s lesser nose-up attitude allows a more near vertical application of force at the top of the tether.
The question now arises as to which of the left-hand crossings is most favorable for our purposes. It has been found that the minimum wind speed to stay aloft occurs when the craft noseup attitude is around 24with a corresponding tip speed ratio of 0.10. These values will vary somewhat with different rotor
and tether parameters, but it is important to realize that autorotation at a minimal wind speed is fundamental to the systemâ„¢s performance. A typical minimum wind speed for
autorotation is around 10 m/s at an operating altitude of 15,000 feet (4600 m).
VI. ELECTRICAL SYSTEM DETAILS
Flying electric generators need to ascend and remain aloft for short periods on grid-sourced energy. In low-wind conditions, only a small proportion of output rating as grid sourced energy is required to raise or maintain the craft aloft. Voltages at the terminals of both the generator/motor and at the grid interface need to be kept within designed tolerances and/or be adjusted by timely voltage regulation.
In a national regulated electricity market, such as that found in Europe and elsewhere, a System Impact Study (SIS) is required to connect a new generator to the grid if the generatorâ„¢s capacity is above a minimum level, e.g. 5 MW. Even non-dispatchable embedded generators require Grid System Impact Assessments. The generator proponent usually pays for the generator-to-grid network connection. Land and sea locations for generation from renewable energy sources, especially wind energy, are often remote from the existing grid, hence, connection costs are often 50% of the total investment for new generating capacity. Also where a renewable energy source generator is not n-1 reliable for availability, the Network Connection Contracts usually include the costs of back-up supply contingencies. These relate to
network charges when the renewable generator is not supplying.
Flying electric generators at altitude will have a relatively high availability, around 80%. Reliability and peak premium sales could be enhanced by a link to a pumped storage facility for off-peak filling/storage and peak-release energy sales and
delivery. Energy could be stored as hydrogen gas produced from electrolysis, or as water pumped-back and re-released for hydroelectric generation.
Conventional ground-based wind energy systems harvest only about 30% availability. Flying electric generators, in single units of 20 MW or more, can achieve about 80% availability with suitable sitting at land or sea locations. These generators at altitude involve power transmission over lengths of between 4 and 8 km. Flying generator/tether voltages between 11 kV and 25 kV ac could be used on units of 30 MW at the most extreme altitudes. Also there are recent modern innovations, which use powerformers/motorformers. The latter, being developed by equipment suppliers such as ABB, Siemens, Mitsubishi, etc., would allow polymeric cable stators and tether voltages at say 33 kVac or more. Grid interfacing would then be easier at bulk energy levels.
The jet-stream location can drift north and south, so seasonal mobility from one prepared site to another could be a feature of flying generatorsâ„¢ grid utilization and optimization. This could be advantageous in seasonal summer/winter
demand-side management through peak-matching generator placement or relocations. This would include matching seasonal peaks for rural industries, such as grape processing, cotton harvesting, and irrigation to urban air-conditioning etc.
Because arrays of flying generators could move north or south to follow seasonal shifts in wind patterns or power demand, it could be advantageous to have plug-in flying generators at pre-arranged sites along an existing grid 33 kV, or more, overhead feeder with minimal interfacing. This would use, for example, a HV Live Line HV Bypass cable, sometimes called Temporary cable, with a mobile or
transportable High Voltage Generator switchyard circuit
breaker/metering unit.
If the tether arrangement were to contain three conductors, two could form the single-phase circuit, while the third could be the ground wire and control cabling function. Three-phase balance is then achieved by adding other nearby generator
outputs to form single-phase combinations for grid connection. Alternatively, if necessary, a transformer with OLTC could be used, similar to that used for monoplex or 50 kVac duplex rail electric traction supply. This would be similar to a rail traction
supply transformer of 50 MVA and 132 kV three phase to 25 kV ac positive and 25 kV ac negative to centre tap earth.
When using a shipboard site, fixed ocean site, or a site adjacent to a water-reservoir which is remote from the desired FEG ground-surface connection location, then the use of HVDC on tethers, with surface/submarine cabling, should be
considered in combination with a HVDC voltage motorformer/powerformerTM design. In addition, a unitâ„¢s DC motor/generator commutation by conventional brushes might be facilitated by more modern electronic switching or by
triggered Vacuum Gaps (TVG).
Where an AC interfacing transformer, or a HV AC /DC Converter Station (usually with an included transformer) is required for grid interfacing connectivity, the economics of scale would encourage more multiple-unit connections.
A 60 MW to 150 MW grid connection composed of three 20 to 50 MW airborne units with a powerformerTM, or HVDC AC/DC connection, can perform as a synchronous condenser, thereby adding AC grid stability advantages in the SIS. This will depend on grid siting.
Starting and retrieval characteristics of flying units at specific grid connections could be an important SIS review item. A higher fault level at the connection site is desirable for a large motor start up. Generator and tether performance depend on a good lightning storm detection system. Surge protection schemes and hardening of the control systems are also under examination.
VII. FLIGHT CONTROL USING GPS AND GYRO DATA
Very accurate control is needed to precisely maintain a desired position in the sky. GPS with gyroscopes is an ideal way to provide the reference data necessary to provide this control.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) consists of a constellation of 24 satellites that provide a continuous navigation capability to users at any location on (or near) Earth in all weather conditions. With this system, currently operating with 29 satellites, real-time, three dimensional position information with accuracies on the order of 5-10 m can be achieved.
Main error sources for the system include signal propagation effects through the atmosphere, satellite orbit and timing errors, and GPS receiver noise and signal reflection(multipath). When used in differential mode, where measurement corrections are computed at a GPS reference station sited on a known location, accuracies can be improved quite easily to within a few meters (DGPS).
Although generally used for positioning and navigation, GPS can also be used for platform attitude determination and control. If three or more GPS receivers and antennas are mounted on a platform, such as an FEG, the GPS carrier phase data can be used to directly estimate the roll, pitch, and heading of the platform in real-time at a rate of 1-20 Hz [18].
The attitude parameter accuracy is primarily a function of the signal multipath, and antenna separation (wider spacing yields higher attitude accuracies â€œ Fig. 5). For the FEG, multipath could occur through the reflection of the signals off the structure itself. However, when antennas are separated by over 5 m on the FEG, attitude accuracy should be better than 0.25with multipath present, which is well within the required attitude control specifications.
Fig. 5. Relationship between the achievable GPS-derived
heading and pitch accuracy and antenna separation
Two other factors must be considered when using GPS for attitude determination and control on the FEG. One is the rigidity of the structure itself. Antennas with maximum separation increase the achievable accuracy, but function best with antennas located on a rigid frame. A second factor is system performance during significant FEG nose-up angles. These angles range from 0when hovering up to 45when generating. While hovering, some GPS satellites may be obscured since the FEG may block reception signals along the line-of-sight. Tests show that attitude parameters can still be estimated up to at least a 45tilt, however, a gyroscope used as
an auxiliary attitude sensor, augments GPS availability and reduces noise. This has been implemented for many applications, and overall accuracy is a function of the gyro sensor characteristics.
VIII. DETAILS OF A 240 KW DEMONSTRATION CRAFT
Sky WindPower Corp. has completed the design for a 240 kW demonstration craft. Fig. 2 is an isometric view of this craft.
Two units will demonstrate the commercial viability, or otherwise, of the flying generator concept. These craft have four, two-bladed rotors turning in paired counter-rotation as described above. The rotors are 10.7 m in diameter with
solidity of 5%, and the un-twisted blades are of conventional construction. Collective pitch control on the rotors will be via electric actuators. The craft is designed for operations up to 15,000 feet (4600 m).
The rotors are connected to four separate gearboxes, which drive four motor/generator units supplied by AC Propulsion. These electrical machines are of high armature speed to ensure a satisfactory power-to-weight ratio. They are also electrically linked to ensure that rotor speeds do not vary with one another.
Typical armature speeds are 24,000 rpm. The four power units are mounted in an elementary, low-drag fuselage of fiber composite construction. The all-up weight of each craft is estimated at around 1140 lbs (520 kg).
The electro-mechanical tether is designed to transmit 240kW at a voltage of 15kV. The electrical transmission efficiency is 90%. The tether has two insulated aluminium conductors embedded in a Vectran fiber composite. The tetherâ„¢s specific weight is around 115 kg/km at a diameter of 10mm. A sample has been constructed. The electrical ground facility is configured for a DC supply to and from the platform. The motor/generators are series connected.
The craftâ„¢s rated output is developed at an 18.4 m/s wind speed at an altitude of 15,000 feet (4600 m). The 11.5 m/s autorotation speed is at the same altitude. The power consumption in no wind (hover) at 15,000 feet (4600 m) is estimated to be around 75 kW. Rotor speeds are in the range of 130 to 300 rpm. The craft in this demonstrator is designed to withstand a wind of 35 m/s at 15,000 feet (4600 m).
Throughout the operating envelope the craftâ„¢s nose-up attitude varies in the range 10 and 45. At no time during these operations does the blade incidence on the retreating blade exceed acceptable values at the conventional reference station,
while tip Mach numbers never exceed about 0.6.
Finally, there is some merit in the view that the best return on investment of these craft will be dependent on an optimal, operating altitude. At low altitudes the average wind velocity wanes, while at higher altitudes, adjacent to the jet stream
core, the costs produce a less than beneficial return, because of the need for a higher transmission voltage as the altitude increases. Thus it will be necessary to find the best return from an investment as a function of the maximum operating altitude.
This aspect will be developed and confirmed over 12 months of flights planned during the demonstration program.
IX. COST AND PERFORMANCE PROJECTIONS AT THE LARGE
SCALE
A. Scalability Considerations
As discussed in section IV. , the tethered rotorcraft is inherently scalable in size and output, from small prototype configurations of below 240 kW, through commercially viable systems with competitive costs of energy, in the range of 3
MW to 30 MW per craft. Larger sizes are more economical and may utilize more than four rotors to maintain economy and manageability of materials.
In this section we analyze cost and performance of a four rotor, 3.4 MW (platform-rated) configuration as might be deployed in an array over various sites in the U.S. Because of losses described earlier, the actual output after conditioning
would be about 20% lower. The 3.4 MW size was chosen because it is large enough to provide competitive economics in a four-rotor configuration, and a rotor design that is within the scope of currently available methods and materials.
B. Weights and Costs
For cost illustration purposes, we use a 100 MW array, comprised of 3.4 MW FEGs. The cost estimates are based on 250 FEGs/year production rate assuming prior production of 150 FEGs, in accordance with NREL guidelines. A 3.4 MW platform-rated craft is estimated to weigh 21,000 lbs (9500 kg) and cost $1,360,000. Adding ground systems and production profits brings the total to $2,260,000 per 3.4 MW. The balance of station costs for the 100 MW array, including site preparation, facilities and equipment, spare parts and construction is $4,210,000. Taken together these initial capital costs come to $71,200,000 per 100 MW.
C. Performance and Net Annual Energy Production
Three design sites were chosen for analyzing the output of the 100 MW array, Topeka, Kansas, Detroit, Michigan and San Diego, California. Topeka is a "Great Plains" site, Detroit is a site where a great deal of energy is used, and San Diego is
a site where capturing power from the wind is not normally thought to be practical.
Net Annual Energy Production kWh/yr is determined by multiplying rated power by a site capacity factor. Capacity factors for FEGs of the proposed design are based on wind statistics provided by NOAA radiosonde readings for major airports near the design sites, normally taken daily at noon and midnight. FEGs are to be flown at the most efficient altitude for prevailing wind conditions, and capacity factor is calculated in the normal manner.
In making these calculations we have taken into account the projected operating characteristics of the 3.4 MW design through the range of altitudes up to 9,000 meters. Over the current range of interest the rated wind speed has been
approximated to the linear variation (4), while the air density varies according to NACA Standard Atmosphere values.
Capacity factors have been computed for the three design
sites using software we developed, from data downloaded
from NOAA. The data is for the year starting September 20,
2000 and ending September 21, 2001.
V = 14m/s + 5.7m/s * H/10000m
Where,
V Required wind speed in meters per second to operate at rated capacity, and
H is Altitude in meters.
Capacity factors for Topeka, Detroit, and San Diego are 91%, 90% and 70%, respectively. As a reserve against storms, maintenance and mechanical problems, we assume 10% downtime. This gives Net Annual Energy Production figures of 581 GWh/yr, 575 GWh/yr and 447 GWh/yr, respectively for a 100 MW array at each of the three sites.
D. Projected Cost of Energy
Annual Operating Expenses (AOE) include Land Lease Costs (LLC), Operations & Maintenance (O&M) and Levelized Replacement/Overhaul Costs (LRC). AOE projections are necessarily subjective, since no plant like this
currently exists. O&M costs are derived from an $82,000/yr estimate for a 3.4 MW FEG, multiplied by 29.4 FEGs/100 MW plant. Life-limited components are anticipated to require replacement at 10 years and 20 years. Tether longevity is a
risk. Replacement cost is estimated at 80% of the initial capital cost for the whole system. Expressed in per kWh terms, the AOE for the Topeka, Detroit, and San Diego sites are estimated at $0.0102/kWh, $0.0103/kWh, and $0.0129/kWh,
respectively.
We have assumed a Fixed Charge Rate (FCR) of 0.0750/yr.
The cost of energy was computed using the formula (5). For
the Topeka, Detroit, and San Diego sites the costs of energy
(COE) are $0.0194/kWh, $0.0196/kWh, and $0.0249/kWh,
Respectively:
COE FCR * ICC )/ AEPnet AOE
X. ENERGY STORAGE ISSUES
Electric utilities want constantly available dispatchable power, which cannot be provided economically if capacity factors are low, such as the thirty percent that is typical of ground based wind turbine sites. However, with the high capacity factors, such as 85 percent, that are expected at average FEG sites in the United States and many other places in the world (especially in the mid-latitudes), this dispatchable
electricity becomes economical. This is because the expected storage requirement in connection with FEG derived electrical energy is storage for only the shorter periods when FEGs are grounded due to inadequate winds or bad storms.
Pumped water storage, where available, is a very economical means used now for such temporary storage. A well known example is used by the utility PG&E in California to pump water up to a high lake during low electrical-use hours and then have that water generate electricity at high demand times on the way back to a lower lake.
Existing hydroelectric power at dams may be considered to be the equivalent of pumped water storage facilities by deliberately phasing in and out generation in complementary fashion to wind availability at a nearby FEG array. In that
combination the combined output could be dispatchable power with as much as four times the capacity of the existing hydroelectric site.
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) is another energy storage means presently coming into use. In special circumstances, where pumping compressed air into existing large caves or porous rock strata is feasible, it may well be
especially economic. Commercial tanks built for the purpose may be the most economic storage means where very shortterm energy storage is needed.
Hydrogen, not currently a means of economic storage as are some of the methods mentioned above, has the advantage that it can be stored in one season and used in another. Hydrogen can be produced from low cost FEG electricity supplied by
water electrolysis, stored in typically good wind winter months, and then used to generate electricity in typically low wind summer months. For example, the capacity factor at Patiala, India for an FEG flying at 35,000 feet (10700 m) is calculated at only about 37 percent for the summer months, but approximately 90 percent for the remaining months. Therefore, north Indiaâ„¢s hydrogen generation using FEGs in the good months should sufficiently supply all its energy needs. Summer electricity would be generated from stored hydrogen fueling turbines in the south, not directly from FEG arrays. Furthermore, high altitude winds are often described by the
planetary scale thermal wind equations. These thermal winds, including the jet stream, tend to shift latitudinally but rarely stop blowing. Thus, a latitudinally spaced configuration of flying electric generator arrays, coupled with long-distance
electricity transmission, could potentially smooth out much of the local variability in high altitude wind power generation. Thus, the economics of supplying the dispatchable electricity, which electric utilities want, should be favorable in
connection with energy storage when that electricity is generated by FEGs with their high capacity factors. This is an important factor in determining the relative worth of FEG generated electricity compared with that of fossil fuels such as natural gas, and, therefore, also the financing costs of FEG facilities.
XI. CONCLUSIONS
It has been shown that flying electric generators can harness the powerful and persistent winds aloft to supply electricity for grid connection, for hydrogen production or for hydro-storage. Globally, upper atmospheric winds provide an enormous resource for this application. The environmental impacts at altitude are minimal with virtually no visual, or noise intrusion and no bird strikes. The proposed systems lead logically to rural/remote area installations in regions of restricted airspace. Full-scale facilities, using individual FEG units of rated power around 30 MW, could easily form wind-farms equivalent in output to regular coal, gas and nuclear facilities. These wind-farms would give capacity (generating) factors around three times greater than that from conventional wind-farms. The estimated bulk electricity cost for the power so produced is estimated to be of the order of $20/MWh. High altitude wind power is not science fiction. It depends on currently available technologies and engineering knowhow, building on decades of experience with wind turbine and gyroplane technologies. Harnessing high altitude wind energy, using a combination of essentially existing technologies, appears to be thoroughly practical and suggests that this energy source can play an important part in addressing the world's energy and global warming problems.

The development of wind power in India began in the 1990s, and has significantly increased in the last few years. Although a relative newcomer to the wind industry compared with Denmark or the US, India has the fifth largest installed wind power capacity in the world.[1]
As of 31 October 2009 the installed capacity of wind power in India was 11806.69[2] MW, mainly spread across Tamil Nadu (4889.765 MW)[3], Maharashtra (1942.25 MW), Gujarat (1565.61 MW), Karnataka (1340.23 MW), Rajasthan (738.5 MW), Madhya Pradesh (212.8 MW), Andhra Pradesh (122.45 MW), Kerala (26.5 MW), Odisha (2MW)[4][5], West Bengal (1.1 MW) and other states (3.20 MW) [6] It is estimated that 6,000 MW of additional wind power capacity will be installed in India by 2012.[7] Wind power accounts for 6% of India's total installed power capacity, and it generates 1.6% of the country's power.[8] India is preparing wind atlas[9]

Tamil Nadu is the state with the most wind generating capacity: 4889.765 MW at the end of the March 2010.[3] Not far from Aralvaimozhi, the Muppandal wind farm, the largest in the subcontinent, is located near the once impoverished village of Muppandal, supplying the villagers with electricity for work.[14][15] The village had been selected as the showcase for India's $2 billion clean energy program which provides foreign companies with tax breaks for establishing fields of wind turbines in the area. In february 2009, Shriram EPC bagged INR 700 million contract for setting up of 60 units of 250 KW (totaling 15 MW) wind turbines in Tirunelveli district by Cape Energy.[16] Enercon is also playing a major role in development of wind energy in India. In Tamil Nadu, Coimbatore and Tiruppur Districts having more wind Mills from 2002 onwards,specially, Chittipalayam, Kethanoor, Gudimangalam, Poolavadi,Murungappatti (MGV Place),Sunkaramudaku,KongalNagaram,Gomangalam, Anthiur are the high wind power production places in the both districts.IF YOU INTERESTED GOOD CONDITION(SALES IN 50 MW) SECOND HAND WIND MILLS CONTACT SRI VAIGUNDA WIND ENERGY & SRI EXPORTS IMPORTS 2/134,AYYAHOUSE,AMBALAVANAPURAM TIRUNELVELI-627133 PHONE;09894833010
[edit] Maharashtra (1942.25 MW)
Maharashtra is second only to Tamil Nadu in terms of generating capacity. Suzlon has been heavily involved.[12] Suzlon operates what was once Asia's largest wind farm, the Vankusawade Wind Park (201 MW), near the Koyna reservoir in Satara district of Maharashtra.[17]
[edit] Gujarat (1782 MW)
Samana in Rajkot district is set to host energy companies like China Light Power (CLP) and Tata Power have pledged to invest up to Rs.8.15 billion ($189.5 million) in different projects in the area. CLP, through its India subsidiary CLP India, is investing close to Rs.5 billion for installing 126 wind turbines in Samana that will generate 100.8 MW power. Tata Power has installed wind turbines in the same area for generating 50 MW power at a cost of Rs.3.15 billion. Both projects are expected to become operational by early next year, according to government sources. The Gujarat government, which is banking heavily on wind power, has identified Samana as an ideal location for installation of 450 turbines that can generate a total of 360 MW. To encourage investment in wind energy development in the state, the government has introduced a raft of incentives including a higher wind energy tariff. Samana has a high tension transmission grid and electricity generated by wind turbines can be fed into it. For this purpose, a substation at Sadodar has been installed. Both projects are being executed by Enercon Ltd, a joint venture between Enercon of Germany and Mumbai-based Mehra group.[18]
ONGC Ltd has commissioned its first wind power project. The 51 MW project is located at Motisindholi in Kutch district of Gujarat. ONGC had placed the EPC order on Suzlon Energy in January 2008, for setting up the wind farm comprising 34 turbines of 1.5-mw each. Work on the project had begun in February 2008, and it is learnt that the first three turbines had begun production within 43 days of starting construction work. Power from this Rs 308 crore captive wind farm will be wheeled to the Gujarat state grid for onward use by ONGC at its Ankleshwar, Ahmedabad, Mehsana and Vadodara centres. ONGC has targeted to develop a captive wind power capacity of around 200 MW in the next two years.[19]
[edit] Karnataka (1340.23 MW)
There are many small wind farms in Karnataka, making it one of the states in India which has a high number of wind mill farms. Chitradurga, Gadag are some of the districts where there are a large number of Windmills. Chitradurga alone has over 20000 wind turbines.[citation needed]
The 13.2 MW Arasinagundi (ARA) and 16.5 MW Anaburu (ANA) wind farms are ACCIONA’S first in India. Located in the Davangere district (Karnataka State), they have a total installed capacity of 29.7 MW and comprise a total 18 Vestas 1.65MW wind turbines supplied by Vestas Wind Technology India Pvt. Ltd.[citation needed]
The ARA wind farm was commissioned in June 2008 and the ANA wind farm, in September 2008. Each facility has signed a 20-year Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) with Bangalore Electricity Supply Company (BESCOM) for off-take of 100% of the output. ARA and ANA are Acciona’s first wind farms eligible for CER credits under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).[citation needed]
ACCIONA is in talks with the World Bank for The Spanish Carbon Fund which is assessing participation in the project as buyer for CERs likely to arise between 2010 and 2012. An environmental and social assessment has been conducted as part of the procedure and related documents have been provided. These are included below, consistent with the requirement of the World Bank's disclosure policy.[citation needed]
[edit] Rajasthan (738.5 MW)
Gurgaon-headquartered Gujarat Fluorochemicals Ltd is in an advanced stage of commissioning a large wind farm in Jodhpur district of Rajasthan. A senior official[who?] told Projectmonitor that out of the total 31.5 mw capacity, 12 mw had been completed so far. The remaining capacity would come on line shortly, he added. For the INOX Group company, this would be the largest wind farm. In 2006-07, GFL commissioned a 23.1-mw wind power project at Gudhe village near Panchgani in Satara district of Maharashtra. Both the wind farms will be grid-connected and will earn carbon credits for the company, the official noted.[citation needed] In an independent development, cement major ACC Ltd has proposed to set up a new wind power project in Rajasthan with a capacity of around 11 mw. Expected to cost around Rs 60 crore, the wind farm will meet the power requirements of the company's Lakheri cement unit where capacity was raised from 0.9 million tpa to 1.5 million tpa through a modernisation plan. For ACC, this would be the second wind power project after the 9-mw farm at Udayathoor in Tirunelvelli district of Tamil Nadu.[citation needed] Rajasthan is emerging as an important destination for new wind farms, although it is currently not amongst the top five states in terms of installed capacity. As of 2007 end, this northern state had a total of 496 mw, accounting for a 6.3 per cent share in India's total capacity.[citation needed]
[edit] Madhya Pradesh (212.8 MW)
In consideration of unique concept, Govt. of Madhya Pradesh has sanctioned another 15 MW project to MPWL at Nagda Hills near Dewas. All the 25 WEGs have been commissioned on 31.03.2008 and under successful operation.[20].
[edit] Kerala (26.5 MW)
The first wind farm of the state was set up at Kanjikode in Palakkad district. It has a generating capacity of 23.00 MW. A new wind farm project was launched with private participation at Ramakkalmedu in Idukki district. The project, which was inaugurated by chief minister V. S. Achuthanandan in April 2008, aims at generating 10.5 MW of electricity.[citation needed]
The Agency for Non-Conventional Energy and Rural Technology (ANERT), an autonomous body under the Department of Power, Government of Kerala, is setting up wind farms on private land in various parts of the state to generate a total of 600 mw of power. The agency has identified 16 sites for setting up wind farms through private developers. To start with, ANERT will establish a demonstration project to generate 2 mw of power at Ramakkalmedu in Idukki district in association with the Kerala State Electricity Board. The project is slated to cost Rs 21 crore. Other wind farm sites include Palakkad and Thiruvananthapuram districts. The contribution of non-conventional energy in the total 6,095 mw power potential is just 5.5 per cent, a share the Kerala government wants to increase by 30 per cent. ANERT is engaged in the field of development and promotion of renewable sources of energy in Kerala. It is also the nodal agency for implementing renewable energy programmes of the Union ministry of non-conventional energy sources.[citation needed]
[edit] West Bengal (1.10MW)
The total installation in West Bengal is just 1.10 MW as there was only 0.5 MW addition in 2006-2007 and none between 2007–2008 and 2008–2009
Bengal - Mega 50 MW wind energy project soon for country[citation needed]
Suzlon Energy Ltd plans to set up a large wind-power project in West Bengal Suzlon Energy Ltd is planning to set up a large wind-power project in West Bengal, for which it is looking at coastal Midnapore and South 24-Parganas districts. According to SP Gon Chaudhuri, chairman of the West Bengal Renewable Energy Development Agency, the 50 MW project would supply grid-quality power. Gon Chaudhuri, who is also the principal secretary in the power department, said the project would be the biggest in West Bengal using wind energy. At present, Suzlon experts are looking for the best site. Suzlon aims to generate the power solely for commercial purpose and sell it to local power distribution outfits like the West Bengal State Electricity Board (WBSEB).[citation needed]
Suzlon will invest around Rs 250 crore initially, without taking recourse to the funding available from the Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (Ireda), said Gon Chaudhuri. He said there are five wind-power units in West Bengal, at Frazerganj, generating a total of around 1 MW. At Sagar Island, there is a composite wind-diesel plant generating 1 MW. In West Bengal, power companies are being encouraged to buy power generated by units based on renewable energy. The generating units are being offered special rates. S Banerjee, private secretary to the power minister, said this had encouraged the private sector companies to invest in this field

Today more than 80 per cent of the world’s electric power production comes from fossil-fuelled plants. As the demand for electricity is forecasted to increase, there is an urgent need to find new methods to extract electric energy from renewable sources. Renewable electric energy supply is today one of the highest priorities in many parts of the world.
The Kyoto declaration 1997 and the last agreement at Marrakech 2002 are significant proof of this. Both the EU and the US have set their targets on future greenhouse emissions. Hence Renewable Energy Sources are one of future energy producers. Renewable energy is energy generated from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat, which are renewable(naturally replenished).
In 2006, about 18% of global final energy consumption came from renewable, with 13% coming from traditional biomass, which is mainly used for heating, and 3% from hydroelectricity. New renewable (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels) accounted for another 2.4% and are growing very rapidly. The share of renewable in electricity generation is around 18%, with 15% of global electricity coming from hydroelectricity and 3.4% from new renewable.
Wind is a form of solar energy. Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the irregularities of the earth's surface, and rotation of the earth. Wind flow patterns are modified by the earth's terrain, bodies of water, and vegetation. Humans use this wind flow, or motion energy, for many purposes: sailing, flying a kite, and even generating electricity.
Wind power is growing at the rate of 30% annually, with a worldwide installed capacity of 157,900 megawatts (MW) in 2009, and is widely used in Europe, Asia, and the United States. The terms wind energy or wind power describes the process by which the wind is used to generate mechanical power or electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. This mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this mechanical power into electricity.
But the Conventional Wind Turbines have the disadvantage of being stuck on the ground, consequently dependent on the wind passing through their location and they are not economical. Thus these factors make it unreliable for power production. Hence a new innovative way of delivering clean renewable energy to the world has evolved i.e.

Airborne Wind Turbine is a new design concept for a wind turbine that is floating in the air without a tower. Airborne Wind Turbine was designed and developed by Magenn Power, which is an Ontario based company. It is also called as M.A.R.S (Magenn Air Rotor System).
Airborne Wind Turbines have distinct advantages over existing Conventional Wind Turbines and Diesel Generating Systems including: global deployment, lower costs, better operational performance, and greater environmental advantages.
Hence the new kind wind turbine would be useful in fulfilling the future energy demands with zero emissions.
"There is enough energy in high altitude winds to power civilization 100 times over; and sooner or later, we're going to learn to tap into the power of winds and use it to run civilization." Says Ken Caldeira, Professor of Global Ecology at the Carnegie Institution for Science.

TECHNOLOGY
2.1. Working:
The Airborne wind Turbine is lighter-than-air tethered device that rotates about a horizontal axis in response to wind, efficiently generating clean renewable electrical energy at a lower cost than all competing systems. When wind rotates the turbine's blades, which in turn cause an attached generator to also spin. The generator then converts that moving energy of the wind into electricity using electromagnetic induction. The blades of the MARS turbine are actually part of the three-dimensional blimp itself. The blades catch the wind, causing the entire blimp to spin around. After the generator converts that movement into electricity, it's transferred down the turbine's long tether.

How the lift is created?
The lift for the airborne turbine is created due to two reasons. Primarily it’s due to buoyant lift i.e. due to helium present in the turbine which is lighter than the air. The amount of helium present in the airship decides the altitude of operation. The helium provides at least twice the positive lift versus the overall weight of the MARS unit. The secondary lift is due to aerodynamic effect or MAGNUS EFFECT. Magnus Effect was discovered in the mid 1800, which create lift when a spherical or cylindrical object is spun while moving in a fluid. A dimpled golf ball, hit properly, has a back spin that causes it to lift in flight. A baseball curve ball pitch uses the Magnus effect. Basically, a back spin causes a low pressure region to form above the object and high pressure to form below, resulting in lift. A large object like the Magenn Air Rotor creates substantial lift, so much so that the device should actually work in a wind, without using a lifting gas.

2.3. Components in Airborne Wind Turbine:
The components in Magenn Air Rotary System are:
1) Bladder:
The bag filled with any gas is called bladder, here the airship is filled with inert gas which is non-flammable i.e. Helium. Helium is the second most abundant element in the universe. Helium provides extra lift and will keep MARS at altitude in very low winds or calm air. It is also plentiful, inexpensive and environmentally safe. Helium's inert quality over other lifting gases makes it very acceptable. MARS 10kW unit will require slightly over 32,000 cubic feet of helium. The price of Helium varies from country to country. It is roughly $0.30 cents per cubic foot. But the helium gas leaks out at a rate of 0.5% per month or 6% per year; therefore the MARS units will have to be topped up with Helium every 4 to 6 months. The bladder is made up of Vectran fabric which has high strength, low elongation properties. The bladder is equipped with a radar reflective material that will present an echo to surface radar operating in the 200 MHz to 2700 MHz frequency range. This is useful for ATC (Air Traffic Controller) to identify the Magenn wind rotor, if they interfere the flight path

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