The Ka-50 is the production version of the V-80Sh-1 prototype. Production of the attack helicopter was ordered by the Soviet Council of Ministers on 14 December 1987.[18] Development of the helicopter was first reported in the West in 1984. The first photograph appeared in 1989.[19] During operational testing from 1985 to 1986, the workload on the pilot was found to be similar to that of a fighter-bomber pilot, such that the pilot could perform both flying and navigation duties.[20]

Like other Kamov helicopters, it features Kamov's characteristic contra-rotating co-axial rotor system, which removes the need for the entire tail rotor assembly and improves the aircraft's aerobatic qualities—it can perform loops, rolls and "the funnel" (circle-strafing), where the aircraft maintains a line-of-sight to the target while flying circles of varying altitude, elevation and airspeed around it.[citation needed] The omission of the tail rotor is a qualitative advantage, because the torque-countering tail rotor can use up to 30% of engine power. The Ka-50's entire transmission presents a comparatively small target to ground fire.[citation needed]

Kamov Ka-50 "Black Shark" on display

Following initial flight testing and system tests the Council ordered the first batch of helicopters in 1990. The attack helicopter was first described publicly as the "Ka-50" in March 1992 at a symposium in the United Kingdom.[18] The helicopter was publicly unveiled at the Mosaeroshow '92 at Zhukovskiy in August 1992. The following month, the second production example made its foreign debut at the Farnborough Airshow, where it was displayed with an image of a werewolf on its rudder—gaining the popular nickname "Werewolf". The fifth prototype gave the Ka-50 a particularly enduring designation. Painted black for its starring role in the movie Чёрная акула (Black Shark), the helicopter has been known by that nickname ever since. In November 1993, four production helicopters were flown to the Army Aviation Combat Training Centre at Torzhok to begin field trials. The president of the Russian Federation authorized the fielding of the Ka-50 with the Russian Army on 28 August 1995. The collapse of the Soviet Union led to a severe drop in defense procurement. This resulted in a mere dozen Ka-50s delivered, instead of the planned several hundred to replace the Mil Mi-24.[21]

The single-seat configuration was considered undesirable by NATO. The first two Ka-50 prototypes had false windows painted on them.[22] The "windows" evidently worked, as the first western reports of the aircraft were wildly inaccurate, to the point of some analysts even concluding that its primary mission was as an air superiority aircraft for hunting and killing NATO attack helicopters.[23] For improved pilot survivability the Ka-50 is fitted with a NPP Zvezda (transl. Star) K-37-800 ejection seat, which is a rare feature for a helicopter.[24] Before the rocket in the ejection seat deploys, the rotor blades are blown away by explosive charges in the rotor disc and the canopy is jettisoned.[25]

The Ka-50 and its modifications have been chosen as the special forces' support helicopter, while the Mil Mi-28 has become the main army's gunship. The production of Ka-50 was recommenced in 2006. In 2009, the Russian Air Force received three units built from incomplete airframes dating from the mid-1990s.[26]

From the time the Ka-50 was ordered in 1987, it was known that the limited night-time capability of the original Ka-50 version would have to be upgraded to meet night attack requirements.[27] Initially, Ka-50N was to have been fitted with the Merkury Low-Light TV (LLTV) system. Due to a lack of funding, the system was late and experienced reliability and capability issues. As a result, focus shifted to forward looking infrared (FLIR) systems.[28] Kamov drafted a design in 1993 that included the Shkval-N sighting system with an infrared sensor.[27] Many versions were tried; on some the original "Shkval" was supplemented by a thermal imaging system, while others saw a complete replacement by the "Samshit" day-and-night system (also used on Ka-52). Some of the imagers included in the trials were manufactured by the French SAGEM and Thomson companies. Kamov was forced to consider foreign analogues as a temporary replacement for domestic imaging systems because of their slow development.[28]

Trials led to two "final" versions: Ka-50N "Night Shark" (Russian: Ночная акула, 'velvet belly lanternshark')[29] and Ka-50Sh (Russian: Шар, translit.Shar, 'ball', because of the spherical FLIR turret). The first Ka-50Sh was the 8th pre-production aircraft, Bort 018; it first flew on 4 March 1997. The Kamov company and Black Shark logos were displayed on the endplate fins and the vertical tail. It featured the Samshit-50 system installed within a 640 mm (25 in) diameter sphere under the nose. Shkval system was moved to the nose cone area.[21] Neither of the Ka-50 night attack versions has entered full production.[28]

In the early 1980s, while comparative tests of the V-80 (Ka-50 prototype) and the Mi-28 were being conducted, the Kamov design team came up with a proposal to develop a dedicated helicopter to conduct battlefield reconnaissance, provide target designation, support and co-ordinate group attack helicopter operations. However, the economic hardships that hit the nation in the late 1980s hampered this new development program. This prompted Kamov's Designer General to choose a modified version of Ka-50 on which to install the reconnaissance and target designation system. The modified "Black Shark" required a second crew member to operate the optronics/radar reconnaissance suite. Kamov decided to use side-by-side seating arrangement, due to the verified improvements in co-operation between the crew members. This twin-seat version was designated Ka-52.[21]

Serial Ka-52 at Torzhok Air Base

In comparison to the original Ka-50, it has a "softer" nose profile and a radar system with two antennas—mast-mounted for aerial targets and nose-mounted for ground targets. Day-and-night TV/thermal sighting system in two spherical turrets (one over the cockpit and the second under the nose) are also fitted. The Ka-52 has the side-mounted cannon of the original Ka-50.[30] It features six wing-mounted hardpoints compared to four on the Ka-50. To keep the weight and performance on par with that of the Ka-50, some sacrifices were made to the design; the amount of armour and the capacity of the cannon magazine/feed were reduced. Also some flight parameters deteriorated; rate of climb is 8 m/s (vs. 10 m/s), maximum positive load factor is 3.0 g. Most of the problems were solved by installing the new VK-2500 engine.[25] The Ka-52 is approved for day, night and adverse weather conditions.[31]

Manufacturing of the first Ka-52 airframe began in mid-1996.[21] Series production was started in autumn 2008.[32] The 696th Instructor and Research Helicopter Regiment, based at Torzhok Air Base, is operating eight helicopters, in varying degrees of capability and/or modification, for research and development.[26] In December 2010, four new, series-production Kamov Ka-52s were delivered to the Air Base[33] of the 344th Centre for Combat Training and Aircrew Conversion.[34]

Russian Air Force Kamov Ka-52 cockpit

The first phase of the official tests (ГСИ) was completed in December 2008, whereupon permission was given for the production of an experimental batch for phase 2 (ГСИ, including fire tests and the search for targets)[35]

Serial production of the Ka-52 began at the Progress Arsenyev Aviation Company plant in Arsenyev, Primorsky Krai by end of the 2008.[36][37] After the completion of the state trials, the Ka-52 entered service in May 2011 with first operational units joining the Russian Air Force the same month. Under previous State Defense Procurement Plans, the Russian Armed Forces was to receive 2 experimental and 24 serial Ka-52s by 2012.[38] The second long-term contract worth of 120 billion rubbles signed in 2011, is to provide the Russian Air Force in total with 146 Ka-52 helicopters until 2020.[39] In February 2018, the Russian Ministry of Defence expressed an interest to purchase additional 114 Ka-52s within the new State Armament Program for 2018-2027.[40]

In 2015, Egypt signed a deal for the purchase of 46 Ka-52 helicopters, the contract is expected to be carried out in full by 2020.[41][42]Russian Helicopters started producing its first export models in early 2017, the overall production was doubled in order to meet new demands.[43] The first batch of 3 Ka-52 attack helicopters was delivered to Egypt in July 2017, with a second batch of another 3 helicopters being delivered in August. By year-end 2017, Egypt had received 19 Ka-52s.[44]

Egypt's helicopter is a modified version of the basic Ka-52 Alligator that serves in the Russian Air Force. Unlike the basic model, the Egyptian Ka-52 utilizes anti-corrosion materials and has a reinforced fuselage structure. It received new landing gear and wheels, designed for the increased takeoff weight of the helicopter. The Egyptian model features updated avionics and a new cooling system for operating in hot climate. Dmitry Rogozin, Deputy Prime Minister of Russia on defense and space industry, proposed to name it the "Nile Crocodile".[45]

The helicopter is equipped with the new OES-52 electro-optical observation and laser targeting system, replacing the standard GOES-451 mounted under the nose.[46] The new optronic system began development in 2011 as a collaboration between Kamov and Sagem, and is based on the French company's STRIX sighting System.[47] The OES-52 provides greater range of target detection and recognition.

The helicopter features the Arbalet-52 Dual-band coherent pulse radar, which has an Earth mapping range of 32 km and a detection range of 25 km for ground targets and 15 km for aerial targets.[48]

The Nile Crocodiles will receive President-S airborne defense systems for protection against guided missiles.[49] The system includes both radar and laser warning receivers, MAW sensors, chaff/flare dispensers, in addition to ECM and DIRCM jammers.[50] Egyptian Ka-52s feature two new DIRCM sets installed on either side of the fuselage, which are different from the standard L370-5 sets.[51]

Mistral classamphibious assault ships, ordered by the Russian Defense Ministry,[53] were to contain rotary-wing assets, formed into aviation groups. Each of these groups was planned to include eight attack and eight assault/transport helicopters. The Ka-52K "Katran" (Russian: Катран, 'mud shark'), a navalised derivative of the Ka-52, has been selected as the new ship-borne attack type for the Russian Naval Aviation (Aviatsiya Voenno-morskogo Flota Rossii). Its features include folding rotor blades, folding wings and life-support systems for the crew members, who will fly in immersion suits. The fuselage and systems receive special anti-corrosion treatment and a new fire-control radar will be capable of operating in "Sea Mode" and of supporting anti-ship missiles. Russian Naval Aviation will need at least 40 Ka-52Ks, the first of which was tentatively slated to enter squadron service by early 2015, coinciding with the delivery of the first carrier.[54] The first of four Ka-52Ks ordered for the Russian Navy flew on the 7 March 2015; the Navy also has option on a further 28 helicopters.[55] In total, 4 pre-series Ka-52K are currently operated and used for testing by the Russian Navy.[56][57]

However, following the Russian annexation of Crimea the sale of the Mistrals was cancelled and they have since been sold to Egypt.[58][59] Russia won the Egyptian tender for providing deck helicopters Ka-52K for the Egyptian Mistral carriers. Pre-contract work is underway, including final agreement on the helicopter's technical concept and other financial conditions.[60]

In 1997, Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI) in cooperation with the Kamov bureau entered the Ka-50-2 Erdoğan in a Turkish design competition for a $4 billion contract for 145 (later changed to 50) combat helicopters.[61]

The Ka-50-2 is a tandem cockpit variant of the Ka-50. It featured a modern, Israeli-made "glass cockpit" avionics and a turret-mounted folding (for landing clearance) 30 mm cannon instead of the fixed cannon on the Ka-50. It features combat-proven avionics and advanced anti-tank guided missiles for a high level of combat effectiveness. The helicopter has excellent flight performance, and high combat survivability due to its coaxial rotor technology. It is equipped with IAI's flexible modular avionics suite, which can be readily tailored to meet the TLF's operational requirements and provides growth potential.[61]

IAI and Kamov performed flights of the variant with IAI's Core Avionics. These flights demonstrated the helicopter's "glass cockpit" with multifunctional displays and Control and Display Unit (CDU) driven by centralized mission computers. Also tested were its flight navigation and the operation of the Helicopter Multi-Mission Optronic Stabilized Payload (HMOSP) targeting system. The demonstration flights included night mission capability demonstrations using Night Vision Goggles (NVG) and the day/night targeting system.[61]

The Ka-50 and its two-seat version Ka-52 are high-performance combat helicopters with day and night capability, high survivability and fire power, to defeat air targets and heavily armoured tanks armed with air defence weapons. It was designed to be small, fast and agile to improve survivability and lethality.[16]

The coaxial rotor design provides a hovering ceiling of 4,000 m and vertical rate of climb of 10 m a second at an altitude of 2,500 m. The rotor blades are made from polymer materials. The coaxial-rotor configuration results in moments of inertia values relative to vertical and lateral axes between 1.5 and two times less than the values found in single-rotor helicopters with tail rotors. Absence of the tail rotor enables the helicopter to perform flat turns within the entire flight speed range. A maximum vertical load factor of 3.5 g combined with low moments of inertia give the Ka-50 a high level of agility. Flight systems include inertial navigation system (INS), autopilot and head-up display (HUD). Sensors include forward-looking infrared (FLIR) and terrain-following radar.[28][16]

The Kamov Ka-50 is also fitted with an electronic radio and sighting-piloting-navigating system allowing flights at day and night in VFR and IFR weather conditions. The novelty of this avionics is based on the system of precise target designation with digital coded communication system, which ensures the exchange of information (precise enemy coordinates) between helicopters flying far apart from each other as well as with ground command posts.[28] The Ka-52 is also equipped with a "Phazotron" cockpit radio-locator, allowing flights in adverse meteorological conditions and at night. The necessary information acquired by this radio-locator is transferred to the cockpit's multi-functional display screen. For conducting a fight, both pilots are equipped with range-finders built-in their helmets and they can use night vision eyepieces for night flights.[31]

For its own protection, Ka-50 is fitted with a radar warning receiver, electronic warfare system and chaff and flare dispenser.[16] The dispensers are placed in aerodynamic containers fitted at wings’ ends. Each casing (container) contains two dispensers with 32 x 26 mm countermeasures each. The whole system works on principle of evaluated response based on infrared or electronic impulse irradiation.[31] Extensive all-round armour installed in the cockpit protects the pilot against 12.7 mm armour-piercing bullets and 23 mm projectile fragments. The rotor blades are rated to withstand several hits of ground-based automatic weapons.[16]

Other survivability features include twin-engine design for redundancy, protection for vital aircraft systems, and crash absorbing land gear and fuselage. Also, the coaxial main rotor configuration does not require tail rotor, which can improve survivability.[citation needed]

It is the world's first operational helicopter with a rescue ejection system, which allows the pilot to escape at all altitudes and speeds. The K-37-800 rocket-assisted ejection system is manufactured by the Zvezda Research and Production Enterprise Joint Stock Company in the Moscow region.[16]

The aircraft has one 2A42 30 mm gun. This automatic cannon is mounted near the centre of fuselage and carries 460 high-fragmentation, explosive incendiary, or armour-piercing rounds. The type of ammunition is also selected by the pilot during flight. The integrated 30 mm cannon is semi-rigidly fixed on the helicopter's side, movable only slightly in elevation and azimuth.[63] Semi-rigid mounting improves the cannon's accuracy, giving the 30 mm a longer practical range and better hit ratio at medium ranges than with a free-turning turret mount.[64]

The fire control system automatically shares all target information in real time, allowing one helicopter to engage a target spotted by another aircraft, and the system can also input target information from ground-based forward scouts with personnel-carried target designation gear.[25]

A substantial load of weapons can be carried on four external hardpoints under the stub wings, plus two on the wingtips, a total of some 2,000 kg (depending on the mix).[16] The pylons can be tilted up to 10-degree downward. Fuel tanks may be mounted on a suspension point, whenever necessary.[28]

Anti-tank armament comprises twelve laser-guidedVikhranti-tank missiles (transl. Vortex or whirlwind), with a maximum range of some 8 km. The laser guidance is reported to be virtually jam-proof and the system features automatic guidance to target, enabling evasive action immediately after missile launch, alternatively it can also use Ataka laser-guided anti-tank missiles.[52]

Ka-50 took part in the Russian Army's operations against separatists in the Chechen Republic during the Second Chechen War. In December 2000, a pair of production Ka-50s arrived to the area. With the Ka-50s was a Ka-29 to provide reconnaissance and target designation. On 6 January 2001, the Ka-50 used live weapons against a real enemy for the first time. On 9 January, at the entry into a mountain gorge in the area of a settlement named Komsomolskoye, a single Ka-50 accompanied by an Mi-24 used S-8 unguided rockets to destroy a warehouse full of ammunition belonging to Chechen insurgents. On 6 February, in the forest-covered mountain area to the south of the village of Tsentoroj, the strike group composed of two Ka-50s and the sole Ka-29 discovered and, from a range of 3 km, destroyed a fortified camp of insurgents using two "9K121 Vikhr" guided missiles. 14 February, saw a similar strike group carrying out a "hunting" mission in the area of Oak-Yurt and Hatun. In difficult conditions, pilots found and destroyed eight targets. These missions tested the type's airframe, as well as its on-board systems and armament. Its successful performance in difficult, mountainous terrain once again confirmed the usefulness of the many advanced features of the Ka-50's design, including its power and maneuverability.[21]

It has participated in a number of exercises, including "Boundary 2004" in the Edelweiss mountain range in Kyrgyzstan during August 2004. The "Shark" demonstrated its advantages by operating at a high altitude and an air temperature of more than 30 °C. A Ka-50 provided cover for the landing of troops and then worked on the ground targets using its cannons and rockets.[21]

India issued a request for proposal for 22 attack helicopters for the Indian Air Force in May 2008.[74] The Ka-50, the Mil Mi-28, and the Eurocopter Tiger were the front-runners for this order as of October 2008.[75] The tender though was eventually cancelled and later India announced a new tender, with revised conditions. Russia again offered the Mi-28N and Ka-52.

In 2013, the AAC "Progress" has completed the contract with the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, signed in 2009, and would begin the next long-term contract for supplying 143 Ka-52, worth about 120 billion rubles (≈US$3.5 bln).[12]

In June 2015, Sergei Kornev, the head of Rosoboronexport's delegation, said that Russia has signed its first contracts on the export of Ka-52 Alligator attack helicopters. "We have the Ka-52 in its export model and we have contracts for it, and it's already being spun because it has a good, firm future" he said at the airshow outside Paris. Kornev did not specify the volume of contracts or with whom they were signed.[77]

1.
Kitefin shark
–
The kitefin shark or seal shark is a species of dogfish shark in the family Dalatiidae, and the only species in its genus. It is found sporadically around the world, usually close to the sea floor at depths of 200–600 m, with a sizable oil-filled liver to maintain neutral buoyancy, this shark is able to cruise slowly through the water while expending little energy. The kitefin shark has a body with a very short, blunt snout, large eyes. Its teeth are highly differentiated between the upper and lower jaws, with the upper teeth small and narrow and the lower teeth large, triangular and its typical length is 1. 0–1.4 m. It also takes out of animals larger than itself, similar to its smaller relative. This shark is viviparous and gives birth to 10–14 young. The kitefin shark is fished commercially for its meat, skin and this species was later placed in its own genus, Dalatias, which came from the synonymy of Constantine Rafinesques 1810 Dalatias sparophagus with S. licha. However, some dispute this on the grounds that D. sparophagus is a nomen dubium. The genus name Dalatias is derived from the Greek dalos or dalou, the specific epithet licha comes from la liche, the French name for this shark. Additional common names used for the kitefin shark include black shark, cladistic studies have consistently found that the closest relatives of the kitefin shark are the cookiecutter sharks, with which they share several dentitional, skeletal, and muscular similarities. The oldest fossil teeth that belong to the kitefin shark date to the Middle Eocene epoch, such as those recovered from Bortonian-stage deposits in New Zealand. Dalatias fossil teeth dating to various ages have also discovered in Europe, the former USSR, Japan. The fossil material now recognized as belonging to this species were described under a multitude of different names. The kitefin shark has an elongated body with a very short. The eyes and spiracles are large, the lips are thick with pleats or fringes, though are not modified to be suctorial. There are 16–21 tooth rows in the jaw and 17–20 tooth rows in the lower jaw. The upper teeth are small and spike-shaped, curving slightly towards the corners of the mouth, the lower teeth are very large, knife-shaped, and serrated, with their bases interlocking to form a continuous cutting surface. The first dorsal fin is smaller and shorter-based than the second

2.
Attack helicopter
–
An attack helicopter is an armed helicopter with the primary role of an attack aircraft, with the capability of engaging targets on the ground, such as enemy infantry and armored fighting vehicles. Due to their heavy armament they are sometimes called helicopter gunships, weapons used on attack helicopters can include autocannons, machine guns, rockets, and guided anti-tank missiles such as the Hellfire. Many attack helicopters are capable of carrying air-to-air missiles, though mostly for purposes of self-defense. Todays attack helicopter has two roles, first, to provide direct and accurate close air support for ground troops. Attack helicopters are used to supplement lighter helicopters in the armed scout role. In combat, a helicopter is projected to destroy around 17 times its own production cost before it is destroyed. S. Army artillery spotter units over France, these aircraft were field-outfitted with either two or four bazooka rocket launchers attached to the struts, against German armored fighting vehicles. During the summer of 1944, U. S. Army Major Charles Carpenter managed to take on an anti-armor role with his rocket-armed Piper L-4. The only American helicopter in use during the war years, the Sikorsky R-4, was only being used for rescue and were very much experimental in nature. In the early 1950s, various countries around the world started to make increased use of helicopters in their operations in transport and liaison roles. Later on it was realised that these helicopters, successors to the World War II-era Sikorsky R-4, early examples include armed Sikorsky H-34s in service with the US Air Force and armed Mil Mi-4 in service with the Soviet Air Forces. This trend continued into the 1960s with the deployment of armed Bell UH-1s and Mil Mi-8s during the Vietnam War, by the 1990s, the missile-armed attack helicopter evolved into a primary anti-tank weapon. Able to quickly move about the battlefield and launch fleeting pop-up attacks, the helicopter gunship became a major tool against tank warfare, and most attack helicopters became more and more optimized for the antitank mission. Based on this realization, and with the involvement in Vietnam, the U. S. Army developed the requirements for a dedicated attack helicopter. The aircraft design selected for this program in 1965, was Lockheeds AH-56 Cheyenne, as the Army began its acquisition of a dedicated attack helicopter, it sought options to improve performance over the continued use of improvised interim aircraft. The three highest-ranked aircraft, the Sikorsky S-61, Kaman H-2 Tomahawk, and the Bell AH-1 Cobra, were selected to compete in trials conducted by the Armys Aviation Test Activity. Upon completion of the evaluations, the Test Activity recommended Bells Huey Cobra to be an interim armed helicopter until the Cheyenne was fielded. On 13 April 1966, the U. S. Army awarded Bell Helicopter Company a production contract for 110 AH-1G Cobras, the Cobra had a tandem cockpit seating arrangement to make the aircraft a smaller frontal target, increased armor protection, and greater speed

3.
Military helicopter
–
A military helicopter is a helicopter that is either specifically built or converted for use by military forces. A military helicopters mission is a function of its design or conversion, specialized military helicopters are intended to conduct specific missions. Examples of specialized military helicopters are helicopters, observation helicopters. Military helicopters play a part in the sea, land. Generally manufacturers will develop airframes in different weight/size classes which can be adapted to different roles through the installation of specific equipment. For example, the UH-1 has given rise to a number of derivatives through stretching and re-engining, including the AH-1, the systems can be fitted to only those airframes that need it, or when finances allow the purchase of enough units. Most military helicopters are armoured to some extent however all equipment is limited to the power and lift capability. The most extensive armour is placed around the pilots, engines, transmission, fuel lines, control cables and power to the tail rotor may also be shrouded by Kevlar armour. The most heavily armoured helicopters are attack, assault and special forces helicopters, in transport helicopters the crew compartment may or may not be fully armoured, a compromise being to give the passengers Kevlar lined seats but to leave the compartment for the most part unarmoured. Survivability is enhanced by redundancy and the placement of components to each other. Aviation electronics, or avionics, such as radios and navigation aids are common on most military helicopters. Specialized avionics, such as electronic countermeasures and identification friend or foe systems, are military specific systems that can also be installed on military helicopters. For example, it has reported that the PRC is carrying out a rapid enlargement of its assault helicopter regiments with the civilian version of the Mil Mi-17. Allowing a widespread buildup of experience in helicopter operations, attack helicopters are helicopters used in the anti-tank and close air support roles. To enable them to find and identify their targets, some modern helicopters are equipped with very capable sensors such as a millimeter wave radar system. Attack helicopters Transport helicopters are used for transporting personnel and cargo in support of military operations, in larger militaries, these helicopters are often purpose-built for military operations, but commercially available aircraft are also used. The benefit of using helicopters for these operations is that personnel and cargo can be moved to and from locations without requiring a runway for takeoffs, cargo is carried either internally, or externally by slung load where the load is suspended from an attachment point underneath the aircraft. Personnel are primarily loaded and unloaded while the helicopter is on the ground, air assault is a military strategy that relies heavily on the use of transport helicopters

4.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states

5.
Egyptian Air Force
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The EAF is headed by an Air Marshal. Currently, the commander of the Egyptian Air Force is Air Marshal Younes Hamed, the forces motto is Higher and higher for the sake of glory. The Egyptian Army Air Service was formed in 1932, and became an independent air force in 1937 and it had little involvement in the Second World War. From 1948 to 1973 it took part, with mediocre results, in four separate wars with Israel. It also supported the Egyptian Army during the North Yemen Civil War, from 1977 to 2011 it saw virtually no combat, but has participated in numerous exercises, including Operation Bright Star. Since 1992 the EAF has also provided support for the police. In recent years the Air Force has acted in the Sinai insurgency, the Second Libyan Civil War, the EAF primary role is the air defence of the nation, with secondary tasks of strike and army support operations. The EAF provides official government transport and carries out international search-and- rescue operations in the desert, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Red Sea. In 2014 the IISS estimated the total manpower of the Egyptian Air Force at approximately 30,000 personnel, including 10,000 conscripts. This contrasts with an estimate of some 35,000 personnel, with most aircrew being long-term professionals, in late 1928, the Parliament of Egypt proposed the creation of an Egyptian Air Force. The Egyptian ministry of war announced that it needed volunteers for the new arm to become the first four Egyptian military pilots, over 200 Egyptian officers volunteered, but in the end only three succeeded in passing strict medical tests and technical examinations. These three went to No.4 Flying Training School RAF at RAF Station Abu Sueir near the Suez Canal, after graduation, they traveled to the United Kingdom for specialised training. On 2 November 1930, the King of Egypt and Sudan, on 27 May 1931 the Egyptian Council of Ministers approved the purchase of five aircraft and the building of an airfield at Almaza with a budget of 50,000 pounds. The first commander of the EAAF was Squadron Leader Victor Hubert Tait RAF, Tait selected staff, weapons and initiated building a number of airfields. In 1934 the British government provided ten Avro 626 aircraft, which were the first real Egyptian military planes, a further 17 626s together with Hawker Audaxes for army cooperation and close support and Avro Ansons for VIP work followed shortly afterward. In 1937 the Egyptian Army Air Force was separated from the Army Command, new stations were built in the Suez Canal Zone, and the Western Desert. As the Egyptian border was threatened by an Italian and German invasion during the Second World War, as a result, few additional aircraft were supplied by Britain, however the arm did receive its first modern fighters, Hawker Hurricanes and a small number of Curtiss P-40 Tomahawks. In the immediate period, cheap war surplus aircraft, including a large number of Supermarine Spitfire Mk. IXs were acquired

6.
Coaxial rotors
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Coaxial rotors or coax rotors are a pair of helicopter rotors mounted one above the other on concentric shafts, with the same axis of rotation, but turning in opposite directions. This configuration is a feature of helicopters produced by the Russian Kamov helicopter design bureau, the idea of coaxial rotors originates with Mikhail Lomonosov. He had developed a helicopter model with coaxial rotors in July 1754. In 1859, the British Patent Office awarded the first helicopter patent to Henry Bright for his coaxial design, from this point, coaxial helicopters developed into fully operational machines as we know them today. Two pioneering helicopters, the Corradino DAscanio-built DAT3 of 1930, having two coaxial sets of rotors provides symmetry of forces around the central axis for lifting the vehicle and laterally when flying in any direction. Because of the complexity, many helicopter designs use alternate configurations to avoid problems that arise when only one rotor is used. Common alternatives are single-rotor helicopters or tandem rotor arrangements, one of the problems with any single set of rotor blades is the torque exerted on the helicopter fuselage in the direction opposite to the rotor blades. This torque causes the fuselage to rotate in the direction opposite to the rotor blades, in single rotor helicopters, the antitorque rotor or tail rotor counteracts the main rotor torque and controls the fuselage rotation. Coaxial rotors solve the problem of main rotor torque by turning each set of rotors in opposite directions, the opposite torques from the rotors cancel each other out. Rotational maneuvering, yaw control, is accomplished by increasing the pitch of one rotor. This causes a controlled dissymmetry of torque, dissymmetry of lift is an aerodynamic phenomenon caused by the rotation of a helicopters rotors in forward flight. Rotor blades provide lift proportional to the amount of air flowing over them, when viewed from above, the rotor blades move in the direction of flight for half of the rotation, and then move in the opposite direction for the remainder of the rotation. A rotor blade produces more lift in the advancing half, at the same time, a rotor blade in the retreating half produces less lift. Coaxial rotors avoid the effects of dissymmetry of lift through the use of two rotors turning in opposite directions, causing blades to advance on either side at the same time. Another benefit is increased safety on the ground, the absence of a tail rotor eliminates the source of injuries and fatalities to ground crews. A principal disadvantage of the rotor design is the increased mechanical complexity of the rotor hub. The linkages and swashplates for two rotor systems need to be assembled atop the mast, which is complex because of the need to drive two rotors in opposite directions. Because of the number of moving parts and complexity, the coaxial rotor system is more prone to mechanical faults

7.
Russian Armed Forces
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The Armed Forces of the Russian Federation are the military service of the Russian Federation, established after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces is the President of Russia, the Russian Armed Forces were formed in 1992. These are not normally included as branches of the Armed Forces but are used in armed conflicts. The number of personnel is specified by decree of the President of Russia, on 1 January 2008, a number of 2,019,629 units, including military of 1,134,800 units, was set. In 2010 the International Institute for Strategic Studies estimated that the Russian Armed Forces numbered about 1,027,000 active troops and in the region of 2,035,000 reserves. As opposed to personnel specified by decree, actual personnel in the forces are paid was reported by the Audit Chamber of Russia as 766,000 in October 2013, as of December 2016, the armed forces are at 93 percent of the required manpower. According to SIPRI, Russia spent $66.4 billion on arms in 2015, between the years 2005-2009 and 2010-2014, Russian exports of major weapons increased by 37 percent according to SIPRI. According to the Russian Defense Ministry, share of weapons in the Armed Forces reached from 26 to 48% among different kinds of troops in December 2014. This was raised to 30. 5–70. 7% as of July 2015, average was 48 per cent over the first half of 2016. The Soviet Union officially dissolved on 31 December 1991, leaving the Soviet military in limbo, for the next year and a half various attempts to keep its unity and to transform it into the military of the Commonwealth of Independent States failed. Until 1995, it was planned to form at least 11 brigades numbering 3,000 to 5,000 each, National Guard military units were to be deployed in 10 regions, including in Moscow, Leningrad, and a number of other important cities and regions. By the end of September 1991 in Moscow the National Guard was about 15,000 strong, in the end, President Yeltsin tabled a decree On the temporary position of the Russian Guard, but it was not put into practice. On 14 February 1992 Shaposhnikov formally became Supreme Commander of the CIS Armed Forces, finally, on 7 May 1992 Yeltsin signed a decree establishing the armed forces and Yeltsin assumed the duties of the Supreme Commander. In May 1992 General Colonel Pavel Grachev became the Minister of Defence, by August or December 1993 CIS military structures had become CIS military cooperation structures with all real influence lost. In the next few years, Russian forces withdrew from central and eastern Europe, the Armed Forces have several bases in foreign countries, especially on territory of the former Soviet Republics. A new military doctrine, promulgated in November 1993, implicitly acknowledged the contraction of the old Soviet military into a military power without global ambitions. Such change proved extremely difficult to achieve, under Pavel Grachev little military reform took place, though there was a plan to create more deployable mobile forces. Later Defence Minister Rodionov had good qualifications but did not manage to institute lasting change, only under Defence Minister Igor Sergeyev did a certain amount of limited reform begin, though attention focused upon the Strategic Rocket Forces

8.
Israel Aerospace Industries
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Israel Aerospace Industries or IAI is Israels prime aerospace and aviation manufacturer, producing aerial and astronautic systems for both military and civilian usage. It has 16,000 employees as of 2013, IAI is wholly owned by the government of Israel. In addition to construction of fighter aircraft, IAI also designs and builds civil aircraft, drones and designs and builds missile, avionics. Although IAIs main focus is aviation and high-tech electronics, it also manufactures systems for ground. Many of these products are specially suited for the Israel Defense Forces needs, the company originally had 70 employees and recruited American born aviation expert Al Schwimmer as the companys founder and first president. In 1959 Bedek began manufacturing its first aircraft, a V-tailed twinjet trainer of French design, the Tzukit became the Israeli Air Force principal trainer for 50 years. They were then deployed against Jordanian forces, including armour, on the West Bank, the Magister proved effective at the close-support mission albeit with heavy casualties, with six being lost. The first aircraft to be designed and built by IAI. In response to the French embargo, IAI began developing its own fighter aircraft, the Nesher entered service in 1971, in time for the Yom Kippur War. The Nesher was followed by the IAI Kfir, which was developed as a result of Israels need for adapting the Dassault Mirage III to the requirements of the Israeli Air Force. The Kfir entered service with the IAF in 1975, the first units being assigned to the 101st First Fighter Squadron, over the following years, several other squadrons were also equipped with the new aircraft. The Kfirs first recorded combat action took place on 9 November 1977, during an Israeli air strike on a camp at Tel Azia. The only air victory claimed by a Kfir during its service with the IAF occurred on 27 June 1979 when a Kfir C.2 shot down a Syrian MiG-21. The IAI Kfir has been exported to Colombia, Ecuador, Sri Lanka and was leased to the US Navy, in 1969 IAI acquired North American Rockwells Jet Commander series of business aircraft. This became the basis for the IAI Westwind line, work on an improved Westwind the Astra, by stretching the fuselage and designing a new swept wing, began in the late 1970s, with the first prototype flight on 19 March 1984. The first production Astra flew on 20 March 1985, FAA certification came on 29 August 1985, in the 1960s, IAI developed the Gabriel anti-ship missile and the Elta Electronics Industries subsidiary developed an inexpensive aircraft radar which would become a successful export item. In the 1970s IAI developed the Dabur class patrol boat In the 1970s IAI also entered the Unmanned aerial vehicle market with the development of the IAI Scout. In 1984, IAI formed a joint venture with rival Israeli company Tadiran to market both companies UAVs, the Tadiran Mastiff and the IAI Scout

9.
Tail rotor
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The tail rotor is a smaller rotor mounted so that it rotates vertically or near-vertically at the end of the tail of a traditional single-rotor helicopter. The tail rotors position and distance from the center of gravity allow it to develop thrust in the direction as the main rotors rotation. Tail rotors are simpler than main rotors since they require only collective changes in pitch to vary thrust, the tail rotor drive system consists of a shaft powered from the main transmission and a gearbox mounted at the end of the tail boom. The drive shaft may consist of one long shaft or a series of shorter shafts connected at both ends with flexible couplings, that allow the shaft to flex with the tail boom. On larger helicopters with a pylon, intermediate gearboxes are used to transition the tail rotor drive shaft from along the tailboom to the top of the pylon. The tail rotor pylon may also serve as a vertical stabilizing airfoil, the tail rotor pylon may also serve to provide limited antitorque within certain airspeed ranges, in the event that the tail rotor or the tail rotor flight controls fail. About 10% of the power goes to the tail rotor. The tail rotor system rotates airfoils, small wings called blades, tail rotor blades are made with both symmetrical and asymmetrical airfoil construction. The pitch change mechanism uses a control system or control tubes that run from the anti-torque pedals in the cockpit to a mechanism mounted on the tail rotor gearbox. In larger helicopters, the change mechanism is augmented by a hydraulic power control servo. In the event of a system failure, the mechanical system is still able to control the tail rotor pitch. The tail rotor is powered by the main power plant. During autorotation, the momentum of the main rotor continues to power the tail rotor, the tail rotor and the systems that provide power and control for it are considered critically important for safe flight. Between replacements, parts are subject to frequent inspections utilizing visual as well as methods such as fluorescent penetrant inspection to detect weak parts before they fail completely. Despite the emphasis on reducing failures, they do occur, most often due to hard landings and tailstrikes. Though the tail rotor is considered essential for flight, the loss of tail rotor function does not necessarily result in a fatal crash. Should the tail rotor fail randomly during flight, forward momentum will often provide some directional stability. The pilot would then be forced to autorotate and make a landing with significant forward airspeed

10.
Farnborough Airshow
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The Farnborough International Airshow is a week-long event that combines a major trade exhibition for the aerospace and defence industries with a public airshow. The event is held in mid-July in even-numbered years at Farnborough Airport in Hampshire, the first four days are dedicated exclusively to trade, with the final three days open to the public. The show is used for the announcement of new developments and orders. It is one of the largest air shows, after Frances Salon du Bourget, the UK show is organised by Farnborough International Limited, a wholly owned subsidiary of ADS Group Limited. According to the organisers, the 2012 Farnborough show attracted 109,000 trade visitors over the first five days, orders and commitments for 758 aircraft were announced, worth US$72 billion. Flying occurs on all seven days, and there are static displays of aircraft outside and booths. On the Saturday and Sunday most of the halls are shut. The airshow alternates with the Paris Air Show, which is held in odd-numbered years and has a similar format, the Farnborough Airshow has its origins in the annual RAF Airshow at Hendon from 1920 to 1937. On 27 June 1932, the Society of British Aircraft Constructors held an exhibition of 35 aircraft by 16 companies at Hendon as a showpiece for the British aircraft industry. In 1952,31 people were killed when a DH.110 jet fighter disintegrated in flight, at the 1958 show, the Black Arrows executed a 22-plane formation loop. This was a record for the greatest number of aircraft looped in formation. Initially an annual event, the show has been biennial since 1962 and it has become an international event that attracts exhibitors from all over the world — with the exception, during the Cold War, of countries behind the Iron Curtain. From 1996 the show has had its own radio station operated by the staff and students of nearby Farnborough College of Technology

11.
Torzhok
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Torzhok is a town in Tver Oblast, Russia, located on the Tvertsa River along the federal highway M10 and a branch of the Oktyabrskaya Railway division of the Russian Railways. The town is famous for its folk craft of goldwork embroidery, Torzhok was first mentioned in a chronicle in 1139 as Novy Torg. The Mongols burned it in 1238, but did not proceed northward to Novgorod, at that time, the town commanded the only route whereby grain was delivered to Novgorod. Once Torzhok blocked the route, a shortage of grain. Consequently, Torzhok was known as a key to the Novgorod Republic, the town was incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Moscow with the rest of the Novgorod Republic in 1478. The Polish army frequently ravaged it during the Time of Troubles, during the imperial period, Torzhok was known as an important post station on the highway from Moscow to St. Petersburg. Alexander Pushkin, for instance, used to pass through Torzhok on a number of occasions, in the course of the administrative reform carried out in 1708 by Peter the Great, Torzhok was included into Ingermanlandia Governorate, and in 1727 Novgorod Governorate split off. In 1775, Novotorzhsky Uyezd was established, with the center in Torzhok, on July 12,1929 the governorates and uyezds were abolished. Novotorzhsky District, with the center in Torzhok, was established within Tver Okrug of Moscow Oblast. On July 23,1930, the okrugs were abolished, on January 29,1935 Kalinin Oblast was established, and Novotorzhsky District was transferred to Kalinin Oblast. On March 4,1964 Likhoslavlsky District, and on January 12,1965 Kuvshinovsky District were re-established, Torzhoksky District retained the new name. In 1990, Kalinin Oblast was renamed Tver Oblast, within the framework of administrative divisions, Torzhok serves as the administrative center of Torzhoksky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as Torzhok Okrug—an administrative unit with the equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, Torzhok Okrug is incorporated as Torzhok Urban Okrug, Torzhok has twenty-two large and medium-sized industrial enterprises. Two of them are especially significant, JSC Pozhtekhnika and OAO Torzhok Plant Printing Inks account for 70% of all industrial output. A railway line which connects Likhoslavl with Soblago via Selizharovo runs through Torzhok, another railway line branches off in Torzhok and heads south to Rzhev via Vysokoye. Both lines are served by infrequent passenger traffic, the M10 highway, which connects Moscow and St. Petersburg, passes close to Torzhok. A road to Ostashkov branches off to the west, there is also a road connecting Torzhok with Staritsa

12.
Russian Ground Forces
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The Ground Forces of the Russian Federation are the land forces of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, formed from parts of the collapsing Soviet Army in 1992. The formation of these forces posed economic challenges after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the primary responsibilities of the Ground Forces are the protection of the state borders, combat on land, the security of occupied territories, and the defeat of enemy troops. The Ground Forces must be able to achieve goals both in nuclear war and non-nuclear war, especially without the use of weapons of mass destruction. Furthermore, they must be capable of protecting the interests of Russia within the framework of its international obligations. The Main Command of the Ground Forces is officially tasked with the objectives, The training of troops for combat. The improvement of troops structure and composition, and the optimization of their numbers, the development of military theory and practice. The development and introduction of training manuals, tactics. The improvement of operational and combat training of the Ground Forces, the newly re-emergent Russia retained most of the ranks of the Soviet Army, with some minor changes. The principal difference from the usual Western style is some variation in generals rank titles—in at least one case, Colonel General, the gallery below shows a selection of insignia, common to the Ground Forces – LF. As the Soviet Union dissolved, efforts were made to keep the Soviet Armed Forces as a military structure for the new Commonwealth of Independent States. The last Minister of Defence of the Soviet Union, Marshal Yevgeny Shaposhnikov, was appointed commander of the CIS Armed Forces in December 1991. Among the numerous treaties signed by the republics, in order to direct the transition period, was a temporary agreement on general purpose forces. Thirty-seven divisions had to be withdrawn from the four groups of forces and the Baltic States, some idea of the scale of the withdrawal can be gained from the division list. For the dissolving Soviet Ground Forces, the withdrawal from the former Warsaw Pact states and the Baltic states was a demanding, expensive. However, the facilities in those districts were inadequate to house the flood of personnel and equipment returning from abroad, the need for destruction and transfer of large amounts of weaponry under the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe also necessitated great adjustments. The Ministry of Defence newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda published a plan on 21 July 1992. Later one commentator said it was put together by the General Staff to satisfy the public demand for radical changes. The General Staff, from that point, became a bastion of conservatism, the reform plan advocated a change from an Army-Division-Regiment structure to a Corps-Brigade arrangement

A QH-50 on board the destroyer USS Allen M. Sumner (DD-692) during a deployment to Vietnam between April and June 1967

Heli-Max Axe Micro CX, a micro-sized coaxial model helicopter. Note that the tail rotor on this model is angled upwards, giving the operator forward and aft control, rather than countering main rotor torque.