Turkmenistan - History

The territory of present-day Turkmenistan has been inhabited since the
Stone Age, with evidence of agricultural communities as early as 6000
BC
and of planned irrigation works from 3500
BC
. The first states were Margiana and Parthia, from about 1000
BC
. In 7th–6th centuries
BC
, Margiana was part of Bactria, while Parthia was part of the Median
state. In the 6th–4th centuries
BC
the region was ruled by the Achaemenids, who were conquered by
Alexander the Great at the end of the 4th century. In his wake there
emerged a Parthian Empire which lasted until
AD
224, when Persians of the Sassanid dynasty seized the territory. In the
5th century much of Turkmenistan was conquered by Ephthalites, who in
turn were conquered in the 6th century by the Tiu-chue nomads, of Turkic
origin. The Arab caliphate conquered Turkmenistan in 716, and began to
introduce Islam. In the 10th century part of Turkmenistan was under
Samanid control.

Oghuz Turks began to migrate into Turkmenistan in the 9th century. In
1040 the Seljuk clan took control of the territory, and held sway until
the 13th century, when Turkmenistan was part of the Khwarazm-Shah state.
The entire region was conquered by Mongols in 1219–1221, and
Turkmenistan was split between the Golden Horde and the Chagatai
Khanate, as well as the Hulaguid Khanate of Persia.

In the 1380s Turkmenistan became part of the empire of Timur
(Tamerlane). By the 16th century part of the territory was ruled by the
Khiva Khanate, part by Bukhara, and part by Persia. The course of the
Amu Dar'ya river changed, and the Kara Kum desert claimed a great
deal of once arable land.

Russia began to make commercial contacts with the Turkmens as early as
the 16th century; by the 18th century almost all trade between Europe
and Central Asia passed through Turkmenistan. Local tribes were used
diplomatically by the Persians, Russians, and British as part of the
Great Game of the 18th and 19th centuries. Beginning in 1865, Russia
undertook direct annexation, which because of heavy resistance by the
Turkmen tribesmen was not complete until the 1885, making Turkmenistan
the last portion of the Russian Empire to be conquered. The territory
then was called the Transcaspian District.

Turkmen joined the uprising of 1916, when the Tsar attempted to draft
Central Asians into work battalions, and remained in general rebellion
throughout the period of the revolution and civil war. Muslim and
nationalist opposition, whom the Russians

called
basmachi,
resisted the Bolsheviks until 1924, when the area was made part of the
Trans-Caspian Republic. In 1925, the present-day territory became a
Soviet Socialist Republic.

Throughout the Soviet period, Turkmenistan was the poorest and least
assimilated of the republics. In 1985, longtime Communist Party boss M.
Gapurov was fired by Mikhail Gorbachev, who picked Sapamurat Niyazov as
new republic head. Niyazov has remained in power ever since. On October
27, 1990, Niyazov received 98.3% of the popular vote in an uncontested
election to the new post of president of Turkmenistan. Turkmenistan
declared independence on 27 October 1991. After independence, Niyazov
won another uncontested presidential election in June 1992 with 99.95%
of the vote. In a referendum in January 1994, he received the support of
99.99% of the vote for extending his term until 2002. An elaborate cult
of personality has grown up around Niyazov, who now prefers the title
"Turkmenbashi," or "chief of all Turkmen."
Niyazov is president, supreme commander of the armed forces, first
secretary of the Democratic Party of Turkmenistan, head of the
quasi-legislative Khalk Maslakhaty (People's Council), and
chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers and the National Security Council.
Changes to the Constitution were introduced in late December 1999 during
a joint meeting of the Mejlis (legislature), the Khalk Maslakhaty, and
Niyazov's National Revival Movement, to include naming Niyazov
president for life.

Turkmenistan's "neutral" foreign policy is
enshrined in its constitution. Niyazov has declared that
Turkmenistan's "open door" or "permanent
neutrality" policy precludes joining political or military
alliances and entails good relations with the East and the West, though
priority will be placed on relations with Central Asian and other
Islamic states. Turkmenistan joined the Non-Aligned Movement in 1995,
and the United Nations General Assembly in 1995 recognized
Turkmenistan's status as a neutral state. Turkmenistan has
pursued close ties with both Iran and Turkey. In addition to growing
trade ties with Iran, Turkmenistan is also interested in cultural ties
with the approximately one million Turkmen residing in Iran. Turkey is
the largest foreign investor in Turkmenistan and has far surpassed
Russia in trade turnover with Turkmenistan. Turkmenistan supports some
of Russia's policies in the region while endeavoring, where
possible, to resist, contravene, or reduce Russian influence. Russian
military and border troops assisted Turkmenistan until it built up its
own forces, and Russia's presence has been used to counter Uzbek
policies in the region. In 1993, Russia and Turkmenistan agreed that
Russian border guards would work with Turkmen border guards under
Turkmen command at borders with Iran and Afghanistan. In 1999,
Turkmenistan canceled this agreement, and the last of Russia's
1,000 border troops in Turkmenistan left in late 1999.

The new country has abundant resources that could bring in ample export
earnings, ranging from oil, gas, electricity, coal, aluminum, and cotton
to wool, grapes, and carpets. Turkmenistan's main natural gas
export pipeline runs through Russia, which has closely controlled the
volume, price, and destination. Seeking alternatives, Turkmenistan in
December 1997 opened a 125-mile gas pipeline to connect with the Iranian
pipeline system. On 18 November 1999, Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan, Georgia,
and Turkey signed a declaration on a trans-Caspian and trans-Caucasus
gas pipeline territory that would deliver Turkmen gas to Turkey
(expected to be completed in 2002 with an eventual capacity of sixteen
billion meters per year), boosting chances for international financing
for the pipeline. In December 2002, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, and
Pakistan signed an agreement to build a 1,500-km pipeline to carry gas
from Turkmenistan's Dauletabad-Donmez field through Afghanistan
to Pakistan.

In October 2001, Azerbaijan announced the planned trans-Caspian gas
pipeline would not be realized. It had discovered its own huge gas
reserves in Shahdeniz, and subsequently demanded a share of the exports
to the amount of half of the trans-Caspian pipeline's capacity.
Turkmenistan regarded such demands as contrary to its interests. In July
2002, an Azerbaijani tanker exploded in the Turkmen port of
Turkmenbashi, killing six Azeri sailors. Some blamed the Turkmen
government for the incident. Suspicions between the two governments ran
deep in 2002, as mutual enmity between Azerbaijan's president
Heydar Aliyev and Niyazov has made the gap between the ethnically close
nations wide.

Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States,
Turkmenistan offered to aid the US-coalition in its military and
humanitarian campaign in Afghanistan. Over one-third of all food aid
reaching Afghanistan since 11 September transited Turkmenistan. The
United States has stated that Turkmenistan can play a positive role in
the rebuilding of Afghanistan.

On 25 November 2002, an assassination attempt was made on Niyazov.
Following the attack on his motorcade, the Niyazov government began a
wide investigation, and 61 people were arrested in connection with the
assassination plot. Turkmenistan's National Assembly granted
powers to the Supreme Court to administer "special
punishment" to people found guilty of involvement in the plot.
The resolution permits the Supreme Court to hand out life sentences to
those convicted, with no possibility of amnesty, pardon, early release,
or change of prison. Former foreign minister Boris Shikhmuradov was
sentenced to life in prison for his involvement. As of January 2003,
more than 30 people were given lengthy sentences by Turkmen courts,
including at least three life sentences amid reports of torture and
coerced confessions. The US State Department expressed concern with
Turkmenistan's conduct of the investigations into the
assassination plot, stating that while the United States recognized the
government's right to apprehend those involved, the US government
could not condone actions that violate international practice. The
United States claimed the Turkmen government conducted summary trials of
alleged suspects without due process of law, and cited credible reports
of torture and abuse of suspects.

In January 2003, the Turkmen government announced parliamentary
elections would be held on 6 April, nearly two years ahead of schedule
(elections had been scheduled for December 2004). Also in January,
Niyazov ordered the forced relocation of ethnic Uzbeks living along the
Turkmen border with Uzbekistan. He stated he wanted "unworthy
people" to be moved from the border area and replaced with ethnic
Turkmen.