The report of the committee of inquiry into labour market programs (the
Kirby Report) was released in January 1985. The committee assessed the
array of federally funded labour market programs, and concluded that

At the core of the difficulties with Australia's current array of labour
market programs is the lack of an overall strategy or rationale for the
development evaluation and modification of the programs. This is the natural
result of the ad hoc way in which the programs have evolved. (Kirby,
1985, p.5)

To break the pattern of addressing labour market problems with marginalised
add-on programs, the Kirby Report set the framework for a long term strategy
to reform education and training by recommending an integrated series of
programs and support systems, which involved the establishment of a national
traineeship system.

Key features of the Australian Traineeship System

In introducing the Australian Traineeship System (ATS), the Department
of Employment and Industrial Relations (DEIR)1 adopted most of the recommendations
in the Kirby Report (1985) for a system with the following training features

integrated on- and off-the-job training for a minimum of one year

a minimum of 13 weeks off-the-job training covering broad based skills
related to families of occupations

appropriate accreditation to provide access to further education and
training and career opportunities.

The proposal for accredited, broad based off-the-job training set a
new precedent for labour market programs and established ATS as a program
with the potential to impact on traditional curriculum models and training
orientations in TAFE and to become a mainstream TAFE responsibility rather
than a marginalised course dependent on short term funding.

While traineeships were intended to provide skills training directly
related to specific trainee jobs, this component of training was to be
largely a responsibility of employers via structured on-the-job training.
By basing off-the-job courses on transferable work and personal skills
including communications, mathematics, manual, visual and problem solving
skills, and a knowledge of and skills in the application of information
technology (Kirby, 1985, p. 115), traineeships were to be a major vehicle
for individual career mobility and not a short-term solution to specific
skill shortages.

The Kirby Committee, appealing for the coordinated development of more
compact and less complex labour market training arrangements, noted the
need for changes to administrative and advisory structures, for the devolution
of decision making to regional and local levels and for the involvement
of employers, unions and community groups in planning, policy formulation
and review (Kirby, 1985, p.15). The committee saw the Commonwealth as playing
a major role in coordination and the States, through their training authorities,
as being responsible for the basic management of the system. To date, the
general thrust of this administrative scenario has been maintained. Decision
making about the structure and content of training and industrial relation
issues is the province of tripartite Industry Working Groups (IWGs) convened
by State Training Authorities. Approval of individual traineeship plans
by State Training Authorities is essential for implementation and proposals
must include full details of training arrangements and industrial relations
agreements. However, the role played by the Commonwealth government is
somewhat larger than anticipated in the Kirby Report. National IWGs convened
by DEIR have taken on the task of developing national traineeship packages
and resource materials. While such national intervention might appear to
be a means of reducing duplication of effort within the States, in reality,
given both the official role of the State training authorities and legislative
and operational differences between each State's education and training
arrangements, the augmented role of DEIR has tended to reduce the involvement
of local and regional groups, and thus undercut the principle of "industry
driven" development, rather than reduce duplication at State level.

Curriculum design and development

The introduction of ATS in Victoria was both facilitated and complicated
by the implementation of the Victorian Government's work-study program
in 1985. Under the Youth Guarantee Policy, the government created 1,250
public sector trainee jobs for disadvantaged youth. Participants attended
a TAFE college for two days per week and work for three days and received
a State-wide TAFE credential and an Industrial Training Commission of Victoria
certificate upon successful completion of their traineeship. Work-study
facilitated the introduction of ATS insofar as it provided an opportunity
to pilot new curriculum development and delivery processes. However, there
were also numerous State level policy and administrative issues to be resolved
in the rapid implementation of the work-study program. Consequently there
was less time to plan an administrative structure appropriate to a national
system.

Within TAFE in Victoria the introduction of both work-study and the
ATS was further complicated by the fact that official curriculum development
and accreditation procedures, by and large, were inappropriate for traineeships.

Since 1981 the officially sanctioned curriculum development model for
State-wide accredited courses in TAFE in Victoria has been the Instructional
Systems Model (ISM). The Systems approach to training in industry and government
agencies has its origins in the United States Armed Services, in weapons
technology and engineering training programs dating back to the early 1900s
(Gillespie, 1986). It is a highly centralised model which addresses training
needs related to specific tasks and which, as the name suggests, lends
itself best to instruction rather than broad independent learning. Despite
attempts to link the ISM with androgogical learning theories and to demonstrate
the breadth of teaching methodologies which can be accommodated within
the ISM (eg, Braddy et al, 1980), the model is essentially behaviourist
and constructed around a myth of scientific manipulation of the environment.

The Instructional Systems model is characterised by objectivity, the
use of criterion tests on go/no go basis ... and functional context training
to facilitate the transfer of school-learned skills to the job (Braddy
et al, 1980, p.2).

The ideology of the ISM is embedded in the language through which it
is expressed and in the processes it advocates. The ISM process of curriculum
development commences with a consideration of skill needs, identified by
industry and analysed by curriculum experts and follows a linear path through
design (experts and expert advisers) to implementation, when teachers enter
the arena to "implement the instructional program" and "administer
tests".

Students, along with teachers, are accorded a partial role in evaluation
via an "analysis of college performance". The real validation
of the course, however, carried out through an analysis of graduates' on
job performance, is again in the hands of the curriculum expert. The dialectic
which might inform more dynamic analyses is absent from the ISM process
of curriculum development. It is similarly missing from the ISM training
sessions in which curriculum officers are instructed In development processes,
as many participants, including the present writer, can testify.

The ISM was found to be particularly inappropriate for the development
of traineeships courses for three reasons.

The nature of needs analysis

The ISM focuses on the analysis of job skill specifications as the
basis for course design. Although ISM manuals note that the "social
climate and personal circumstances" influence "manpower (sic)
and training needs" (Braddy et al, 1980, p.11), it is in fact the
specific job which is the real subject of the needs analysis. The structure
of a job is broken down into its duties and tasks and each task stated
as a training objective. As Anderson and Jones (1986) maintain

... an instructional systems approach to training (objectives model
is too narrow and too inflexible to research effectively the learning requirements
of adult students because it focuses on the analysis of the job, rather
than the learning styles of students. (p.13-14)

Anderson and Jones note that the systems approach works best when applied
to an occupational area which is comprised of a homogenous workforce with
relatively stable training needs but that it "does not identify how
an occupation is changing" (p.14).

In contrast, the objectives of the ATS imply the development of programs
which acknowledge change and heterogeneity as fundamental characteristics
of the labour market. There is a logical contradiction embedded in instruction
solely for specific job tasks in a program aimed at facilitating transferability
of skill and career progression.

The roles and characteristics of students

Despite references to adults and adult learning in ISM manuals, the
student is the recipient of instruction rather than an active participant
in decision making about learning modes. Further, the ISM implicitly assumes
that all students are the same, with the same orientation to learning

... each student is treated in the same way as every other student,
or, if you like, each student is given the same opportunities for learning
the same things. (Blachford, 1986, p.42)

This is extremely problematic in a program such as ATS which has targeted
a specific client group. Given the diversity of socioeconomic and educational
backgrounds within the client group of 15 to 19 year olds, "equal
treatment" will in fact lead to unequal opportunity. In designing
a training program, one must take account of the culture and interests
of the client group and, in particular, acknowledge the role played by
culture in shaping perceptions of vocational needs and attitudes to learning,
It is also important to recognise the effect of traditional barriers to
learning, including inaccessible language, inappropriate teaching and assessment
strategies, and gender based educational stereotypes. Programs need to
be designed to lower these barriers and maximise access.

Time

The exacting and methodical requirements of the ISM through its five
phases can be excessively time consuming (Gillespie, 1986). Victorian TAFE
courses can take up to four years to develop and implement, by which time
they may well be out of date. The average development lead time for the
preparation of ATS courses has been approximately three months. For simple
practical reasons the ISM is unsuitable.

Ironically, time lines also acted as a constraint on the design and
implementation of new curriculum processes. While new modes of needs analysis
and a new curriculum philosophy have been articulated, it has not yet been
possible to develop really relevant forms of curriculum documentation.
However, the involvement of teachers, and in some cases trainees, in the
earliest stages of development has established a forum for debate about
new approaches to documentation. Recent changes in accreditation structures
are creating a climate in which such changes will be received more favourably.

The Traineeship curriculum structure

The process of designing a traineeship curriculum structure commenced
with consideration of the recommendations in the Kirby Report and the ATS
Guidelines produced by DEIR. On this basis, three skill and knowledge areas
were identified

broad transferable skills and knowledge relevant to work force participation
in general and to personal development

industry/occupationally related skills and knowledge (ie, skills and
knowledge related to career progression in a defined field)

The second phase in the design process focused on an analysis of the
concept of broad transferable skills/knowledge. By definition, skills and
knowledge relevant to work force participation in general should be the
same across all traineeships, therefore constituting the basis of a core
curriculum for all trainees. An analysis of overseas and Australian research
and practice indicated a broad agreement on what might constitute this
core curriculum and validated the proposals in the Kirby Report (Kirby,
1985).

A core curriculum consisting of four subject areas was developed and
this curriculum, outlined in Table 2, became the basic point of reference
in negotiating the content of individual traineeships.

Table 2 Traineeship core curriculum

Subject

Topic

Time

Communications

Overview of communications in the workplace
Skill development
Interpersonal skills

50 hours

The Working Environment

Work and working conditions
Industrial relations
Occupational health and safety
Career planning

60 hours

Information Technology

Electronic technologies
Social and economic implications of electronic technologies
Using a computer

30 hours

Social

Personal skills
Access to resources

20 hours

While 160 hours has been specified for the off-the-job component within
a minimum 390-hour program, these hours are subject to modifications in
relation to specific trainee needs. Further, while the general subject
areas may be common across all traineeship, skill applications and specific
areas of knowledge within the four subject areas must vary to ensure relevance
to individual trainees and to different work environments. Accordingly,
as each traineeship developed, the core curriculum is reviewed in the light
of job requirements. As each traineeship is implemented, individual trainee
needs are assessed and specific content and learning modes negotiate.

The process of developing individual trainees commenced with an assessment
of five areas of need - those of the student, the occupation, the local
context, the labour market socioeconomic context and the educational environment
(see Figure 1). This process of needs analysis may appear unduly complex
compared with the linear, one-dimensional focus of the ISM, but it does
enable a more compact process of curriculum development and one which facilitates
greater teacher and student participation. Key benefits of the adoption
of this model include the following.

It provides a mechanism to secure agreement with employers regarding
their roles and responsibilities vis a vis those of educators and trainees.

It establishes a basis for the identification of related study and
career options which in turn facilitates the development of multi-level
credentials.

Data on skill and knowledge requirements related to career options,
identified in the process of needs analysis, can be used as course content
in Career Planning units in the core curriculum.

Implementation issues, such as local conditions, resource requirements,
learning strategies, etc. are flagged for attention early in the development
process.

The dimensions of the analysis provide a comprehensive frame of reference
for monitoring and evaluation.

Figure 1 Needs analysis for Traineeships

The employment of a multidimensional needs analysis provides a mechanism
to demonstrate that curriculum development is not a lock-step process in
which specific decisions, once completed, remain fixed until later evaluation
throws up reasons for change. It becomes clear during the design of the
course and the specification of intended outcomes that it is not possible
to adequately identify local needs and the specific needs of trainees yet
to enrol in the program. This process can only take place when the program
is implemented and teachers and trainees examine the course which they
are about to undertake. If the course does not have sufficient flexibility
to meet specific needs, early review can lead to modifications, which can
be ratified by the Industry Working Group.

Designing a form of documentation which satisfactorily reflects the
objectives of the ATS and meets the demands of key stakeholders and the
requirements of accreditation authorities has not been easy. In fact traineeship
curriculum documents still reflect elements of the systems model ideology,
such as the expression of subject and unit objectives in performance terminology
(e.g., "Given instruction and practice, the trainees should be able
to .....). Roy Farren (1985) points out that this practice can "reduce
the learning process to a mindlessness and triviality that has serious
implications for the learner" (p.3).

It also has implications for the evaluation and design of programs which
have broad and less behavioural objectives (e.g., to assist students to
communicate more confidently in the work place) which can neither be expressed
nor assessed in conventional performance terms.

Perhaps the most serious problem embedded in this form of curriculum
writing is its deskilling effect on both teachers and students. Faithful
interpretation of performance objectives constitutes a rigid instructional
hegemony, which Kincheloe and Staley (1984) term "literal mindedness".
This they see as "one of the greatest impediments to critical thinking
and the understanding of broad concepts in education" (pp.16-17).
Accordingly, traineeship curriculum designers and writers continue to wrestle
with a number of contradictions which highlight some key issues for curriculum
design for structured labour market programs

the need for a design methodology which identifies the conceptual base
for identified skill requirements and hence provides a means to integrate
theory and practice in the learning program

the need for a form of documentation which integrates on- and off-the-job
training components and which integrates broad skills and knowledge into
occupationally related learning

the need for accreditation procedures which testify to the validity
of curriculum processes and at the same time permit modification to meet
legitimately changing needs.

In approaching these issues, TAFE in Victoria needs to take a more proactive
role to develop curriculum strategies which promote long-term, independent
learning, rather than simply reacting to demands for instruction to meet
short-term skill requirements. New curriculum design policies, development
and implementation processes, and flexible teaching strategies to assist
students to become independent and self managing learners and workers,
are long overdue. Clearly, changes of this magnitude are complex and new
policies alone are not the panacea. They are, however, the foundation upon
which professional development in designing and implementing programs will
occur.

Accreditation

One further problem in the development of traineeship curriculum concerned
that of accreditation and credentialling. One of the 13 basic features
of traineeships identified in recommendation 22 of the Kirby Report is
that

... the program should be appropriately accredited and provide avenues
to further accredited education training and employment (p. 18).

In Victoria, the courses which provide a direct avenue to further TAFE
study are those with Statewide accreditation with the TAFE Accreditation
Board (TAB).2 While a TAFE college credential may assist students to enter
further study within that college, there is no guarantee that the credential
will be recognised by other colleges. Also, given the variable perceived
status of colleges, there is a danger that employers will select according
to the college and not the credential.

The simplest way to ensure State-wide accreditation for traineeships
was to select subjects from existing accredited programs. This option was
rejected on the grounds that existing programs were inappropriate for trainees,
having been designed for adult workers with previous work experience, and
designed to meet specific job requirements rather than being oriented to
broader occupational objectives.

Accordingly, the curriculum designed for traineeships was seen from
the outset as a program in its own right - for a particular target group,
training under specific conditions. Because the jurisdiction of the TAB
extends only to TAFE providers, it was agreed that TAFE would accredit
off-the-job training only, and that the Industrial Training Commission
of Victoria (ITCV) would be responsible for issuing a traineeship certificate
acknowledging completion of both on and off-the-job training.

Although the TAFE credential formally recognises only the TAFE training
component, it has been possible to increase the level of achievement in
the off-the-job program because of practical on-the-job training. For example,
trainees can achieve 45 wpm typing speeds if their employer provides time
for appropriate on-the-job typing practice; technical assistants can complete
Ecology in less time with sufficient practice in plant identification and
similar skills in the field.

The normal process of development and accreditation of State-wide TAFE
courses in Victoria can take between two and four years to complete. The
lead time for traineeships of approximately three months not only necessitated
a more rapid process of development, but also streamlined procedures to
assess courses for accreditation. Agreement was reached between the Program
Standing Committee of the TAFE Board, the TAB and the ITCV on the following

that the approved Advisory Committee for TAFE as well as for ITCV purposes
would be the Industry Working Group

that the ITCV would receive traineeship training plans on the advice
of the Industry Working Group and on receipt of acknowledgment from the
TAFE Board that development procedures adequately reflected the requirements
of the TAFE system. This authority has been delegated to the appropriate
TAFE Field Manager

that the TAB would formally assess the off-the-job component of the
training plan for accreditation in the context of the ITCV endorsement
of the validity of the overall plan

that the off-the-job component of individual training plans would be
accredited as streams within a single credential, based on a common core
of broad skills

that the credential, designated as the Certificate in Vocational Studies
(CVS), would be registered under the Australian Council of Tertiary Awards
as a stream 3222 program (ie, a complete initial vocational credential).

The registration of the traineeship credential as a State-wide program
has reduced the chance of traineeships being marginalised as has happened
to previous Federal labour market programs. Accreditation means that the
needs of a target group are as legitimate in curriculum design and development
as the needs of an industry. Further, traineeship programs submitted for
accreditation as streams within the Certificate in Vocational Studies contain
recommendations on credit transfer. Accreditation is a State-wide endorsement
of these recommendations which confirms the portability of the credit transfer
across colleges.

Implementation

Despite the difficulties created by restrictive curriculum policies
and procedures, the implementation of traineeship programs has provided
a springboard for local initiatives and, as successive courses are evaluated,
TAFE teachers and trainees have participated in the formulation of more
responsive programs. Several issues deserve mention.

1. As a means of overcoming the rigidities inherent in the accreditation
process, curriculum developers are including guidelines for implementation
in each document submitted for accreditation. In this way official endorsement
has been gained for flexibility and local modification. The guidelines
address the issues of

the local learning environment

different entry levels and learning needs of trainees

variations in trainee working conditions

negotiation of assessment

strategies to involve trainees in decision making and self assessment

liaison with on-the-job supervisors

alternative delivery modes.

These guidelines form a framework for interpretation of the accredited
curriculum and for the development of local teaching plans. Colleges have
appointed teachers to act as traineeship coordinators and a co-ordinators'
network has been established to provide a strategy of implementation across
colleges. The role of the network has extended to become a major reference
point for both development and implementation. As new traineeships are
initiated, the co-ordinators' network is involved in forward planning,
in selection of teachers as curriculum writers and of colleges for delivery.
When the curriculum has been accredited, delivering colleges meet to coordinate
the development of teaching plans and sharing of resources. During the
delivery stage, groups within the network continue to meet to plan and
implement staff development programs and to evaluate the traineeship. In
this way, it has been possible for TAFE to submit well founded recommendations
for modifications to training plans to Industry Working Groups at points
during the year.

The network also has become a forum for the development of policy and
the exchange of ideas on alternative delivery modes. Currently, Conservation
Forests and Lands Technical Assistant trainees employed in locations across
the State are undertaking an off-the-job program which features block release
in their college and in field locations, teleconferencing and workplace
based research assignments.

This pilot will serve as a model for delivery of a traineeship for Integration
Aides, similarly employed in scattered locations, and for the development
of longer term strategies for flexible delivery. The positive role of the
network, in providing a point at which groups involved in development and
implementation can plan and evaluate, cannot be overstated. However, like
other good ideas and practices within large institutions, it is limited
by time constraints, the organisational workload it demands and travelling
time. It is hoped that, as traineeships become a more stable component
of regular TAFE delivery and teachers become more familiar with its demands,
the network will be able to meet centrally less often and to use teleconferencing
and electronic mail to facilitate rapid communication and exchange of new
ideas.

2. Maintaining continuity of training between the college and the workplace
is a feature of the ATS which is promoted strongly by DEIR, but is under-researched
and inadequately resourced. It is not only teacher time which is an issue,
but time availability and training for on-the-job supervisors.

DEIR assumed at the outset that, if they provided training manuals for
supervisors, if curriculum documents identified both off- and on-the-job
training activities and if trainee record books provided teachers and supervisors
with a format to check off completed training, then integration would be
achieved. Because this document led approach was insufficient, Victorian
TAFE teachers with the experience of work-study to alert them to the real
problems developed alternative strategies.

Using the Industry Working Groups as a means of securing employer agreement,
TAFE colleges organise meetings with on-the-job supervisors prior to commencement
of training and at intervals during the year. In most cases, trainees are
also involved in meetings. The establishment of early personal contact
with supervisors has had a number of advantages, including

involvement of both teachers and supervisors in organising delivery
modes

agreement on TAFE use of work place facilities

involvement of supervisors in TAFE classes

joint on- and off-the-job trainee assessment and program evaluation

identification of individual problems and general implementation issues

establishment of a united forum to make recommendations to IWGs and
to DEIR.

3. Time and funding for integration activities remains a problem. Private
employers (and some government departments) have been unable or reluctant
to commit resources to this aspect of training, when its financial value
has yet to be demonstrated. For TAFE colleges, particularly those which
have employed sessional teachers for traineeships, payment for liaison
with supervisors creates a cost above the allocated $1,800 per trainee.

4. The first traineeships to be implemented in Victoria were for clerical
trainees employed by the Commonwealth and Victorian Public Service. When
these traineeships (and early clerical work-study programs) were evaluated,
one of the most consistent criticisms was that the curriculum was too narrow
to reflect the wide variety of educational backgrounds and potential careers
of trainees.

Flexible implementation strategies which developed during the Pilot
year assisted to a small extent, but the agreed curriculum created strict
limits. Interstate comparisons revealed that same pattern and Victorian
and South Australian representatives on the DEIR National Office Industry
Working Group developed broad guidelines for subsequent clerical traineeships.
Using these guidelines, Victoria has developed a General Office/Finance
Traineeship which is capable of meeting a wide variety of trainee and industry
needs. The curriculum consists of three stages.

Stage One: Broad skills and generic clerical skills at a basic
level catering for trainees with no existing clerical skills and meeting
the learning needs of early school leavers.

Stage Three: Advanced Certificate and Associate Diploma subjects
from Secretarial and Business Studies courses. When the traineeship commences,
trainees and teachers meet to assess individual needs and trainees are
enrolled at an appropriate level. The minimum requirement for successful
completion of the traineeship is completion of stage one and of specialist
subjects, which provide entry level skills for further study and skill
requirements for work in different industries. Trainees who move beyond
stage one receive credits in advanced credentials.

This broad model thus far has been used as the basis for traineeships
in a number of State government departments, for local councils, the building
industry, receptionists for private medical practice, legal secretaries,
Ansett finance clerks and clerical officers in statutory authorities.

For trainees it has the advantage of maximising individual achievement
from a variety of entry points. Of particular importance to female trainees
is the availability of accounting/finance and computing subjects and the
broadening of career options beyond the traditionally identified role of
secretary/ typist.

Negotiated curricula

The involvement of students in designing learning programs is not a
common feature of mainstream TAFE curricular practice. Because programs
are designed to meet the skill requirements of industry, the seemingly
logical premise is that industry, and not students, will know what skill
needs exist and how to meet these needs. Work-study and traineeship courses
similarly have derived occupational skill requirements on the advice of
industry experts. However, in one case in Victoria, insufficient development
lead time prior to the implementation of a work-study course created a
loophole through which a negotiated curriculum slipped. Twenty trainees
were employed as Laboratory Assistants in schools and colleges and enrolled
at one TAFE college for their off-the-job training. Teachers and curriculum
officers planned the introductory phase of the program in advance and involved
trainees in planning the remainder of the program. Following a general
orientation and introduction to basic safety techniques, trainees were
responsible for organising field trips to each of their workplaces and
for administering a survey and holding discussions with their supervisors
regarding skill requirements for their own job and for jobs into which
they could progress.

On the basis of these data, teachers, trainees and supervisors developed
a skills inventory, which in turn formed the basis of a "concept map"
(which linked the scientific concepts underpinning the practical skills
involved in laboratory work). The concept map enabled teachers to develop
subjects which the trainees could readily perceive as meeting their immediate
and longer term needs. A wide range of teaching strategies were employed,
with a strong emphasis on practical activities as a means of deriving theory.
Trainees were also involved in developing assessment strategies in which
self assessment played a part.

The program was formally accredited after seven months of implementation.
Ongoing reviews and summative evaluation revealed that trainees felt that
they had a better understanding of their work and their working environment.
They felt confident about making decisions at work and in relation to further
study and developed a sense of identity as a team. At this stage, there
is insufficient data to draw conclusions or to assess the effect of student
involvement in curriculum decision making on later study and work.

Procedures for developing traineeships have not permitted the same flexibility
as in this work-study program. However, a Laboratory Assistant traineeship
based on the above experience has been accredited and, while all subjects
and assessment procedures have been established, trainees still will be
involved in an occupational analysis which will enable teachers to demonstrate
the relevance of subsequent study. If the occupational analysis conducted
by students reveals new and unmet needs, modification of the curriculum
can be recommended to the IWG.

Assessment

From the outset, there was widespread agreement in TAFE that, as programs
designed for young people disadvantaged by labour market conditions, traineeships
should focus on assisting trainees to access employment and not on grading
them in order of merit, based on examination results. Accordingly, it was
agreed that all assessment would be college based and criterion referenced
and that the minimum standard for award of the CVS would be satisfactory
completion of assessable activities in the program. The definition of "satisfactory"
varied according to the area of skill and knowledge under assessment. Where
standard tests (e.g., typing speed) or relevant industry standards of quality
existed, these were used. Safety issues, for example, demanded a level
of satisfaction of 100%. Because some areas of skill and knowledge are
best assessed by the individual student in consultation with teachers,
self assessment was encouraged as a means of both diagnostic and summative
assessment.

In order to record individual achievements reliably without recourse
to grading, each trainee receives a descriptive assessment, written by
their teachers in consultation with supervisors and with the trainee. While
evidence suggests that employers prefer the practice of awarding numerical
or letter grades, it was felt to be more equitable as well as more reliable
to describe achievement than to maintain a pretence of objectivity through
the award of grades. Hopefully, the wider use of descriptive assessments,
for example in senior secondary school as well as in TAFE, will lead to
greater acceptance and a recognition that it is a more reliable form of
assessment.

Key issues

After two years of operation, the Australian Traineeship System has
a number of achievements to its credit. However, it has also reproduced
some of the problems of previous labour market programs, as well as generating
a few of its own. It is beyond the scope of this chapter to deal with these
issues in depth. The overview of the key issues which follows is provided
as a means of highlighting areas for further study.

Federally funded labour market programs in Australia commonly generate
tensions between the Commonwealth and the States. Almost inevitably, the
demands by the former for accountability and the insistence of the latter
for control of implementation generate dual administrative structures and
disputes over roles and responsibilities. The administration of ATS is
no exception. Agreements have been struck through the Commonwealth and
States Training Authorities Council (COSTAC), which accord each State control
over approval and implementation of traineeships within Commonwealth funding,
industrial relations and curriculum guidelines. Evidence to date, however,
suggests that the central (Canberra) office of DEIR is exerting more direct
control. This has led to disputes between DEIR, TAFE and State Labour Departments
and Training Authorities and also between DEIR central office and State
branches.

In an effort to develop national standardised traineeship packages,
DEIR in Canberra has established National Industry Working Groups and industrial
agreements with Federal Union branches. Both ventures have come unstuck
in several instances. Accreditation and industrial relations requirements
vary between the States and sometimes extensive modifications need to be
made to national traineeship models. State/Commonwealth rivalries account
for other casualties. In one instance, an agreement between DEIR and a
Federal union was rejected by its Victorian Branch on the grounds that
it was not consulted. The national Textile, Clothing and Footwear Traineeship
was almost completely rewritten to satisfy Victorian demarcations between
proclaimed trades and semi-skilled training and to meet accreditation requirements
and target group needs. In contrast, the National Office Industry Working
Group, which opted instead for national curriculum guidelines, has seen
its guidelines adopted completely by three States, two of which - Victoria
and South Australia - co-operated to produce highly portable credentials.

There is a number of reasons why employers and unions have been slower
to accept traineeships than anticipated, including overly optimistic targets,
traditional employer conservatism and union protection of existing awards
and conditions. There is also some evidence that industry has found the
whole scheme to be over-bureacratised and unwieldy. The Kirby recommendation
for local and regional participation in decision making largely has gone
unheeded and smaller employers (often working with local councils and TAFE
colleges) have found their initiatives frustrated by rigid rules and administrative
arrangements.

The tension between national accountability and interstate portability
on one hand, and State rights and local initiatives on the other, is notoriously
difficult to resolve. However, given control of funding by the Commonwealth
and the checks and balances which can be maintained via tripartite State
level decision making in the context of broad national guidelines, it should
be possible to permit greater interstate variation and local flexibility.
The recent Federal Government reshuffle of portfolios and the establishment
of the "Super Ministry" of Employment, Education and Training
(DEET) under John Dawkins is at least in part an acknowledgement of administrative
problems inherent in programs which cross Federal ministerial boundaries
as well as State borders. A more low-key controlling role by DEET and a
more proactive role for employer groups, unions and TAFE in each State
must help generate more responsive programs.

A second issue revolves around the funding base. Commonwealth funding
to the States for traineeships covers three aspects of operation: industry
feasibility studies; planning and curriculum development; and implementation.
Funding is allocated via development grants to industry and TAFE and per
capita payments to employers and off-the-job trainers. Funding for curriculum
development and for the capital costs of delivery of traineeships in TAFE
are predicated on the assumption that TAFE will build costs progressively
into recurrent budgets. Such funds are essentially seeding grants. Per
capita grants of $1,800 to TAFE and $2,000 to non-TAFE training providers
are intended to cover the cost of teachers/ trainers and teaching materials.
A number of problems have been generated by these funding arrangements.

The per capita grant for progamme delivery only covers sessional teaching
rates. Student support services, careers and personal counselling, teaching
resources and special teaching needs (e.g., one to one tuition for trainees
with learning difficulties) must be covered by other grants or recurrent
funding. Further, per capita funding tends to favour large classes. In
practical subjects where safety regulations set maximum class sizes of
10-12 students, teaching costs outstretch funding.

A number of traineeships require extensive investment in capital equipment.
DEIR's answer to submission for money over and above capital seeding grants
(again allocated on a per capita basis) is that TAFE must change its priorities
to free up equipment. This has proved impossible in many cases. For example,
Textile, Clothing and Footwear trainees use the same equipment as do apprentices
and adults on DEIR funded retraining programs. Given that apprenticeships
have a high priority within the State, and that employers willing to take
on trainees are the same employers benefitting from adult retraining schemes,
the demands on equipment have produced tensions only resolved by a politically
expedient pre-election grant to specific colleges.

While development grant funding has been adequate, the expectation
that TAFE will build longer term costs into recurrent budgets has not been
met, because it is impossible to forecast future development rates.

Many aspects of traineeship implementation initially were undercosted
or not built into any funding base. Examples include on-the-job supervisor
training, costs of maintaining on- and off-the-job training links and costs
of printing and distributing training plans, record books, learning materials
and supervisor handbooks.

In some cases, DEIR has conceded need, but has interpreted the need
in its own terms by providing video and print training kits, rather than
incentives for supervisors to attend training programs, and by commissioning
the production of learning materials at a national level rather than funding
State developments and encouraging interstate cooperation. In cases where
States have received money to develop materials which are relevant to other
States, only the production of master copies has been funded, The Kirby
Report noted that previous labour market programs suffered from inadequate
evaluation. There is a danger that funding arrangements will create problems
in evaluating ATS. While DEIR is carrying out national evaluations, State
level evaluations are so far inadequate due to lack of funding. With numerous,
equally valid demands on their resources, State TAFE Authorities justifiably
can leave the responsibility for evaluation to the Commonwealth, which
means that lessons which might be drawn from the experience of local/regional
implementations will not be documented adequately.

Another key issue is that of quality training. Prior to the implementation
of the ATS, Lyall Fricker, Director-General of TAFE in South Australia,
made the following observations

Since the introduction of various forms of transition education in the
late 1970s TAFE has developed a corpus of expertise in relevant curriculum
methodology, but it has also been living off capital in the form of long
developed and tested trade and similar courses. Kirby will introduce a
quantum leap in the range of skills, occupations and clients for whom courses
must be developed. It must be an integral part of the scheme that time
and resources are available for adequate curriculum development. Equally,
the industrial training component will require attention, as will links
between on- and off-the-job activity. The Kirby principles of flexibility
and broad based training are as relevant to on-the-job as to institution
based training (1985, p.1). Experiences in Victoria have demonstrated the
accuracy of these remarks. Notwithstanding the considerable effort invested
in designing a curriculum relevant to trainees and in establishing new
development processes, as well as the comparative success of these initiatives,
the magnitude of the "quantum leap" referred to by Fricker should
not be underestimated.

Mainstream TAFE teachers in Victoria have worked under the ISM curriculum
regime for many years and are used to implementing highly specific training
programs. The majority of teachers are not accustomed to formally conducting
needs analyses, devising alternative delivery strategies catering to widely
varying learning needs or, with the exception of apprenticeship teachers,
working with on-the-job supervisors.

The integration of broad based, flexible, high quality structured training
programs into the mainstream of TAFE's responsibilities will necessitate
considerable investment in staff development, a willingness by the system
to review and evaluate programs critically during their implementation
and a capacity to introduce flexibility into institutional arrangements.
Similarly, as Fricker noted, development of quality on-the-job training
requires a major investment of effort. We have been aware for many years
that the uneven quality of on-the-job training in apprenticeships is a
major impediment to many apprentices gaining sufficient breadth and depth
of skill and knowledge to move readily beyond their indentured position
into careers in changing industries.

Two aspects of on-the-job training require attention. One relates to
the nature of the job itself. There is no point in establishing traineeships
in areas of employment which require little or no formal training and in
which career prospects are limited. One of the Youth Guarantee Work-study
programs offered one year of structured training for station assistants,
a job for which the transport authority already provided 10 days of training
prior to job placement. It was nearly impossible to develop off-the-job
training which was perceived to be relevant by the young people taking
on these unskilled positions. The Retail Traineeship, in which many trainees
are employed essentially as shelf stackers and check-out staff, is questionable
for the same reasons.

Governments must ensure that individual needs and long term labour market
requirements for a highly skilled workforce drive traineeships and that
short term employment needs are met from their own resources.

The other aspect of on-the-job experience which requires attention is
the quality of training and supervision. It is too much to expect that
personnel with little or no trainer training can readily assume responsibility
for the training of young people. This is an area in which employers must
be prepared to invest for their own long term gain. Otherwise we are doing
nothing more than providing young people with part time work and a 13 week
introductory study program. The benefits of genuinely integrated high quality
on- and off- the-job training are considerable and include offering a balance
of theory and practice, meeting immediate and longer term training requirements.

The attitude of many employers towards training is that public education
institutions, primarily TAFE, are responsible for quality delivery and
control. Given this attitude and the tendency to blame TAFE if the goods
are not delivered to employers' satisfaction, this issue looms large as
a key in the success of the traineeship initiative.

It is easy to be critical of aspects of the operation of TAFE, as indeed
I have been in this paper. However, we should be careful to apportion blame
and credit where they are due. Despite considerable problems, TAFE teachers
have met the challenge posed by traineeships creatively and with dedication.
Shortcomings in delivery of training cannot be blamed on the intransigence
of teaching staff, but must be seen as the result of structures and procedures
geared to a previous era. The same must be said of on-the job training
where supervisors have assisted trainees to the extent that on-the-job
structures allow.

Since the introduction of ATS, there has been a prevailing concern on
the part of DEIR with trainee performance in the achievement of competencies
and standards. It is time that attention is turned to the quality of the
educational and working environments and the capacity of both to deliver
quality training for individual learning and job satisfaction.

Endnotes

Following the Federal election in June 1987, employment and training
functions of the Department of Employment and Industrial Relations (DEIR)
was merged with the Department of Education to become a "super ministry"
- the Department of Employment, Education and Training (DEET). Throughout
this paper, DEIR is referred to as the ministry responsible for ATS.

Legislation enacted in July 1987 has amalgamated the TAFE Accreditation
Board with the Victorian Post Secondary Accreditation Board to form the
Victorian Post Secondary Education Accreditation Board.

References

Anderson, T. & Jones, N. (1986). TAFE curriculum research: A
review of group process methods. Adelaide: TAFE National Centre for
Research and Development.