Tuesday, February 9, 2016

Happy New Year!

As was apparently first noticed by Noam Elkies, 2016 is the cardinality of the general linear group over the field with 7 elements, $G=\mathop{\rm GL}(2,\mathbf F_7)$. I was mentoring an agrégation lesson on finite fields this afternoon, and I could not resist having the student check this. Then came the natural question of describing the Sylow subgroups of this finite group. This is what I describe here.

First of all, let's recall the computation of the cardinality of $G$. The first column of a matrix in $G$ must be non-zero, hence there are $7^2-1$ possibilities; for the second column, it only needs to be non-collinear to the first one, and each choice of the first column forbids $7$ second columns, hence $7^2-7$ possibilities. In the end, one has $\mathop{\rm Card}(G)=(7^2-1)(7^2-7)=48\cdot 42=2016$. The same argument shows that the cardinality of the group $\mathop{\rm GL}(n,\mathbf F_q)$ is equal to $(q^n-1)(q^n-q)\cdots (q^n-q^{n-1})=q^{n(n-1)/2}(q-1)(q^2-1)\cdots (q^n-1)$.

Let's go back to our example. The factorization of this cardinal comes easily: $2016=(7^2-1)(7^2-7)=(7-1)(7+1)7(7-1)=6\cdot 8\cdot 7\cdot 6= 2^5\cdot 3^2\cdot 7$. Consequently, there are three Sylow subgroups to find, for the prime numbers $2$, $3$ and $7$.

The cas $p=7$ is the most classical one. One needs to find a group of order 7, and one such subgroup is given by the group of upper triangular matrices $\begin{pmatrix} 1 & * \\ 0 & 1\end{pmatrix}$. What makes things work is that $p$ is the characteristic of the chosen finite field. In general, if $q$ is a power of $p$, then the subgroup of upper-triangular matrices in $\mathop{\rm GL}(n,\mathbf F_q)$ with $1$s one the diagonal has cardinality $q\cdot q^2\cdots q^{n-1}=q^{n(n-1)/2}$, which is exactly the highest power of $p$ divising the cardinality of $\mathop{\rm GL}(n,\mathbf F_q)$.

Let's now study $p=3$. We need to find a group $S$ of order $3^2=9$ inside $G$. There are a priori two possibilities, either $S\simeq (\mathbf Z/3\mathbf Z)^2$, or $S\simeq (\mathbf Z/9\mathbf Z)$.
We will find a group of the first sort, which will that the second case doesn't happen, because all $3$-Sylows are pairwise conjugate, hence isomorphic.

Now, the multiplicative group $\mathbf F_7^\times$ is of order $6$, and is cyclic, hence contains a subgroup of order $3$, namely $C=\{1,2,4\}$. Consequently, the group of diagonal matrices with coefficients in $C$ is isomorphic to $(\mathbf Z/3\mathbf Z)^2$ and is our desired $3$-Sylow.

Another reason why $G$ does not contain a subgroup $S$ isomorphic to $\mathbf Z/9\mathbf Z$ is that it does not contain elements of order $9$. Let's argue by contradiction and consider a matrix $A\in G$ such that $A^9=I$; then its minimal polynomial $P$ divides $T^9-1$. Since $7\nmid 9$, the matrix $A$ is diagonalizable over the algebraic closure of $\mathbf F_7$. The eigenvalues of $A$ are eigenvalues are $9$th roots of unity, and are quadratic over $\mathbf F_7$ since $\deg(P)\leq 2$. On the other hand, if $\alpha$ is a $9$th root of unity belonging to $\mathbf F_{49}$, one has $\alpha^9=\alpha^{48}=1$, hence $\alpha^3=1$ since $\gcd(9,48)=3$. Consequently, $\alpha$ is a cubic root of unity and $A^3=1$, showing that $A$ has order $3$.

It remains to treat the case $p=2$, which I find slightly trickier. Let's try to find elements $A$ in $G$ whose order divides $2^5$. As above, it is diagonalizable in an algebraic closure, its minimal polynomial divides $T^{32}-1$, and its roots belong to $\mathbf F_{49}$, hence satisfy $\alpha^{32}=\alpha^{48}=1$, hence $\alpha^{16}=1$. Conversely, $\mathbf F_{49}^\times$ is cyclic of order $48$, hence contains an element of order $16$, and such an element is quadratic over $\mathbf F_7$, hence its minimal polynomial $P$ has degree $2$. The corresponding companion matrix $A$ in $G$ is an element of order $16$, generating a subgroup $S_1$ of $G$ isomorphic to $\mathbf Z/16\mathbf Z$. We also observe that $\alpha^8=-1$ (because its square is $1$); since $A^8$ is diagonalizable in an algebraic closure with $-1$ as the only eigenvalue, this shows $A^8=-I$.

Now, there exists a $2$-Sylow subgroup containing $S_1$, and $S_1$ will be a normal subgroup of $S$ (because its index is the smallest prime number dividing the order of $S$, which is $2$). This suggests to introduce the normalizer $N$ of $S_1$ in $G$. One then has $S_1\subset S\subset N$. Let $s\in S$ be such that $s\not\in S_1$; then there exists a unique $k\in\{1,\dots,15\}$ such that $s^{-1}As=A^k$, and $s^{-2}As^2=A^{k^2}=A$ (because $s$ has order $2$ modulo $S_1$), hence $k^2\equiv 1\pmod{16}$—in other words, $k\equiv \pm1\pmod 8$.

There exists a natural choice of $s$: the involution ($s^2=I$) which exchanges the two eigenspaces of $A$. To finish the computation, it's useful to take a specific example of polynomial $P$ of degree $2$ whose roots in $\mathbf F_{49}$ are primitive $16$th roots of unity. In other words, we need to factor the $16$th cyclotomic polynomial $\Phi_{16}=T^8+1$ over $\mathbf F_7$ and find a factor of degree $2$; actually, Galois theory shows that all factors have the same degree, so that there should be 4 factors of degree $2$. To explain the following computation, some remark is useful. Let
$\alpha$ be a $16$th root of unity in $\mathbf F_{49}$; we have
$(\alpha^8)^2=1$ but $\alpha^8\neq 1$, hence $\alpha^8=-1$. If $P$
is the minimal polynomial of $\alpha$, the other root is $\alpha^7$,
hence the constant term of $P$ is equal to $\alpha\cdot
\alpha^7=\alpha^8=-1$.

We start from $T^8+1=(T^4+1)^2-2T^4$ and observe that $2\equiv 4^2\pmod 7$, so that $T^8+1=(T^4+1)^2-4^2T^4=(T^4+4T^2+1)(T^4-4T^2+1)$. To find the factors of degree $2$, we remember that their constant terms should be equal to $-1$. We thus go on differently, writing $T^4+4T^2+1=(T^2+aT-1)(T^2-aT-1)$ and solving for $a$: this gives $-2-a^2=4$, hence $a^2=-6=1$ and $a=\pm1$. The other factors are found similarly and we get
\[ T^8+1=(T^2-T-1)(T^2+T-1)(T^2-4T-1)(T^2+4T-1). \]
We thus choose the factor $T^2-T-1$ and set $A=\begin{pmatrix} 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 1 \end{pmatrix}$.

Two eigenvectors for $A$ are $v=\begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ \alpha \end{pmatrix}$ and $v'=\begin{pmatrix}1 \\ \alpha'\end{pmatrix}$, where $\alpha'=\alpha^7$ is the other root of $T^2-T-1$. The equations for $B$ are $Bv=v'$ and $Bv'=v$; this gives $B=\begin{pmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ 1 & - 1\end{pmatrix}$. The subgroup $S=\langle A,B\rangle$ generated by $A$ and $B$ has order $32$ and is a $2$-Sylow subgroup of $G$.