Permanently settled for over 2000 years, Zürich was founded by the Romans, who, in 15 BC, called it Turicum. However, early settlements have been found dating back more than 6400 years ago.[7] During the Middle Ages, Zürich gained the independent and privileged status of imperial immediacy and, in 1519, became a primary centre of the Protestant Reformation in Europe under the leadership of Huldrych Zwingli.[8]

Zürich is a leading global city and among the world's largest financial centres despite having a relatively small population.[11] The city is home to a large number of financial institutions and banking companies. Most of Switzerland's research and development centres are concentrated in Zürich and the low tax rates attract overseas companies to set up their headquarters there.

Monocle's 2012 "Quality of Life Survey" ranked Zürich first on a list of the top 25 cities in the world "to make a base within".[12] According to several surveys from 2006 to 2008, Zürich was named the city with the best quality of life in the world as well as the wealthiest city in Europe in terms of GDP per capita.[13][14][15] The Economist Intelligence Unit's Global Liveability Ranking[16] sees Zürich rank among the top ten most liveable cities in the world.

In English, the name used to be written as Zurich, without the umlaut. Even so, standard English practice for German calques is to either preserve the umlaut or replace it with the base letter followed by e (i.e. Zuerich). It is pronounced /ˈzjʊərɪk/ (ZEWR-ik); more recently sometimes also with /ts/ as in German.[17]

The earliest known form of the city's name is Turicum, attested on a tombstone of the late 2nd century AD in the form STA(tio) TURICEN(sis) ("Turicum tax post"). The name is interpreted as a derivation from a given name, possibly Gaulishpersonal nameTūros, for a reconstructed native form of the toponym of *Turīcon.[18] The Latin stress on the long vowel of the Gaulish name, [tuˈriːkon], was lost in German [ˈtsyːrɪç] but is preserved in Italian Zurigo[dzuˈriːɡo] and in Romansh Turitg[tuˈritɕ]. The first development towards its later, Germanic form is attested as early as the 6th century with the form Ziurichi. From the 9th century onward, the name is established in an Old High German form Zuri(c)h (857 in villa Zurih, 924 in Zurich curtem, 1416 Zürich Stadt).[19] In the early modern period, the name became associated with the name of the Tigurini, and the name Tigurum rather than the historical Turicum is sometimes encountered in Modern Latin contexts.[20]

In the 5th century, the Germanic Alemanni tribe settled in the Swiss Plateau. The Roman castle remained standing until the 7th century. A Carolingian castle, built on the site of the Roman castle by the grandson of Charlemagne, Louis the German, is mentioned in 835 (in castro Turicino iuxta fluvium Lindemaci). Louis also founded the Fraumünster abbey in 853 for his daughter Hildegard. He endowed the Benedictine convent with the lands of Zürich, Uri, and the Albis forest, and granted the convent immunity, placing it under his direct authority. In 1045, King Henry III granted the convent the right to hold markets, collect tolls, and mint coins, and thus effectively made the abbess the ruler of the city.[22]

Zürich gained Imperial immediacy (Reichsunmittelbar, becoming an Imperial free city) in 1218 with the extinction of the main line of the Zähringer family and attained a status comparable to statehood. During the 1230s, a city wall was built, enclosing 38 hectares, when the earliest stone houses on the Rennweg were built as well. The Carolingian castle was used as a quarry, as it had started to fall into ruin.[23]

Emperor Frederick II promoted the abbess of the Fraumünster to the rank of a duchess in 1234. The abbess nominated the mayor, and she frequently delegated the minting of coins to citizens of the city. The political power of the convent slowly waned in the 14th century, beginning with the establishment of the Zunftordnung (guild laws) in 1336 by Rudolf Brun, who also became the first independent mayor, i.e. not nominated by the abbess.

An important event in the early 14th century was the completion of the Manesse Codex, a key source of medieval German poetry. The famous illuminated manuscript – described as "the most beautifully illumined German manuscript in centuries;"[24] – was commissioned by the Manesse family of Zürich, copied and illustrated in the city at some time between 1304 and 1340. Producing such a work was a highly expensive prestige project, requiring several years work by highly skilled scribes[25] and miniature painters, and it clearly testifies to the increasing wealth and pride of Zürich citizens in this period.

A scene depicting the Old Zürich War in 1443 (1514, illustration in Federal Chronicle by Werner Schodoler)

On 1 May 1351, the citizens of Zürich had to swear allegiance before representatives of the cantons of Lucerne, Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden, the other members of the Swiss Confederacy. Thus, Zürich became the fifth member of the Confederacy, which was at that time a loose confederation of de factoindependent states. Zürich was the presiding canton of the Diet from 1468 to 1519. This authority was the executive council and lawmaking body of the confederacy, from the Middle Ages until the establishment of the Swiss federal state in 1848. Zürich was temporarily expelled from the confederacy in 1440 due to a war with the other member states over the territory of Toggenburg (the Old Zürich War). Neither side had attained significant victory when peace was agreed upon in 1446, and Zürich was readmitted to the confederation in 1450.[26]

Zwingli started the Swiss Reformation at the time when he was the main preacher in the 1520s, at the Grossmünster. He lived there from 1484 until his death in 1531. The Zürich Bible, based on that of Zwingli, was issued in 1531. The Reformation resulted in major changes in state matters and civil life in Zürich, spreading also to a number of other cantons. Several cantons remained Catholic and became the basis of serious conflicts that eventually led to the outbreak of the Wars of Kappel.

During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Council of Zürich adopted an isolationist attitude, resulting in a second ring of imposing fortifications built in 1624. The Thirty Years' War which raged across Europe motivated the city to build these walls. The fortifications required a lot of resources, which were taken from subject territories without reaching any agreement. The following revolts were crushed brutally. In 1648, Zürich proclaimed itself a republic, shedding its former status of a free imperial city.[26] In this time the political system of Zürich was an oligarchy (Patriziat): the dominant families of the city were the following ones: Bonstetten, Brun, Bürkli, Escher vom Glas, Escher vom Luchs, Hirzel, Jori (or von Jori), Kilchsperger, Landenberg, Manesse, Meiss, Meyer von Knonau, Mülner, von Orelli.

The Helvetic Revolution of 1798 saw the fall of the Ancien Régime. Zürich lost control of the land and its economic privileges, and the city and the canton separated their possessions between 1803–05. In 1839, the city had to yield to the demands of its urban subjects, following the Züriputsch of 6 September. Most of the ramparts built in the 17th century were torn down, without ever having been besieged, to allay rural concerns over the city's hegemony. The Treaty of Zürich between Austria, France, and Sardinia was signed in 1859.[27]

Zürich was the Federal capital for 1839–40, and consequently, the victory of the Conservative party there in 1839 caused a great stir throughout Switzerland. But when in 1845 the Radicals regained power at Zürich, which was again the Federal capital for 1845–46, Zürich took the lead in opposing the Sonderbund cantons. Following the Sonderbund war and the formation of the Swiss Federal State, Zürich voted in favour of the Federal constitutions of 1848 and of 1874. The enormous immigration from the country districts into the town from the 1830s onwards created an industrial class which, though "settled" in the town, did not possess the privileges of burghership, and consequently had no share in the municipal government. First of all in 1860 the town schools, hitherto open to "settlers" only on paying high fees, were made accessible to all, next in 1875 ten years' residence ipso facto conferred the right of burghership, and in 1893 the eleven outlying districts were incorporated within the town proper.

Extensive developments took place during the 19th century. From 1847, the Spanisch-Brötli-Bahn, the first railway on Swiss territory, connected Zürich with Baden, putting the Zürich Hauptbahnhof at the origin of the Swiss rail network. The present building of the Hauptbahnhof (the main railway station) dates to 1871. Zürich's Bahnhofstrasse (Station Street) was laid out in 1867, and the Zürich Stock Exchange was founded in 1877. Industrialisation led to migration into the cities and to rapid population growth, particularly in the suburbs of Zürich.

The Quaianlagen are an important milestone in the development of the modern city of Zürich, as the construction of the new lake front transformed Zürich from a small medieval town on the rivers Limmat and Sihl to an attractive modern city on the Zürichsee shore, under the guidance of the city engineer Arnold Bürkli.[citation needed]

In 1893, the twelve outlying districts were incorporated into Zürich, including Aussersihl, the workman's quarter on the left bank of the Sihl, and additional land was reclaimed from Lake Zürich.[28]

In 1934, eight additional districts in the north and west of Zürich were incorporated.

The blue and white coat of arms of Zürich is attested from 1389 and was derived from banners with blue and white stripes in use since 1315. The first certain testimony of banners with the same design is from 1434. The coat of arms is flanked by two lions. The red Schwenkel on top of the banner had varying interpretations: For the people of Zürich, it was a mark of honour, granted by Rudolph I. Zürich's neighbours mocked it as a sign of shame, commemorating the loss of the banner at Winterthur in 1292. Today, the Canton of Zürich uses the same coat of arms as the city.[29][unreliable source]

The previous boundaries of the city of Zürich (before 1893) were more or less synonymous with the location of the old town. Two large expansions of the city limits occurred in 1893 and in 1934 when the city of Zürich merged with many surrounding municipalities, that had been growing increasingly together since the 19th century. Today, the city is divided into twelve districts (known as Kreis in German), numbered 1 to 12, each one of which contains between one and four neighborhoods:

Kreis 1, known as Altstadt, contains the old town, both to the east and west of the start of the Limmat. District 1 contains the neighbourhoods of Hochschulen, Rathaus, Lindenhof, and City.

Kreis 2 lies along the west side of Lake Zürich, and contains the neighbourhoods of Enge, Wollishofen and Leimbach.

Kreis 3, known as Wiedikon is between the Sihl and the Uetliberg, and contains the neighbourhoods of Alt-Wiedikon, Sihlfeld and Friesenberg.

Kreis 4, known as Aussersihl lies between the Sihl and the train tracks leaving Zürich Hauptbahnhof, and contains the neighbourhoods of Werd, Langstrasse, and Hard.

Kreis 5, known as Industriequartier, is between the Limmat and the train tracks leaving Zürich Hauptbahnhof, it contains the former industrial area of Zürich which has gone under a large-scale rezoning to create upscale modern housing, retail and commercial real estate. It contains the neighborhoods of Gewerbeschule, and Escher-Wyss.

Kreis 7 is on the edge of the Adlisberg hill as well as the Zürichberg, on the eastern side of the city. District 7 contains the neighbourhoods of Fluntern, Hottingen, and Hirslanden. These neighbourhoods are home to Zürich's wealthiest and more prominent residents. The neighbourhood Witikon also belongs to district 7.

Kreis 8, officially called Riesbach, but colloquially known as Seefeld, lies on the eastern side of Lake Zürich. District 8 consists of the neighbourhoods of Seefeld, Mühlebach, and Weinegg.

Kreis 12, known as Schwamendingen, is located in the Glattal (Glatt valley) on the northern side of the Zürichberg. District 12 contains the neighbourhoods of Saatlen, Schwamendigen Mitte, and Hirzenbach.

Most of the district boundaries are fairly similar to the original boundaries of the previously existing municipalities before they were incorporated into the city of Zürich.

The City Council (Stadtrat) constitutes the executive government of the City of Zürich and operates as a collegiate authority. It is composed of nine councilors, each presiding over a department. Departmental tasks, coordination measures and implementation of laws decreed by the Municipal Council are carried out by the City Council. The regular election of the City Council by any inhabitant valid to vote is held every four years. The mayor (German: Stadtpräsident(in)) is elected as such by a public election by a system of Majorz while the heads of the other departments are assigned by the collegiate. Any resident of Zurich allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the City Council. In the mandate period 2014–2018 (Legislatur) the City Council is presided by mayor Corine Mauch. The executive body holds its meetings in the City Hall (German: Stadthaus), on the left bank of the Limmat. The building was built in 1883 in Renaissance style.

The Municipal Council (Gemeinderat) holds the legislative power. It is made up of 125 members (Gemeindrat / Gemeinderätin), with elections held every four years. The Municipal Council decrees regulations and by-laws that are executed by the City Council and the administration. The sessions of the Municipal Council are held in public. Unlike those of the City Council, the members of the Municipal Council are not politicians by profession but are paid a fee based on their attendance. Any resident of Zürich allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the Municipal Council. The legislative body holds its meetings in the town hall (Rathaus), on the right bank of the Limmat opposite to the City Hall (Stadthaus).[32]

In the 2015 election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the SPS which received 31.3% of the vote. The next four most popular parties were the SVP (18.1%), the FDP (14.2%), the GPS (10.7%), the GLP (9.2%). In the federal election, a total of 114,377 voters were cast, and the voter turnout was 46.2%.[34]

The city stretches on both sides of the Limmat, which flows out of Lake Zürich. The Alps can be seen from the city center, background to the lake

Zürich is situated at 408 m (1,339 ft) above sea level on the lower (northern) end of Lake Zürich (Zürichsee) about 30 kilometers (19 mi) north of the Alps, nestling between the wooded hills on the west and east side. The Old Town stretches on both sides of the Limmat, which flows from the lake, running northwards at first and then gradually turning into a curve to the west. The geographic (and historic) centre of the city is the Lindenhof, a small natural hill on the west bank of the Limmat, about 700 m (2,300 ft) north of where the river issues from Lake Zürich. Today the incorporated city stretches somewhat beyond the natural confines of the hills and includes some districts to the northeast in the Glatt Valley (Glattal) and to the north in the Limmat Valley (Limmattal). The boundaries of the older city are easy to recognize by the Schanzengraben canal. This artificial watercourse has been used for the construction of the third fortress in the 17th and 18th centuries.

The municipality of Zürich has an area of 91.88 km2 (35.48 sq mi), of which 4.1 km2 (1.6 sq mi) is made up of Lake Zürich. The area includes a section of the northern Swiss Plateau. The banks of the Limmat constitute the densest part of the city. The river is oriented in the southeast-northwest direction, with the flat valley floor having a width of two to two to three kilometres (1.2 to 1.9 miles). The partially channeled and straightened Limmat does not flow in the central part of the valley, but always along its right (northeastern) side. The Sihl meets with the Limmat at the end of Platzspitz, which borders the Swiss National Museum. The Limmat reaches the lowest point of the municipality in Oberengstringen at 392 m (1,286 ft) above sea level.

Topographic map of Zürich and surroundings

Felsenegg from Lake Zürich

Zürich from Waidberg

On its west side, the Limmat valley is flanked by the wooded heights of the Albis chain, which runs along the western border. The Uetliberg is, with 869 m (2,851 ft) above sea level, the highest elevation of the surrounding area. Its summit can be reached easily by the Uetlibergbahn. From the platform of the observation tower on the summit, an impressive panorama of the city, the lake, and the Alps can be seen.

The northeast side of the Limmat valley includes a range of hills, which marks the watershed between the Limmat and the Glatt. From the northwest to the southeast, the height of the mostly wooded knolls generally increases: the Gubrist (615 m or 2,018 ft), the Hönggerberg (541 m or 1,775 ft), the Käferberg (571 m or 1,873 ft), the Zürichberg (676 m or 2,218 ft), the Adlisberg (701 m or 2,300 ft) and the Öschbrig (696 m or 2,283 ft). Between the Käferberg and the Zürichberg is located the saddle of the Milchbuck (about 470 m or 1,540 ft), an important passage from the Limmat valley to the Glatt valley.

The northernmost part of the municipality extends to the plain of the Glatt valley and to the saddle which makes the connection between the Glattal and Furttal. Also, a part of the Katzensee (nature reserve) and the Büsisee, both of which are drained by the Katzenbach to Glatt, belong to the city.

Zürich has, depending on the definition used, an oceanic climate (KöppenCfb), with four distinct seasons. Decisive for the climate of Zürich are both the winds from westerly directions, which often result in precipitation and, on the other hand, the Bise (east or north-east wind), which is usually associated with high-pressure situations, but cooler weather phases with temperatures lower than the average. The Foehn wind, which plays an important role in the northern alpine valleys also has some impact on Zürich.[36]

The annual mean temperature at the measuring station of the Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology in Zürich-Fluntern (556 m[1,824 ft] above sea level on the slope of the Zürichberg, 150 m[490 ft] above the level of the city centre) is 9.3 °C (48.7 °F). The lowest monthly mean of daily minimum temperature are measured in January with −2.0 °C (28.4 °F) and the highest monthly mean of daily maximum temperature are measured in July with 24.0 °C (75.2 °F). On average there are 74.9 days in which the minimum temperature is below 0 °C (32 °F) (so-called frost days), and 23.7 days in which the maximum temperature is below 0 °C (32 °F) (so-called ice days). There are on average of 30 so-called summer days (maximum temperature equal to or above 25 °C [77 °F]) throughout the year, while so-called heat days (with maximum temperature equal to or above 30 °C [86 °F]) are 5.8 days.[37]

The average high temperature in July is 24.0 °C (75.2 °F) and average low temperature is 14 °C (57.2 °F). The highest recorded temperature in Zürich was 37.7 °C (100 °F), recorded on July 1947, and typically the warmest day reaches an average of 32.2 °C (90.0 °F).[38][39]

Spring and autumn are generally cool to mild, but sometimes with large differences between warm and cold days even during the same year. The highest temperature of the month March in 2014 was on the 20th at 20.6 °C (69.1 °F) during a sunny afternoon and the lowest temperature was on the 25th at −0.4 °C (31.3 °F) during the night/early morning.[40] Record low of average daily temperatures in March since 1864 is −12 °C (10 °F) and record high of average daily temperatures in March is 16 °C (61 °F). Record low of average daily temperatures in October is −16 °C (3 °F) and record high of average daily temperatures in October is 20 °C (68 °F).[41]

Zürich has an average of 1,544 hours of sunshine per year and shines on 38% of its potential time throughout the year. During the months April until September the sun shines between 150 and 215 hours per month. The 1,134 millimetres (44.6 in) rainfall spread on 133.9 days with precipitation throughout the year. Roughly about every third day you will encounter at least some precipitation, which is very much a Swiss average. During the warmer half of the year and especially during the three summer months, the strength of rainfall is higher than those measured in winter, but the days with precipitation stays about the same throughout the year (in average 9.9–12.7 days per month). October has the lowest number (9.9) of days with some precipitation. There is an average of 59.5 so-called bright days (number of days with sunshine duration greater than 80%) through the year, the most in July and August (7.4, 7.7 days), and the least in January and December (2.7, 1.8 days). The average number of days with sunshine duration less than 20%, so-called cloudy days, is 158.4 days, while the most cloudy days are in November (17.8 days), December (21.7 days), and January with 19 days.[37]

The city of Zürich is among the world-leaders in protecting the climate by following a manifold approach. In November 2008[44] the people of Zürich voted in a public referendum to write into law the quantifiable and fixed deadline of one tonne of CO2 per person per annum by 2050. This forces any decision of the executive to support this goal, even if the costs are higher in all dimensions. Some examples are the new disinfection section of the public city hospital in Triemli (Minergie-P quality – passive house)[clarification needed], the continued optimisation and creation of public transportation, enlargement of the bicycle-only network, research and projects for renewable energy and enclosure of speed-ways[clarification needed].

The areas surrounding the Limmat are almost completely developed with residential, industrial, and commercial zones. The sunny and desirable residential areas in the hills overlooking Zürich, Waidberg and Zürichberg, and the bottom part of the slope on the western side of the valley on the Uetliberg, are also densely built.

The "green lungs" of the city include the vast forest areas of Adlisberg, Zürichberg, Käferberg, Hönggerberg and Uetliberg. Major parks are also located along the lakeshore (Zürichhorn and Enge), while smaller parks dot the city. Larger contiguous agricultural lands are located near Affoltern and Seebach. Of the total area of the municipality of Zürich (in 1996, without the lake), 45.4% is residential, industrial and commercial, 15.5% is transportation infrastructure, 26.5% is forest, 11%: is agriculture and 1.2% is water.

Public transport is extremely popular in Zürich, and its inhabitants use public transport in large numbers. About 70% of the visitors to the city use the tram or bus, and about half of the journeys within the municipality take place on public transport.[45] Within Zürich and throughout the canton of Zürich, the ZVV network of public transport has traffic density ratings among the highest worldwide. When adding frequency, which in Zürich can be as often as seven minutes, it does become the densest across all dimensions.[citation needed] Three means of mass-transit exist: the S-Bahn (local trains), trams, and buses (both diesel and electric, also called trolley buses). In addition, the public transport network includes boats on the lake and river, funicular railways and even the Luftseilbahn Adliswil-Felsenegg (LAF), a cable car between Adliswil and Felsenegg. Tickets purchased for a trip are valid on all means of public transportation (train, tram, bus, boat). The Zürichsee-Schifffahrtsgesellschaft (commonly abbreviated to ZSG) operates passenger vessels on the Limmat and the Lake Zürich, connecting surrounding towns between Zürich and Rapperswil.

The busy Hauptbahnhof main hall

Zürich is a mixed hub for railways, roads, and air traffic. Zürich Hauptbahnhof (Zürich HB) is the largest and busiest station in Switzerland and is an important railway hub in Europe. There are between 350,000 and 500,000 commuters daily making use of this central network node – a significant figure in comparison to Zürich's population. With regard to the number of trains daily entering and leaving a single railway station, Zürich HB is the world's most frequently served railway station, with 2915 trains every day.[citation needed] Among the 16 railway stations (and 10 additional train stops) within Zürich's city borders, there are five other major passenger railway stations. Three of them belong to the ten most frequented railway stations in Switzerland: Stadelhofen, Oerlikon, Altstetten, Hardbrücke, and Enge. The railway network is mainly operated by the Swiss Federal Railways (SBB CFF FFS), but Zürich is also served by major EuroCity trains from the neighbouring countries and is a destination for both French/Swiss (TGV Lyria) and German (ICE) high-speed trains, as well as by Austrian RailJet.

Zürich Airport is located less than 10 kilometers (6.2 mi) northeast of the city in Kloten. Zürich Airport has its own railway station, which is located underground. It is directly connected to Zürich and most of the major Swiss cities. Zürich airport is served by more than 60 passenger airlines from around the world. It is also served by one cargo airline and is a hub for Swiss International Air Lines. There is also an airfield in Dübendorf.

In 2012, the city council launched a program to improve the city's attractiveness for bicycle traffic. The so-called "Masterplan Velo"[46] is part of the superordinate framework Stadtverkehr 2025 which shapes the future of the different means of transport. Research revealed that infrastructure and the social environment are essential factors in improving a city's appeal to bicycle traffic.[47] Three main goals are specified: First, the modal share of bicycle traffic should be enhanced to twice the value of 2011 by 2015. Second, cyclists' safety should be improved to lower the overall accident risk. Third, cycling should be established as an everyday means of transport with a special focus on children and young people.

In terms of infrastructure, the city aims to build up a network of distinctive bicycle routes in order to achieve these objectives. At a final stage, the network will consist of main routes (Hauptrouten) for everyday use and comfort routes (Komfortrouten), with the latter focussing on leisure cycling. Additional measures such as special Velostationen providing bike related services are expected to help to further improve the quality. One of the key projects of the system is a tunnel beneath the tracks of the main railway station planned to combine a main connection with staffed possibilities where commuters can leave their bikes throughout the day.[48] Apart from infrastructural measures, further approaches are planned in the fields of communication, education and administration.

However, these efforts cause critique, mainly due to postponing. The institution of the bike tunnel at the main railway station, originally planned for 2016, is currently (2016) delayed to at least 2019.[49] Pro Velo, a nationwide interest group, has publicly questioned whether the masterplan already failed.[50] The critique aims at badly governed traffic management at construction sites, missing possibilities to park bikes in the city as well as rather diffident ambitions. In response, the responsible city department points to the big investments made every year and mentions ongoing discussions that would finally lead to even better results.[51]

There are 402,762 people living in Zürich (as of 31 December 2016),[2] making it Switzerland's largest city. Of registered inhabitants (in 2016), 32% (133,473) do not hold Swiss citizenship.[52] Of these, German citizens make up the largest group with 8% (33,548), followed by Italians 3.5% (14,543).[52] The population of the city including suburbs totals 1.19 million people.[6] The entire metropolitan area (including the cities of Winterthur, Baden, Brugg, Schaffhausen, Frauenfeld, Uster/Wetzikon, Rapperswil-Jona and Zug) has a population of around 1.83 million people.[6]

The official formal language used by governmental institutions, print, news, universities/schools, courts, theater and in any kind of written form is (the Swiss variety of Standard) German, while the spoken language is Zürich German (Züritüütsch), one of the several more or less distinguishable, but mutually intelligible Swiss German dialects of Switzerland with roots in the medieval Alemannic German dialect groups. However, because of Zürich's national importance, and therefore its existing high fluctuation, one can hear all kinds of Swiss German dialects spoken by its inhabitants and commuters. As of the December 2010 census, 69.3% of the population speaks diglossicSwiss German/Swiss Standard German as their mother-tongue at home. Some 22.7% of inhabitants speak Standard German in their family environment ("at home"). Dramatically increasing, according to the last census in 2000, 8.8% now speak English. Italian follows behind at 7.1% of the population, then French at 4.5%. Other languages spoken here include Croatian and Serbian (4.1%), Spanish (3.9%), Portuguese (3.1%), and Albanian (2.3%). (Multiple choices were possible.) Thus 20% of the population speak two or more languages at home.[53]

In 1970, about 53% of the population were Swiss Reformed, while almost 40% were Roman Catholic. Since then both large Swiss churches, the Roman Catholic Church and Swiss Reformed Church, have been constantly losing members, though for the Catholic Church the decrease started 20 years later in around 1990. Nevertheless, for the last twenty years both confessions have been reduced by 10% to the current figures (census 2010): 30% Roman Catholic and 26% Swiss Reformed (organized in Evangelical Reformed Church of the Canton of Zürich). In 1970, only 2% of Zürich's inhabitants claimed to be not affiliated with any religious confession. In accordance with the loss by the large Swiss churches, the number of people declaring themselves as non-affiliated rose to 17% in the year 2000. In the last ten years, this figure rose to more than 25%. For the group of people, being between 24 and 44 years old, this is as high as one in every third person.[55]

5% of Zürich's inhabitants are Muslims, a slight decrease of 1% compared to the year 2000. The Mahmood Mosque Zürich, situated in Forchstrasse is the first mosque built in Switzerland.[55][56]

The population of Jewish ethnicity and religion has been more or less constant since 1970 at about 1%. The Synagoge Zürich Löwenstrasse is the oldest and largest synagogue of Zürich.[55][57]

The level of unemployment in Zürich was 3.2%[58] in July 2012. In 2008, the average monthly income was about CHF 7000 before any deductions for social insurances and taxes.[59] In 2010, there were 12,994 cases (on average per month) of direct or indirect welfare payments from the state.[60]

Most of Zürich's sites are located within the area on either side of the Limmat, between the Main railway station and Lake Zürich. The churches and houses of the old town are clustered here, as are the most expensive shops along the famous Bahnhofstrasse. The Lindenhof in the old town is the historical site of the Roman castle, and the later Carolingian Imperial Palace.

Grossmünster (Great Minster) According to legend, Charlemagne discovered the graves of the city's martyrs Felix and Regula and had built the first church as a monastery; start of current building around 1100; in the first half of the 16th century, the Great Minster was the starting point of the Swiss-German Reformation led by Huldrych Zwingli and Heinrich Bullinger; declared by Charlemagne imperial church; romanesque crypt, romanesque capitals in the church and cloister; choir windows by Augusto Giacometti (1932) and Sigmar Polke (2009), bronze doors by Otto Münch (1935 and 1950).[61]

Fraumünster (Women's Minster) Church of a former abbey for aristocratical women from southern Germany which was founded in 853 by Louis the German for his daughter Hildegard; first church built before 874; the romanesque choir dates from 1250–70; the church enjoyed the patronage of kings and had the right of coinage from Zürich to the 13th century; after the Reformation, church and convent passed into the possession of the city; the most important jewelry – in addition to the largest organ in the canton with its 5,793 pipes and 92 stops – are color windows: the window in the north transept of Augusto Giacometti (1945), the five-part cycle in the choir (1970) and the rosette in the southern transept (1978) are by Marc Chagall; also the church of Zürich's largest choir with 100 and more singers.[62]

St. Peter romanesque-gothic-baroque church built on remains of former churches from before the 9th century; with the largest church clock face in Europe built 1538; baptismal font of 1598, baroque stucco; individual stalls from the 15th century from city repealed monasteries with rich carvings and armrests; Kanzellettner (increased barrier between the nave and choir with built-pulpit) of 1705 pulpit sounding board about 1790; rich Akanthus embellishment with Bible verse above the pulpit; 1971 new crystal chandelier modeled according 1710 design; organ in 1974 with 53 stops; Bells: five from 1880, the largest, A minor, without clapper weighs about 6,000 kg (13,228 lb); fire guard in the tower to the Middle Ages to 1911.[63]

Predigerkirche is one of the four main churches of the old town, first built in 1231 AD as a Romanesque church of the then Dominican Predigerkloster nearby the Neumarkt. It was converted in the first half of the 14th century, and the choir rebuilt between 1308 and 1350. Due to its construction and for that time unusual high bell tower, it was regarded as most high Gothic edifice in Zürich.[citation needed]

Zürich Museum of Art – The Museum of Art, also known as Kunsthaus Zürich, is one of the significant art museums of Europe. It holds one of the largest collections in Classic Modern art in the world (Munch, Picasso, Braque, Giacometti, etc.). The museum also features a large library collection of photographs.[64]

Swiss National Museum – The National Museum (German: Landesmuseum) displays many objects that illustrate the cultural and historical background of Switzerland. It also contains many ancient artifacts, including stained glass, costumes, painted furniture and weapons. The museum is located in the Platzspitz park opposite to the Hauptbahnhof.[65]

Centre Le Corbusier – Located on the shore of the Lake Zürich nearby Zürichhorn, the Centre Le Corbusier (also named: Heidi Weber Museum), is an art museum dedicated to the work of the Swiss architect Le Corbusier, inside the last house he designed.

Rietberg Museum – The Rietberg Museum, situated in Gablerstrasse, is one of the great repositories of art and culture in Zürich. The museum also displays exhibits gathered from various corners of the world: bronze artifacts from Tibet, ceramics and jade, Indian sculpture, Chinese grave decorations, masks by African tribes etc.

Museum of Design – The Museum of Design is a museum for industrial design, visual communication, architecture and craft. It is part of the Department of Cultural Analysis of the Zürich University of the Arts.[66]

Haus Konstruktiv – The Haus Konstruktiv is a museum with Swiss-wide and international recognition. The museum is about constructive, concrete and conceptual art and design. It testimonies to Zürich's industrial architecture in the immediate vicinity of the Main Station.[67]

Uhrenmuseum Beyer – The Uhrenmuseum is located in the heart of the city. Documenting the history of timekeeping and timekeepers, the museum is home to a large collection of mechanical timepieces as well as a collection of primitive time keeping devices such as water clocks, sundials and hourglasses

No Show Museum – the No Show Museum is the first museum dedicated to nothing and its various manifestations throughout the history of art.

Guild houses – The Guild houses (German: Zunfthaus) are located along the Limmat (downstream from the Grossmünster): Meisen (also a porcelain and fayence museum), Rüden, Haue, Saffran, Schneidern, Schmiden, Zimmerleuten, and some more.

Tram Museum – The Tram Museum is located at Burgwies in Zürich's eastern suburbs, and chronicles the history of Zürich's iconic tram system with exhibits varying in date from 1897 to the present day.

North America Native Museum – The North American Native Museum specializes in the conservation, documentation and presentation of ethnographic objects and art of Native American, First Nation and Inuit cultures.

Zoological Garden – The zoological garden holds about 260 species of animals and houses about 2200 animals. One can come across separate enclosures of snow leopards, India lions, clouded leopards, Amur leopards, otters and pandas in the zoo.[68]

Botanical Garden – The Botanical Garden houses about 15,000 species of plants and trees and contains as many as three million plants. In the garden, many rare plant species from south western part of Africa, as well as from New Caledonia can be found. The University of Zürich holds the ownership of the Botanical Garden.

Chinese Garden – The Chinese Garden is a gift by Zürich's Chinese partner town Kunming, as remiscence for Zürich's technical and scientific assistance in the development of the Kunming city drinking water supply and drainage. The garden is an expression of one of the main themes of Chinese culture, the «Three Friends of Winter» – three plants that together brave the cold season – pine, bamboo, and plum.

Uetliberg – Located to the west of the city at an altitude of 813 meters (2,667 ft) above sea level, the Uetliberg is the highest hill and offers views over the city. The summit is easily accessible by train from Zürich main station.[69]

The 88-metre[70] Sunrise Tower (2005) was the first approved high-rise building in twenty years

Compared to other cities, there are few tall buildings in Zürich. The municipal building regulations (Article 9)[71] limit the construction of high-rise buildings to areas in the west and north of the city. In the industrial district, in Altstetten and Oerlikon, buildings up to 80 meters (260 ft) in height are allowed (high-rise area I). In the adjacent high-rise areas II and III the height is limited to 40 meters (130 ft). Around the year 2000, regulations became more flexible and high-rise buildings were again planned and built. The people's initiative "40 metres (130 feet) is enough," which would have reduced both the maximum height and the high-rise buildings area, was clearly rejected on 29 November 2009.[72] At this time in Zürich about a dozen high-rise buildings were under construction or in planning, including the Prime Tower as the tallest skyscraper in Switzerland.

Zürich is a leading financial center and global city.[11] In the 2017 Global Financial Centres Index, Zürich was ranked as having the 11th most competitive financial center in the world, and second most competitive in Europe after London.[74] The Greater Zürich Area is Switzerland's economic centre and home to a large number of international companies. By far the most important sector in the economy of Zürich is the service industry, which employs nearly four-fifths of workers. Other important industries include light industry, machine and textile industries and tourism. Most Swiss banks have their headquarters in Zürich and there are numerous foreign banks in the Greater Zürich Area. Located in Zürich, the Swiss Stock Exchange was established in 1877 and is nowadays the fourth most prominent stock exchange in the world. In addition Zürich is the world's largest gold trading centre. Ten of the country's 50 largest companies have their head offices in Zürich, among them ABB, UBS,[75]Credit Suisse, Swiss Re and Zürich Financial Services.[76]

The high quality of life has been cited as a reason for economic growth in Zürich. The consulting firmMercer has for many years ranked Zürich as a city with the highest quality of life in the world.[13][14] In particular, Zürich received high scores for work, housing, leisure, education and safety. Local planning authorities ensure clear separation between urban and recreational areas and there are many protected nature reserves.[77] Other Swiss cities, Bern and Geneva, were also listed among the top ten. Zürich is also ranked the sixth most expensive city in the world. In 2008, Zürich was ranked ninth. The city ranked behind Hong Kong and ahead of Copenhagen. It is the third most expensive city in Europe and second most expensive city in Switzerland after Geneva.[78]

Zürich benefits from the high level of investment in education that is typical of Switzerland in general and provides skilled labour at all levels. The city is home to two major universities, thus enabling access to graduates and high technology research. Professional training incorporates a mix of practical work experience and academic study while, in general, emphasis is placed on obtaining a good level of general education and language ability. As a result, the city is home to many multilingual people and employees generally demonstrate a high degree of motivation and a low level of absenteeism. Such characteristics are reflected in the high level of productivity the region enjoys and account for the opening of offices and research centres in the city by large corporations.[77]

About 60,000 people study at the 20 universities, colleges and institutions of higher education in Zürich. Two of Switzerland's most distinguished universities are located in the city. The Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH Zürich) which is controlled by the (federal) state and the University of Zürich that is under direction of the canton of Zürich. Both universities were listed in the top 50 world universities rated in 2007.[81]

ETH was founded in 1854 by the Swiss Confederation and opened its doors in 1855 as a polytechnic institute. ETH achieved its reputation particularly in the fields of chemistry, mathematics and physics and there are 21 Nobel Laureates who are associated with the institution. ETH is usually ranked the top university in continental Europe.[82] The institution consists of two campuses, the main building in the heart of the city and the new campus on the outskirts of the city.

The University of Zürich was founded in 1833, although its beginnings date back to 1525 when the Swiss reformer Ulrich Zwingli founded a college of theology. Nowadays with its 24,000 students and 1,900 graduations each year, the University of Zürich is the largest in Switzerland and offers the widest range of subjects and courses at any Swiss higher education institution.

The Pedagogical College, the Zürich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW) and the Zürich University of the Arts (ZHdK) are another three top-class technical colleges which contribute to Zürich's reputation as a knowledge and research pole by providing applied research and development. Zürich is also one of the co-location centres of the Knowledge and Innovation Community (Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation) of the European Institute of Innovation and Technology.[83]

Many large Swiss media conglomerates are headquartered in Zürich, such as tamedia, Ringier and the NZZ-Verlag. Zürich is one of the most important media locations in the German-speaking part of the country. This status has been recently reinforced by the increase in availability of online publications published in Zürich.[citation needed]

The headquarters of Switzerland's national licence fee funded German language television network ("SF") are located in the Leutschenbach neighborhood, to the north of the Oerlikon railway station. Regional commercial television station "TeleZüri" (Zürich Television) has its headquarters near Escher-Wyss Platz. The production facilities for other commercial stations "Star TV", "u1" TV and "3+" are located in Schlieren.

One section of the Swiss German language licence fee funded public radio station "Schweizer Radio DRS" is located in Zürich. There are commercial local radio stations broadcasting from Zürich, such as "Radio 24" on the Limmatstrasse, "Energy Zürich" in Seefeld on the Kreuzstrasse, Radio "LoRa" and "Radio 1". There are other radio stations that operate only during certain parts of the year, such as "CSD Radio" (May/June), "Radio Streetparade" (July/August) and "rundfunk.fm" (August/September).

There are three large daily newspapers published in Zürich that are known across Switzerland. The Neue Zürcher Zeitung (NZZ), the Tages-Anzeiger and the Blick, the largest Swiss tabloid. All three of those newspapers publish Sunday editions. These are the "NZZ am Sonntag", "SonntagsZeitung" and "SonntagsBlick". Besides the three main daily newspapers, there are free daily commuter newspapers which are widely distributed: 20 Minuten (20 minutes), published weekdays in the mornings and Blick am Abend,[84] weekdays but in the late afternoon.

Zürich has a rich cultural tradition. In addition to high-quality museums and galleries, Zürich has high-calibre chamber and symphony orchestras and several important theatres.[85]

The Zürich Film Festival is one of the most important upcoming international film festivals. In just a few years, the Festival became firmly established upon the national and international festival landscape. Over the course of 11 days, it attracts both stars and new talents and celebrates popular international productions.[86] More recently, the kickstarter.com funded Mobile Motion Film Festival held its first event in May 2015.[87]

One of the largest and most popular annual events in Zürich is the Street Parade, which is also one of the largest techno and dance music festivals in the world. Proceeding along the side of Lake Zürich, it normally occurs on the second Saturday in August. The first edition was held in 1992 with about 1,000 participants. By 2001 the event had reached the size of 1 million participants.[88][89] The Zürifäscht, on the other hand, is a triennial public festival. It features music, fireworks set to music,[89] and other attractions throughout the old town. It is the largest public festival in Switzerland and is attended by up to 2 million visitors.[90]

The Kunst Zürich is an international contemporary art fair with an annual guest city; it combines most recent and youngest art with the works of well-established artists.[91] Another annual public art exhibit is the city campaign, sponsored by the City Vereinigung (the local equivalent of a chamber of commerce) with the cooperation of the city government. It consists of decorated sculptures distributed over the city centre, in public places. Past themes have included lions (1986), cows (1998), benches (2003), teddy bears (2005), and huge flower pots (2009). From this originated the concept of the CowParade that has been featured in other major world cities.

The Zürich Opera House (German: Zürcher Opernhaus) is one of the principal opera houses in Europe. Built in 1834, it was the first permanent theatre in the heart of Zürich and was at the time, the main seat of Richard Wagner's activities. Later in 1890, the theatre was re-built as an ornate building with a neo-classical architecture. The portico is made of white and grey stone ornamented with the busts of Wagner, Weber and Mozart. Later, busts of Schiller, Shakespeare and Goethe were also added. The auditorium is designed in the rococo style. Once a year, it hosts the Zürcher Opernball with the President of the Swiss Confederation and the economic and cultural élite of Switzerland.[92] The Ballet Zürich performs at the opera house.

The Theater am Neumarkt is one of the oldest theatres of the city. Established by the old guilds in the Old City District, it is located in a baroque palace near Niederdorf Street. It has two stages staging mostly avantgarde works by European directors.

Zürich offers a great deal of variety when it comes to night-time leisure. It is the host city of the world-famous Street Parade, which takes place in August every year.

The most famous districts for Nightlife are the Niederdorf in the old town with bars, restaurants, lounges, hotels, clubs, etc. and a lot of fashion shops for a young and stylish public and the Langstrasse in the districts 4 and 5 of the city. There are authentic amusements: bars, punk clubs, HipHop stages, caribbean restaurants, arthouse cinemas, Turkish kebabs and Italian espresso-bars, but also sex shops or the famous red light district of Zürich.

In the past ten years new parts of the city have risen into the spotlight. Notably, the area known as Zürich West in district 5, near the Escher-Wyss square and the S-Bahn Station of Zürich Hardbrücke.

Biking is a popular sport as well as a mean of transport in Zürich. Biking routes are generally marked with red and white signs and the yellow lanes are exclusively meant for the bikers. Also hiking trails are well marked with yellow signs, which give the hiker the probable time it will take him to reach his destination. There are specific maps available for hiking and walking trails throughout Switzerland. Some of the most accessible walks in the Zürich area are the Uetliberg and the Zürichberg.

As many as 30 clubs and 7 indoor Curling facilities can be found in the greater Zürich area. The Curling season starts in early September and continues until the end of April.[95]

Weltklasse Zürich, sometimes referred to as the one-day Olympics, is one of prestigious one day athletics meet held annually at the Letzigrund Stadium. The Weltklasse is reputed as one of the best and most classy athlete meet in the world after the Olympics. Since it started on 12 August 1928, the sporting event has witnessed new world records and national records. To date as many as 24 world records were set in Weltklasse.[96][97][98]

Zürich Marathon is a popular sport event, inviting numerous athletes from every corner of the globe. Zürich Marathon is a long distance running event, covering 42.195 kilometers (26.219 mi) at one stretch. The running course starts from Zürich and passes through Bahnhofstrasse, Bellevueplatz, Mythenquai, Quaibrücke, Talstrasse and Utoquai, and along Lake Zürich to several other places. New Year's Eve run is another important running event. The race is held on 1 January each year and the start takes place at midnight exactly.

Zürich was one of six venues of the 1954 FIFA World Cup and one of eight venues of the UEFA Euro 2008. The Euro 2008 games were held in the Letzigrund Stadium. Work on the new Letzigrund was completed in exceptionally quick time and the stadium opened in August 2007 just one year after the demolition of the old arena.

^The official language in any municipality in German-speaking Switzerland is always German. In this context, the term 'German' is used as an umbrella term for any variety of German. So, according to law, you are allowed to communicate with the authorities by using any kind of German, in written or oral form. However, the authorities will always use Swiss Standard German (aka the Swiss variety of Standard German) in documents, or any written form. And orally, it's either Hochdeutsch (i.e., Swiss Standard German or what the particular speaker considers as High German), or then it depends on the speaker's origin, which dialectal variant (s)he is using.

1.
Limmat
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The Limmat is a river in Switzerland. The river commences at the outfall of Lake Zurich, in the part of the city of Zurich. From Zurich it flows in a direction, after 35 km reaching the river Aare. The confluence is located north of the town of Brugg. The main towns along the Limmat Valley downstream of Zurich are Dietikon, Wettingen and its main tributaries are the Linth, via Lake Zurich, the Sihl, in Zurich, and the Reppisch, in Dietikon. The hydronym is first attested in the 8th century, as Lindimacus and it is of Gaulish origin, from *lindo- lake and *magos plain, and was thus presumably in origin the name of the plain formed by the Linth. Like many Swiss rivers, the Limmat is intensively used for production of power, along its course of 35 km. These include, Historically, the Limmat was an important navigation route, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, voyages from Zurich to Koblenz are recorded. In 1447, the Emperor Frederick III granted the privilege of free navigation on the Limmat, because of the current, navigation was typically downstream only, with the barges being sold on arrival. Today, the Limmat is navigable for much of its length by small craft only, the traditional boat type used on the river is the weidling, a flat-bottomed vessel that is usually 10 metres long. The uppermost stretch of the river through the centre of Zurich is navigable by larger vessels. On this stretch of the river the Zürichsee-Schifffahrtsgesellschaft operates its Limmat boat service, from the Landesmuseum to Lake Zurich, zürich–Enge Alpenquai is located on Zürichsee lakeshore in Enge, a locality of the municipality of Zürich. Media related to Limmat at Wikimedia Commons Media related to Limmat in Zürich at Wikimedia Commons Limmat in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland

2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation

3.
Switzerland
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Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’

4.
Cantons of Switzerland
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The 26 cantons of Switzerland are the member states of the Swiss Confederation. The nucleus of the Swiss Confederacy in the form of the first three confederate allies used to be referred to as the Waldstätte, with the Napoleonic period of the Helvetic Republic the term canton/cantone/Kanton was fully established. From 1833, there were 25 cantons, which became 26 after the secession of the canton of Jura from Bern in 1979. The term canton, now used as English term for administrative subdivisions of other countries, originates in French usage in the late 15th century, from a word for edge. After 1490, canton was increasingly used in French and Italian documents to refer to the members of the Swiss Confederacy, English use of canton in reference to the Swiss Confederacy dates to the early 17th century. It was increasingly replaced by Stand after 1550, the French term canton was not adopted into German usage prior to 1648, and after that only in occasional use. The prominent usage of Ort and Stand only gradually disappeared in German-speaking Switzerland with the Helvetic Republic, only with the Act of Mediation of 1803 did German Kanton become an official designation, retained in the Swiss Constitution of 1848. The term Stand remains in usage and is reflected in the name of the upper chamber of the Swiss Parliament. Republic Some cantonal constitutions provide for a formal name of the state. Most of Romandys cantons and Ticino call themselves république/Repubblica officially, at least within their constitutions, for example, the canton of Geneva refers to itself formally as the République et canton de Genève. Though they were part of the Holy Roman Empire, they had become de facto independent when the Swiss defeated Emperor Maximillian in 1499 in Dornach. The old system was abandoned with the formation of the Helvetic Republic following the French invasion of Switzerland in 1798, the cantons of the Helvetic Republic had merely the status of an administrative subdivision with no sovereignty. The Helvetic Republic collapsed within five years, and cantonal sovereignty was restored with the Act of Mediation of 1803, the status of Switzerland as a federation of states was restored, at the time including 19 cantons. Three additional western cantons, Valais, Neuchâtel and Geneva, acceded in 1815, the process of Restoration, completed by 1830, returned most of the former feudal rights to the cantonal patriciates, leading to rebellions among the rural population. The Liberal Radical Party embodied these democratic forces calling for a new federal constitution and this tension, paired with religious issues escalated into armed conflict in the 1840s, with the brief Sonderbund War. The victory of the party resulted in the formation of Switzerland as a federal state in 1848. The cantons retained far-reaching sovereignty, but were no longer allowed to maintain standing armies or international relations. Each canton has its own constitution, legislature, government and courts, most of the cantons legislatures are unicameral parliaments, their size varying between 58 and 200 seats

5.
Districts of Switzerland
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In contrast to centrally organised states, in the federally constituted Switzerland each canton is completely free to decide its own internal organisation. Therefore, there exists a variety of structures and terminology for the subnational entities between canton and municipality, loosely termed districts, most cantons are divided into Bezirke. They are also termed Ämter, Amtsbezirke, district or distretto, the Bezirke generally provide only administration and court organization. However, for historical reasons districts in cantons Graubünden and Schwyz are their own legal entities with jurisdiction over tax, seven of the 26 cantons – Uri, Obwalden, Nidwalden, Glarus, Zug, Basel-City and Geneva – have always existed without the district level of government. An eighth one, Appenzell Innerrhoden, uses no intermediate level either, bern in 2006 decided a reduction of its 26 districts to five administrative regions. Vaud decided a reduction from 19 to 10 districts, valais is planning a similar reduction and in Thurgau, a reduction of eight to four districts is under discussion. From 2005, districts only have a statistical meaning, the districts are functionally equivalent to municipalities elsewhere in Switzerland, and are generally shown as municipalities on maps etc. The Canton is divided into 6 districts, Appenzell Gonten Oberegg Rüte Schlatt-Haslen Schwende Municipalities of Switzerland

6.
Corine Mauch
–
Corine Mauch is a Swiss Social Democrat politician who serves as mayor of Zurich. She is the first female and first openly gay person to be elected mayor of the city, Mauch was elected mayor in March 2009, after ten years on the city council. In the first round of balloting, she finished in place, barely 1,300 votes behind Kathrin Martelli. In the second round, she received 41,745 votes, Mauch is the daughter of Ursula Mauch, who led the Social Democratic Party in the federal parliament. She grew up in the canton of Aargau before attending ETH Zurich, where she studied economics. She began the procedure to renounce her United States citizenship in 2012, her office confirmed media reports of the renunciation in April 2013

7.
Social Democratic Party of Switzerland
–
The Social Democratic Party of Switzerland is a political party in Switzerland. It is represented by two Federal Councilors since 1960 and got the second-most votes in the 2015 national elections, the party was founded on 21 October 1888, and is currently the second largest of the four leading coalition political parties in Switzerland. It is the only left-wing party with representatives in the Swiss Federal Council and it is also the second largest political party in the Swiss parliament. The current members in the Swiss Federal Council are, Alain Berset, the SP is the biggest pro-European party in Switzerland and supports Swiss membership of the European Union, unlike most other Swiss parties. Additionally, it is opposed to capitalism and maintains a long-term goal of overcoming capitalism. The party is a member of the Socialist International, the Progressive Alliance. With its foundation in October 1888, the Social Democratic Party was considered to be the opposition to the Radicals in government and parliament. After the unsuccessful General strike in 1918, proportional representation was introduced which helped the SP gain 41 seats in parliament, the party was a member of the Labour and Socialist International between 1927 and 1940. After the strike the party took a line and in 1943 it became the strongest party in parliament. It picked up a seat in 1959. The partys historical archives is today hosted by the Swiss Social Archives, the SP supports classical social democratic policies. To that rule, the SP stands for a government offering strong public services, the SP also opposes raising the retirement age. In addition, the SP is a proponent of increasing spending in some areas such as for a publicly financed maternity leave, universal health care. In tax policy the SP opposes the notion of lowering taxes for high-income citizens, by campaigning for the harmonisation of all tax rates in Switzerland, the SP seeks more redistribution. The SP is skeptical toward the privatization of state enterprises, nonetheless, the SP also promotes more competition in the areas of agriculture and parallel imports. In social policy, the SP is committed to social equity, thus, the SP aims at making working conditions for women in families easier by promoting more external childcare centers and more opportunities for part-time jobs. It also aims at reinforcing sexual equality in terms of eliminating wage differences based on gender, supports civil union for homosexuals, the SP also rejects strengthening restrictions on asylum seekers and immigrants. Thus, it supports the integration of immigrants by which the immigrants are assigned to immigration procedures immediately after entering the country, the SP has a liberal stance toward drugs and is in favor of publicly regulated heroin consumption and the legalization of cannabis

8.
Parliament
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In modern politics and history, a parliament is a legislative, elected body of government. Generally a modern parliament has three functions, representing the electorate, making laws, and overseeing the government, historically, parliaments included various kinds of deliberative, consultative, and judicial assemblies. The term is derived from Anglo-Norman parlement, from the verb parler talk, the meaning evolved over time, originally any discussion, conversation, or negotiation, through various kinds of deliberative or judicial groups, often summoned by the monarch. By 1400, it had come to mean in Britain specifically the British supreme legislature, various parliaments are claimed to be the oldest in the world, under varying definitions. The Sicilian Parliament, whose first assembly was convened in 1097, the Icelandic Althing, year 930, but only including the main chiefs. Since ancient times, when societies were tribal, there were councils or a headman whose decisions were assessed by village elders, some scholars suggest that in ancient Mesopotamia there was a primitive democratic government where the kings were assessed by council. The same has been said about ancient India, where some form of deliberative assemblies existed, however, these claims are not accepted by most scholars, who see these forms of government as oligarchies. Ancient Athens was the cradle of democracy, the Athenian assembly was the most important institution, and every citizen could take part in the discussions. However, Athenian democracy was not representative, but rather direct, the Roman Senate controlled money, administration, and the details of foreign policy. Some Muslim scholars argue that the Islamic shura is analogous to the parliament, however, others highlight what they consider fundamental differences between the shura system and the parliamentary system. England has long had a tradition of a body of men who would assist, under the Anglo-Saxon kings, there was an advisory council, the Witenagemot. The name derives from the Old English ƿitena ȝemōt, or witena gemōt, the first recorded act of a witenagemot was the law code issued by King Æthelberht of Kent ca. 600, the earliest document which survives in sustained Old English prose, however, the Witan, along with the folkmoots, is an important ancestor of the modern English parliament. As part of the Norman Conquest of England, the new king, William I, did away with the Witenagemot, membership of the Curia was largely restricted to the tenants in chief, the few nobles who rented great estates directly from the king, along with ecclesiastics. William brought to England the feudal system of his native Normandy and this is the original body from which the Parliament, the higher courts of law, and the Privy Council and Cabinet descend. Of these, the legislature is formally the High Court of Parliament, only the executive government is no longer conducted in a royal court. Most historians date the emergence of a parliament with some degree of power to which the throne had to defer no later than the rule of Edward I, like previous kings, Edward called leading nobles and church leaders to discuss government matters, especially finance. A meeting in 1295 became known as the Model Parliament because it set the pattern for later Parliaments, in 1307, Edward I agreed not to collect certain taxes without the consent of the realm

9.
Demonym
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A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms, for example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Brit, or a Briton. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, in English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e. g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist, for instance the adjectival form of Spain is Spanish, English widely includes country-level demonyms such as Ethiopian or Guatemalan and more local demonyms such as Seoulite, Wisconsinite, Chicagoan, Michigander, Fluminense, and Paulista. Some places lack a commonly used and accepted demonym and this poses a particular challenge to those toponymists who research demonyms. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis and the English suffix -ic, the word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning populace with the suffix for name. National Geographic attributes the term demonym to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990 and it was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From, a Dictionary of Resident Names attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names Names, A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon, which is apparently where the term first appears. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language, the most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. Cairo → Cairene Cyrenaica → Cyrene Damascus → Damascene Greece → Greek Nazareth → Nazarene Slovenia → Slovene Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. Kingston-upon-Hull → Hullensian Leeds → Leodensian Spain → Spaniard Savoy → Savoyard -ese is usually considered proper only as an adjective, thus, a Chinese person is used rather than a Chinese. Monaco → Monégasque Menton → Mentonasque Basque Country → Basque Often used for French locations, mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of an ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti and these demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed and these will typically be formed using the standard models above

10.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form

11.
Adliswil
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Adliswil is a town and a municipality in the district of Horgen in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland. The official language of Adliswil is German, but the spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect. Adliswil is first mentioned in 1050 as Adelenswile, in the second half of the 12th Century it was mentioned as Adololdiswile and in 1248 as Adeloswile. Under the Helvetic Republic, the hamlet of Buchenegg was transferred to the municipality of Stallikon, in 1893 the town sections of Oberleimbach and Sood were added to Adliswil. Adliswil has an area of 7.8 km2, of this area,23. 4% is used for agricultural purposes, while 32. 1% is forested. Of the rest of the land,42. 9% is settled, in 1996 housing and buildings made up 32. 6% of the total area, while transportation infrastructure made up the rest. Of the total area, water made up 1. 7% of the area. As of 200738. 3% of the municipal area was undergoing some type of construction. Adliswil has a population of 15,959, of which 26. 7% are foreign nationals, as of 2008 the gender distribution of the population was 49. 6% male and 50. 4% female. Over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 4%, most of the population speaks German, with Italian being second most common and English being third. In the 2007 election the most popular party was the SVP which received 36. 2% of the vote, the next three most popular parties were the SPS, the FDP and the CVP. The age distribution of the population is children and teenagers make up 20. 2% of the population, while adults make up 64. 5%, in Adliswil about 75. 5% of the population have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education. There are 7,573 households in Adliswil, Adliswil has an unemployment rate of 2. 72%. As of 2005, there were 57 people employed in the economic sector. 832 people are employed in the sector and there are 118 businesses in this sector. 4,049 people are employed in the sector, with 543 businesses in this sector. As of 200755. 6% of the population were employed full-time. The historical population is given in the table, As of 2008 there were 5,275 Catholics and 4,999 Protestants in Adliswil

12.
Kilchberg, Zurich
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Kilchberg is a municipality in the district of Horgen in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland. Kilchberg is the site of a regional cemetery, Kilchberg is first mentioned in 1248 as Hilchberch. In 1250 it was mentioned as Kilchperch and it grew out of the mediaeval village of Bendlikon where Kilchberg was just a section of the village. Its coat of arms is Azure a Quatrefoil Argent seeded Or, Kilchberg has an area of 2.6 km2. Of this area,26. 5% is used for agricultural purposes, of the rest of the land,71. 2% is settled and the remainder is non-productive. In 1996 housing and buildings made up 58. 1% of the total area, as of 200774. 9% of the total municipal area was undergoing some type of construction. Kilchberg has a population of 8,077, as of 2007,21. 2% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. As of 2008 the gender distribution of the population was 48. 1% male and 51. 9% female, over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 1. 8%. Most of the population speaks German, with English being second most common, in the 2007 national election the most popular party was the SVP which received 30. 8% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the FDP, the SPS and the CSP, the age distribution of the population is children and teenagers make up 17. 2% of the population, while adults make up 63% and seniors make up 19. 8%. About 84. 7% of the population have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education, there are 3,512 households in Kilchberg. As of 2008 there were 1928 Catholics and 2786 Protestants in Kilchberg, in the 2000 census, religion was broken down into several smaller categories. From the census,44. 3% were some type of Protestant,28. 1% of the population were Catholic. Of the rest of the population, 0% were Muslim,6. 3% belonged to another religion,3. 3% did not give a religion, the historical population is given in the following table, Kilchberg is home to the corporate headquarters of the confectioner Lindt & Sprüngli. Kilchberg has an unemployment rate of 1. 64%, as of 2005, there were 118 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 11 businesses involved in this sector. 1479 people are employed in the sector and there are 48 businesses in this sector. 1983 people are employed in the sector, with 306 businesses in this sector. As of 2007 65% of the population were employed full-time

13.
Maur, Switzerland
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Maur is a municipality in the district of Uster in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland. Maur is first mentioned between 874-887 as de Mure, Maur has an area of 14.8 km2. Of this area,52. 6% is used for agricultural purposes, of the rest of the land,20. 2% is settled and the remainder is non-productive. In 1996 housing and buildings made up 14. 9% of the total area, of the total unproductive area, water made up 0% of the area. As of 2007 17% of the municipal area was undergoing some type of construction. The municipality is located on the south-west shore of the Greifensee and it includes the village of Maur and the settlements of Aesch, Scheuren, Binz, Ebmatingen and Uessikon. Maur has a population of 9,119, of which 17. 0% are foreign nationals, as of 2008 the gender distribution of the population was 49. 2% male and 50. 8% female. Over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 10. 9%, most of the population speaks German, with English being second most common and French being third. In the 2007 election the most popular party was the SVP which received 36% of the vote, the next three most popular parties were the FDP, the SPS and the CSP. The age distribution of the population is children and teenagers make up 21. 9% of the population, while adults make up 65. 6%, the entire Swiss population is generally well educated. In Maur about 88. 3% of the population have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education, there are 3741 households in Maur. Maur has an unemployment rate of 2. 03%, as of 2005, there were 147 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 56 businesses involved in this sector. 389 people are employed in the sector and there are 71 businesses in this sector. 1411 people are employed in the sector, with 339 businesses in this sector. As of 200748. 7% of the population were employed full-time. As of 2008 there were 2206 Catholics and 3997 Protestants in Maur, in the 2000 census, religion was broken down into several smaller categories. From the census,49. 1% were some type of Protestant, with 46. 1% belonging to the Swiss Reformed Church,24. 1% of the population were Catholic. Of the rest of the population, 0% were Muslim,4. 7% belonged to another religion, 3% did not give a religion, and 18. 4% were atheist or agnostic

14.
Oberengstringen
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Oberengstringen is a municipality in the district of Dietikon in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland, located in the Limmat Valley. Oberengstringen is first mentioned in 870 as Enstelingon, in 1306 it was mentioned as Obren Enstringen. Oberengstringen has an area of 2.1 km2, of this area,23. 5% is used for agricultural purposes, while 26. 3% is forested. Of the rest of the land,47. 4% is settled, in 1996 housing and buildings made up 39% of the total area, while transportation infrastructure made up the rest. Of the total area, water made up 2. 8% of the area. As of 2007 46% of the municipal area was undergoing some type of construction. The village is located on the bank of the Limmat on the road between Zürich through Höngg to Baden. From the 1950s to the 1970s it quickly grew into a suburb of Zürich, limmatauen Werdhölzli is a protected forest and river area, partially situated in the municipality of Oberengstringen and between the Limmat weir at the Höngg power plant. Set under protection in 1945, the 1.8 kilometres long section of the Limmat and the Werdinsel were renatured, what enhanced the biodiversity, in cooperation with the Canton of Zurich and the municipalities of Oberengstringen and Zürich, that section of the river was renewed. The access to the Limmat and the path towards the Fahr Abbey was improved. Orientation boards inform on the flora and fauna, so the riparian zone may be crossed over a 320 metres long wooden bridge those material consists of the urban forest. After nearly a year of construction, the project was presented to the public on 20 September 2013. Oberengstringen has a population of 6,549, as of 2007,24. 8% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. As of 2008 the gender distribution of the population was 50% male, over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 5. 6%. Most of the population speaks German, with Italian being second most common, in the 2007 election the most popular party was the SVP which received 36. 9% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SPS, the FDP and the CVP, the age distribution of the population is children and teenagers make up 19. 6% of the population, while adults make up 63% and seniors make up 17. 4%. In Oberengstringen about 75. 2% of the population have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education, there are 2882 households in Oberengstringen. Oberengstringen has an unemployment rate of 3. 01%, as of 2005, there were 10 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 4 businesses involved in this sector

15.
Opfikon
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Opfikon is the name of a municipality in the Swiss canton of Zürich, located in the district of Bülach. Blazon, Party per fess gules and argent, in chief a half length portrait of a man wearing a coat sable with a white collar, in base cross pattee sable. Opfikon is situated right to the northeast of the city of Zürich in the Glatt Valley, near Zürich Airport, as it belongs to the region known as the Zurichois Lowlands, the landscape is rather flat. The lowest point lies 420.4 m above sea level at the border to the commune of Rümlang. 37% of the territory is covered by settlement area, 17% by wood. The present municipality traces back to two settlements, one of which is Opfikon itself, situated right from the river Glatt, Glattbrugg, as its name suggests, originally was not a settlement, but a passage of some importance. However, the name was also used for a smithy and a mill that were built near the bridge at the left-hand riverbank. When the whole order was changed during the Helvetic Republic, Opfikon became part of the municipality of Kloten. Oberhusen, lying on the side of the Glatt, fell to the commune of Seebach belonging to the district of Regensdorf. In 1918 the two communities were merged in the already existing political commune of Opfikon. Opfikon has a population of 18,482, as of 2007,41. 5% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 21. 1%, most of the population speaks German, with Italian being second most common and Serbo-Croatian being third. The age distribution of the population is children and teenagers make up 18. 6% of the population, while adults make up 68. 1%, in Opfikon about 64. 4% of the population have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education. The historical population is given in the table, ^a in 1634 Oberhausen had 9 households. Among Christian churches, there is the Arulmihu Sivan Temple located in Glattbrugg. 3% of the vote, the next three most popular parties were the SPS, the FDP and the CVP. Adecco S. A. the worlds largest employment agency, is headquartered in Glattbrugg, belair Airlines, a subsidiary of Air Berlin, is headquartered in Glattbrugg. In addition Swissport, Germania Flug, and Zimex Aviation have their offices in Glattbrugg. Kraft Foods Europe has its office in Glattpark, Opfikon

16.
Regensdorf
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Regensdorf is a municipality in the district of Dielsdorf of the canton of Zurich in Switzerland. It is the biggest city in the region Furttal, Katzensee is a lake that also includes the bath/lido Strandbad Katzensee on the border with the Affoltern quarter of the city of Zürich. Regensdorf is first mentioned in 870 as Reganesdorf, in 931 it was mentioned as Wat and in 1040 as Adalinchova, when probably the Alt-Regensberg Castle was built by the House of Regensberg. Regensdorf has an area of 14.6 km2, of this area,43. 5% is used for agricultural purposes, while 23. 6% is forested. Of the rest of the land,30. 6% is settled, the municipality is located on both sides of the Furtbach. It consists of the villages of Watt, Adlikon and Regensdorf, Regensdorf has a population of 18,010. As of 2007,31. 4% of the population was made up of foreign nationals, over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 16. 5%. Most of the population speaks German, with Italian being second most common, in the 2007 election the most popular party was the SVP which received 48. 2% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SPS, the FDP and the CVP, the age distribution of the population is children and teenagers make up 21. 7% of the population, while adults make up 67. 7% and seniors make up 10. 6%. In Regensdorf about 65. 6% of the population have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education, Regensdorf has an unemployment rate of 3. 39%. As of 2005, there were 97 people employed in the economic sector. 2418 people are employed in the sector and there are 163 businesses in this sector. 6321 people are employed in the sector, with 626 businesses in this sector. The historical population is given in the table, Regensdorf-Watt railway station is a stop of the S-Bahn Zürich on the line S6. Regensdorf can be reached from Zurich with train S6, there is a train every half an hour. Upon the completion of the 4th development phase of Zurich S-Bahn network, according to ZVV, S21 will go through the new DML tunnel and it wont be stopping at Zürich-Seebach. In September 2014 an additional Zurich S-Bahn connection from Regensdorf to Zurich Main Station via ETH Hönggerberg Science City underground station has been published, official website Regensdorf in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland

17.
Stallikon
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Stallikon is a municipality in the district of Affoltern in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland. Stallikon is first mentioned in 1124 as Stallinchoven, Stallikon has an area of 12 km2. Of this area,39. 5% is used for agricultural purposes, of the rest of the land,8. 8% is settled and the remainder is non-productive. The municipality stretches along the Albis hills and includes the Üetliberg, near the hills it includes the hamlets of Mädikon, Baldern and Buchenegg. The middle of the Reppisch valley is part of the municipality and includes the village of Stallikon. Stallikon has a population of 3,438, as of 2007,13. 5% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 9. 5%, most of the population speaks German, with French being second most common and English being third. In the 2007 election the most popular party was the SVP which received 39. 8% of the vote, the next three most popular parties were the FDP, the SPS and the Green Party. The age distribution of the population is children and teenagers make up 21. 5% of the population, while adults make up 69. 4%, in Stallikon about 87. 2% of the population have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education. Stallikon has an unemployment rate of 1. 83%, as of 2005, there were 53 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 21 businesses involved in this sector. 221 people are employed in the sector and there are 34 businesses in this sector. 467 people are employed in the sector, with 79 businesses in this sector

18.
Uitikon
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Uitikon is a village and municipality in the district of Dietikon in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland. Besides the village of Uitikon itself, the municipality includes the villages of Waldegg, Uitikon lies on the northern end of the Albis hills that include the Üetliberg mountain and form the western bound of the city of Zürich. The Üetliberg itself lies some 3 kilometres to the south-east, the municipality is some 8 kilometres west of, and 150 metres higher than, Zürich city centre, and straddles the main road west from Zürich to Birmensdorf. The village of Uitikon lies to the north of the road, whilst Waldegg, Uitikon has an area of 4.4 km2. Of this area,38. 8% is used for agricultural purposes, of the rest of the land,27. 2% is settled and the remainder is non-productive. In 1996 housing and buildings made up 22. 1% of the total area, of the total unproductive area, water made up 0% of the area. As of 200728. 3% of the municipal area was undergoing some type of construction. Uitikon has a population of 4,107, as of 2007,11. 9% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. As of 2008 the gender distribution of the population was 49. 4% male and 50. 6% female, over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 18%. Most of the population speaks German, with French being second most common, in the 2007 election the most popular party was the SVP which received 35. 3% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the FDP, the SPS and the CVP, the age distribution of the population is children and teenagers make up 19. 5% of the population, while adults make up 61. 5% and seniors make up 19%. In Uitikon about 89. 6% of the population have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education, there are 1569 households in Uitikon. Uitikon has an unemployment rate of 1. 51%, as of 2005, there were 55 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 13 businesses involved in this sector. 60 people are employed in the sector and there are 13 businesses in this sector. 785 people are employed in the sector, with 154 businesses in this sector. As of 2007 65% of the population were employed full-time. As of 2008 there were 1055 Catholics and 1607 Protestants in Uitikon, in the 2000 census, religion was broken down into several smaller categories. From the 2000 census,47. 2% were some type of Protestant, with 45. 2% belonging to the Swiss Reformed Church,27. 8% of the population were Catholic

19.
Urdorf
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Urdorf is a municipality in the district of Dietikon in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland, located in the Limmat Valley. Urdorf has an area of 7.6 km2, of this area,32. 2% is used for agricultural purposes, while 32. 6% is forested. Of the rest of the land,34. 5% is settled, in 1996 housing and buildings made up 25. 9% of the total area, while transportation infrastructure made up the rest. Of the total area, water made up 0. 4% of the area. As of 200726. 2% of the municipal area was undergoing some type of construction. In 1931 Niederurdorf and Oberurdorf were excluded from the Zürich District to form the municipality of Urdorf, Urdorf has a population of 9,673. As of 2007,18. 9% of the population was made up of foreign nationals, as of 2008 the gender distribution of the population was 49. 3% male and 50. 7% female. Over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 1. 4%, most of the population speaks German, with Italian being second most common and Serbo-Croatian being third. In the 2007 election the most popular party was the SVP which received 40. 4% of the vote, the next three most popular parties were the SPS, the FDP and the CVP. The age distribution of the population is children and teenagers make up 21. 7% of the population, while adults make up 64. 4%, in Urdorf about 77. 4% of the population have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education. There are 4272 households in Urdorf, Urdorf has an unemployment rate of 1. 92%. As of 2005, there were 56 people employed in the economic sector. 1168 people are employed in the sector and there are 116 businesses in this sector. 4303 people are employed in the sector, with 382 businesses in this sector. As of 200733. 3% of the population were employed full-time. As of 2008 there were 3332 Catholics and 3262 Protestants in Urdorf, in the 2000 census, religion was broken down into several smaller categories. From the 2000 census,42. 1% were some type of Protestant,37. 4% of the population were Catholic. Of the rest of the population, 0% were Muslim,6. 2% belonged to another religion,2. 7% did not give a religion, the municipality is located on the A3 motorway

20.
Wallisellen
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Wallisellen is a municipality in the district of Bülach in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland, and belongs to the Glatt Valley. The first settlement at Wallisellen dates from 58 BC, the municipality Wallisellen has its origin between 400 and 700 BC, after the Germanic migration of the peoples. Wallisellen is named according to both parts Walchen and Seller, the Germanic peoples described as «Walchen» its Celtic and romanic neighbours. The word Seller stands for immigrated farmers, in contrast to long-established farmers, linguists think that name comes along because Franks or Alemanni gave the name Wallisellen to a small farmer settlement, which was inhabited or founded from Celts or Romans. In 1916, the municipality of Rieden merged with Wallisellen, with inauguration of the NOB-line Zürich–Wallisellen–Winterthur on 25 June 1856 Wallisellen had its first connexion with the Swiss railway network. In 1916, the municipality of Rieden merged with Wallisellen, in interwar period Wallisellen developed from a village to a growing suburb-municipality of Zurich, but didnt want to have town charter. During Second World War, Wallisellen took part hugely in the Anbauschlacht, in 1958 the Roman Catholic church of St. Antonius was built. Wallisellen has an area of 6.5 km2, of this area,23. 8% is used for agricultural purposes, while 20. 1% is forested. Of the rest of the land,54. 5% is settled, Wallisellen has a population of 15,603. As of 2007,25. 5% of the population was made up of foreign nationals, over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 11. 8%. Most of the population speaks German, with Italian being second most common, in the 2007 election the most popular party was the SVP which received 38. 6% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SPS, the FDP and the CSP, the age distribution of the population is children and teenagers make up 19. 1% of the population, while adults make up 64. 4% and seniors make up 16. 5%. In Wallisellen about 76. 9% of the population have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education, Wallisellen has an unemployment rate of 3. 21%. As of 2005, there were 50 people employed in the economic sector. 3085 people are employed in the sector and there are 137 businesses in this sector. 8950 people are employed in the sector, with 731 businesses in this sector. The large Shopping Center Glatt is an shopping mall in the municipality. Between it and Wallisellen railway station lies Richti Shopping, a shopping center

21.
Zollikon
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Zollikon is a municipality in the district of Meilen in the canton of Zürich, Switzerland known for being one of Switzerlands most exclusive districts. Besides the main settlement of Zollikon, which lies on the shore of Lake Zürich, Zollikon has an area of 7.9 km2. Of this area,21. 2% is used for agricultural purposes, of the rest of the land,40. 8% is settled and the remainder is non-productive. In 1996 housing and buildings made up 33. 3% of the total area, of the total unproductive area, water made up 0. 1% of the area. As of 200736. 5% of the municipal area was undergoing some type of construction. Zollikon is located in the Pfannenstiel region, Zollikon is on the so-called Gold Coast of Switzerland, and considered one of the most desirable and expensive municipalities in the nation. Zollikon has a population of 12,744, as of 2007,17. 9% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. As of 2008 the gender distribution of the population was 47. 3% male and 52. 7% female, over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 5. 9%. Most of the population speaks German, with English being second most common, in the 2007 election, the most popular political party in Zollikon was the FDP, which received 30. 8% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP, the SPS and the CSP, the age distribution of the population is children and teenagers make up 16. 6% of the population, while adults make up 59. 1% and seniors make up 24. 3%. In Zollikon about 85. 3% of the population have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education, there are 5675 households in Zollikon. Zollikon has an unemployment rate of 1. 34%, as of 2005, there were 44 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 14 businesses involved in this sector. 418 people are employed in the sector and there are 61 businesses in this sector. 3969 people are employed in the sector, with 642 businesses in this sector. As of 200766. 7% of the population were employed full-time. As of 2008 there were 3171 Catholics and 4759 Protestants in Zollikon, in the 2000 census, religion was broken down into several smaller categories. From the census,46. 9% were some type of Protestant,27. 1% of the population were Catholic. Of the rest of the population,1. 8% were Muslim,5. 2% belonged to another religion,3. 5% did not give a religion, there are five railway stations within the municipality of Zollikon

22.
Kunming
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Kunming is the capital of and largest city in Yunnan Province, Southwest China. Kunming is also called the Spring city due to its weather, the headquarters of many of Yunnans large businesses are in Kunming. It was important during World War II as a Chinese military center, American air base, located in the middle of the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau, Kunming is located at an altitude of 1,900 metres above sea level and at a latitude just north of the Tropic of Cancer. Kunming consists of an old, previously walled city, a commercial district, residential. The city has an observatory, and its institutions of higher learning include Yunnan University, Yunnan Normal University. On the outskirts is a bronze temple, dating from the Ming dynasty. Its economic importance derives from its geographical position, positioned near the border with Southeastern Asian countries, serving as a transportation hub in Southwest China, linking by rail to Vietnam and by road to Burma and Laos. This positioning also makes it an important trade center in this region of the nation and it also houses some manufacturing, chiefly copper, though some other chemicals, machinery, textiles, paper and cement take key. Though having a nearly 2,400 year history, its prosperity dates only from 1910. The city has continued to develop rapidly under Chinas modernization efforts, Kunmings streets have widened while office buildings and housing projects develop at a fast pace. Kunming has been designated a special tourism center and as such sports a proliferation of high-rises, Kunming will be the hub and terminus for the Pan Asia High Speed Network using high speed trains to connect China, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore. Because of the establishment of National Southwestern Associated University, Kunming was usually regarded as the bulwark of modern China democracy during The Second Sino-Japanese War, Kunming long profited from its position on the caravan roads through to South-East Asia, India and Tibet. Early townships in the edge of Lake Dianchi can be dated back to 279 BC. Early settlements in the area around Lake Dian date back to Neolithic times, the Dian Kingdom, whose original language was likely related to Tibeto-Burman languages was also established near the area. Dian was subjugated by the Chinese Han dynasty under the reign of Emperor Wu of Han in 109 BC, the Han dynasty incorporated the territory of the Dian Kingdom into their Yizhou Commandery, but left the King of Dian as the local ruler. During the Sui dynasty, two expeditions were launched against the area, and it was renamed Kunzhou in Chinese sources. Founded in 765, Kunming was known to the Chinese as Tuodong city in the Kingdom of Nanzhao during the 8th and 9th centuries, Tuodong later became part of the successor Kingdom of Dali. Eventually this changed when Tuodong came under the control of the Yuan dynasty invasion of the southwest in 1252–1253, in 1276 it was founded by the Mongol rulers as Kunming County and became the provincial capital of Yunnan

23.
San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush

24.
List of cities in Switzerland
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These are lists of towns in Switzerland. Until 2014 municipalities with more than 10,000 inhabitants were considered to be towns, since 2014, the Swiss Federal Statistical Office uses a new algorithm to define whether a municipality can be called a town or not, it newly also depends on its character. Currently, FSO considers 162 municipalities as towns in Switzerland, further, some municipalities, which would fulfill such a definition, nevertheless prefer to understand themselves still as a village, or consequently refer to themselves just as municipalities. See Municipalities of Switzerland for a table of the largest and smallest, largest towns in Switzerland, Zürich Geneva Basel Lausanne Bern Winterthur Lucerne St. Places in bold print are towns because of FSOs definition and historic town/market rights. Places in italics are towns excluded by FSOs definition, but places with, either, historic town rights, or, Places in normal print are towns according FSOs definition. Places that had lost historic town rights previously are identified with -h, List of municipalities of Switzerland List of places in Switzerland List of postal codes of Switzerland

25.
Roman Empire
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Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesars adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavians power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power, the imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,500 years compared to the 500 years of the Republican era. The first two centuries of the empires existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, following Octavians victory, the size of the empire was dramatically increased. After the assassination of Caligula in 41, the senate briefly considered restoring the republic, under Claudius, the empire invaded Britannia, its first major expansion since Augustus. Vespasian emerged triumphant in 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty, before being succeeded by his son Titus and his short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian, who was eventually assassinated. The senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors, the empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, the second in this line. A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus, Commodus assassination in 192 triggered the Year of the Five Emperors, of which Septimius Severus emerged victorious. The assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 led to the Crisis of the Third Century in which 26 men were declared emperor by the Roman Senate over a time span. It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy, which saw four emperors rule the empire at once. This arrangement was unsuccessful, leading to a civil war that was finally ended by Constantine I. Constantine subsequently shifted the capital to Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople in his honour and it remained the capital of the east until its demise. Constantine also adopted Christianity which later became the state religion of the empire. However, Augustulus was never recognized by his Eastern colleague, and separate rule in the Western part of the empire ceased to exist upon the death of Julius Nepos. The Eastern Roman Empire endured for another millennium, eventually falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time. It was one of the largest empires in world history, at its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. It held sway over an estimated 70 million people, at that time 21% of the entire population. Throughout the European medieval period, attempts were made to establish successors to the Roman Empire, including the Empire of Romania, a Crusader state. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC, then, it was an empire long before it had an emperor

26.
Turicum
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Turicum is the Latin name of the Swiss municipality of Zürich and one of the most important aerchologicals sites in the canton of Zürich. The original gravestone dates from 185/200 AD and was found on the Lindenhof hill, the gravestone was erected for Lucius Aelius Urbicus, a one-year-old child, by his parents Unio, freedman of Augustus, and Aelia Secundina. The earliest manuscript mention of the settlement, as castellum turegum, an 8th-century list of toponyms by the so-called Geographer of Ravenna mentions Ziurichi. The Latin name may be derived from Turīcon, a Celtic name of a personality called Tūros.2 square kilometres some 500 metres away of the core of the Celtic Oppidum respectively the Roman era Vicus. Probably in the first 1st century BC or even much earlier, initially prejudged just as melt coins, the present scientific research assumes that the melting down of the lump was not completed, therefore the aim was to form cultic offerings. The site of the find was at that time around 50 metres from the present Bürkliplatz plaza in the Lake Zurich, Grosser Hafner was also an island sanctuary of the Helvetii in connection with the settlement at the preceding Oppidi Uetliberg and Lindenhof. The core of the Helvetii and Roman settlement was the Lindenhof hill amidst the present Altstadt of the city of Zürich. The moraine hill was the site of the settlements were the modern city historically has grown. The Vicus was founded probably around 15 BC, but there are no written sources, the Roman settlement first belonged to the province of Gallia Belgica, and to Germania Superior from AD90. Commercial and residential buildings were erected in the vicinity of the Lindenhof hill, in later times, at the present Zunfthaus zur Zimmerleuten at Limmatquai opposite of the Lindenhof hill, the area was stabilized with embankments, some of these mounds date back to the Roman settlement era. In Turicum a duty of 2. 5% was levied, public buildings made of stone and paved roads were built. At the site of the present Weinplatz towards St. Peterhofstatt the remains of remarkable 2nd to 4th century AD Thermae were excavated,4500 m² large, it was fitted with 10 towers and two meter wide walls. South of the Lindenhof Castrum, at the location of the St. Peter church, during the reign of Emperor Hadrian, a round wooden temple as an island sanctuary was built on the Grosser Hafner island, which allows a dendrochronological dating. The building was erected in 122 AD, and consisted of oak piles driven deep into the lake bottom and it was surrounded probably with walls made of perishable materials, which formed a circle of seven meters in diameter. The rotunda is located on the former Neolithic island settlement, about 500 metres away from the Roman Vicus, the archaeological material indicates that the facility was used up in the 3rd century AD, even up in the 4th century AD by the Gallo-Roman population. There are also the fragments of bar tiles of maybe another Roman building, on occasion of diving operations from 1998 to 2001 almost 100 kilograms of tile fragments are ensured, and up to 40 coins and several pottery shards, as well as rectangular post hole. Archaeologically excavated are the remains of baths, graves and traces of craft enterprises, residential buildings, as well as everyday objects and jewelry. Hence, the area is provided as a site under federal protection, within the meaning of the Swiss Federal Act on the nature

27.
Imperial immediacy
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As confirmed by the Peace of Westphalia, the possession of imperial immediacy came with a particular form of territorial authority known as territorial superiority. In todays terms, it would be understood as a form of sovereignty. They formed the Imperial Estates, together with roughly 100 immediate counts,40 Imperial prelates and 50 Imperial Cities who only enjoyed a collective vote. Additional advantages might include the rights to collect taxes and tolls, to hold a market, to mint coins, to bear arms, the last of these might include the so-called Blutgericht through which capital punishment could be administered. These rights varied according to the patents granted by the emperor. Immediate rights might be lost if the Emperor and/or the Imperial Diet could not defend them against external aggression, as occurred in the French Revolutionary wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The Treaty of Lunéville in 1801 required the emperor to renounce all claims to the portions of the Holy Roman Empire west of the Rhine. The practical application of the rights of immediacy was complex, this makes the history of the Holy Roman Empire particularly difficult to understand, even such contemporaries as Goethe and Fichte called the Empire a monstrosity. Prussian historian Heinrich von Treitschke described it in the 19th century as having become a mess of rotted imperial forms. Pointing out that people like Goethe meant monster as a compliment in modern understanding, free Imperial City German mediatization Imperial Abbey Imperial Estate Imperial Village List of states of the Holy Roman Empire Braun, B. Reichsunmittelbarkeit in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland, 2005-05-03

28.
Protestant Reformation
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The period is usually considered to have begun with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Luther in 1517 to the Thirty Years War and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura, the initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The spread of Gutenbergs printing press provided the means for the dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The largest groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists, Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland. The new movement influenced the Church of England decisively after 1547 under Edward VI and Elizabeth I, there were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation, which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements. The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent, much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the Jesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years War, which left it devastated. The oldest Protestant churches, such as the Unitas Fratrum and Moravian Church, the later Protestant Churches generally date their doctrinal separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the 16th century. The Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church, by priests who opposed what they perceived as false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice. They especially objected to the teaching and the sale of indulgences, and the abuses thereof, and to simony, the reformers saw these practices as evidence of the systemic corruption of the Churchs hierarchy, which included the pope. Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, New perspectives came from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague. Hus rejected indulgences and adopted a doctrine of justification by grace through faith alone, the Roman Catholic Church officially concluded this debate at the Council of Constance by condemning Hus, who was executed by burning despite a promise of safe-conduct. Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in 1428, the Council of Constance confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of church and empire. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the century and could not prevent schism. Pope Sixtus IV established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, Pope Alexander VI was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. He was the father of seven children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia, in response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses. The Reformation was born of Luthers dual declaration – first, the discovering of Jesus and salvation by faith alone, the Protestant reformers were unanimous in agreement and this understanding of prophecy furnished importance to their deeds. It was the point and the battle cry that made the Reformation nearly unassailable

29.
Huldrych Zwingli
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Huldrych Zwingli or Ulrich Zwingli was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. He continued his studies while he served as a pastor in Glarus and later in Einsiedeln, in 1519, Zwingli became the pastor of the Grossmünster in Zurich where he began to preach ideas on reform of the Catholic Church. In his first public controversy in 1522, he attacked the custom of fasting during Lent, in his publications, he noted corruption in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, promoted clerical marriage, and attacked the use of images in places of worship. In 1525, Zwingli introduced a new liturgy to replace the Mass. Zwingli also clashed with the Anabaptists, which resulted in their persecution, historians have debated whether or not he turned Zurich into a theocracy. The Reformation spread to parts of the Swiss Confederation, but several cantons resisted. Zwingli formed an alliance of Reformed cantons which divided the Confederation along religious lines, in 1529, a war between the two sides was averted at the last moment. Meanwhile, Zwinglis ideas came to the attention of Martin Luther and other reformers and they met at the Marburg Colloquy and although they agreed on many points of doctrine, they could not reach an accord on the doctrine of the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist. In 1531 Zwinglis alliance applied an unsuccessful food blockade on the Catholic cantons, the cantons responded with an attack at a moment when Zurich was ill prepared. Zwingli was killed in battle at the age of 47 and his legacy lives on in the confessions, liturgy, and church orders of the Reformed churches of today. The Swiss Confederation in Huldrych Zwinglis time consisted of thirteen states as well as affiliated areas, unlike the modern state of Switzerland, which operates under a federal government, each of the thirteen cantons was nearly independent, conducting its own domestic and foreign affairs. Each canton formed its own alliances within and without the Confederation and this relative independence served as the basis for conflict during the time of the Reformation when the various cantons divided between different confessional camps. Military ambitions gained an additional impetus with the competition to new territory and resources. The wider political environment in Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries was also volatile, for centuries the relationship with the Confederations powerful neighbour, France, determined the foreign policies of the Swiss. Nominally, the Confederation formed a part of the Holy Roman Empire, however, through a succession of wars culminating in the Swabian War in 1499, the Confederation had become de facto independent. During this time the mercenary pension system became a subject of disagreement, the religious factions of Zwinglis time debated vociferously the merits of sending young Swiss men to fight in foreign wars mainly for the enrichment of the cantonal authorities. At the same time, Renaissance humanism, with its universal values, within this environment, defined by the confluence of Swiss patriotism and humanism, Zwingli was born in 1484. Huldrych Zwingli was born on 1 January 1484 in Wildhaus, in the Toggenburg valley of Switzerland, to a family of farmers and his father, Ulrich, played a leading role in the administration of the community

30.
Alemannic German
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Alemannic is a group of dialects of the Upper German branch of the Germanic language family. The name derives from the ancient Germanic alliance of tribes known as the Alemanni. S, ISO 639-3 distinguishes four languages, gsw, swg, wae and gct. At this level, the distinction between a language and a dialect frequently is considered a cultural and political question, in part because linguists have failed to agree on a clear standard, the following variants comprise Alemannic, Swabian. Unlike most other Alemannic dialects, it does not retain the Middle High German monophthongs û, î, for this reason, Swabian is sometimes used in opposition to Alemannic. Retain German initial /k/ as rather than fricativising to as in High Alemannic, subvariants, Lake Constance Alemannic Upper-Rhine Alemannic in Southwestern Baden and its variant Alsatian Alemán Coloniero Basel German High Alemannic. Complete the High German consonant shift by fricativising initial /k/ to, subvariants, Bernese German Zürich German Vorarlbergisch Liechtensteinisch Highest Alemannic does not have the hiatus diphthongisation of other dialects of German. For example, instead of, instead of, subvariants, Walliser German Walser German Note that the Alemannic dialects of Switzerland are often called Swiss German or Schwiizertüütsch. The oldest known texts in Alemannic are brief Elder Futhark inscriptions dating to the sixth century, in the Old High German period, the first coherent texts are recorded in the St. Gall and Reichenau Island, a considerable part of the Old High German corpus has Alemannic traits. Alemannic Middle High German is less prominent, in spite of the Codex Manesse compiled by Johannes Hadlaub of Zürich, the rise of the Old Swiss Confederacy from the fourteenth century leads to the creation of Alemannic Swiss chronicles. Huldrych Zwinglis bible translation of the 1520s was in an Alemannic variant of Early Modern High German, the 1665 revision of the Froschauer Bible removed the Alemannic elements, approaching the language used by Luther. Johann Peter Hebel published his Allemannische Gedichte in 1803, Swiss authors often consciously employ Helvetisms within Standard German, notably Jeremias Gotthelf in his novels set in the Emmental, and more recently Tim Krohn in his Quatemberkinder. The diminutive is used frequently in all Alemannic dialects, northern and eastern dialects use the suffix -le, southern dialects use the suffix -li. Depending on dialect, thus, little house could be Heisle, Hüüsle, a significant difference between the high and low variants is the pronunciation of ch after the front vowels and consonants. In Standard German and the variants, this is a palatal, whereas in the higher variants

31.
Swiss German (linguistics)
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Swiss German is any of the Alemannic dialects spoken in the German-speaking part of Switzerland and in some Alpine communities in Northern Italy bordering Switzerland. Linguistically, Swiss German forms no unity, the linguistic division of Alemannic is rather into Low, High and Highest Alemannic, varieties of all of which are spoken both inside and outside of Switzerland. The only exception within German-speaking Switzerland is the municipality of Samnaun where a Bavarian dialect is spoken, the dialects of Swiss German must not be confused with Swiss Standard German, the variety of Standard German used in Switzerland. Most people in Germany do not understand Swiss German, therefore, when an interview with a Swiss German speaker is shown on German television, subtitles are required. Unlike most regional languages in modern Europe, Swiss German is the everyday language of all social levels in industrial cities. Using the dialect conveys neither social nor educational inferiority and is done with pride. There are a few settings where speaking Standard German is demanded or polite, e. g. in education, in multilingual parliaments and this situation has been called a medial diglossia, since the spoken language is mainly the dialect, whereas the written language is mainly Standard German. Swiss German speakers on TV or in films are usually dubbed or subtitled if shown in Germany. Dialect rock is a music genre using the language, many Swiss rock bands, however, the Swiss Amish of Adams County, Indiana and their daughter settlements also use Swiss German. Swiss German is a regional or political umbrella term, not a linguistic unity, for all dialects, there are idioms spoken outside Switzerland that are more closely related to them than some Swiss German dialects. Low Alemannic is only spoken in the northernmost parts of Switzerland, in Basel, High Alemannic is spoken in most of the Swiss Plateau, and is divided in an eastern and a western group. Highest Alemannic is spoken in the Alps, each dialect is separable into numerous local subdialects, sometimes down to a resolution of individual villages. Speaking the dialect is an important part of regional, cantonal and national identities, in the more urban areas of the Swiss plateau, regional differences are fading due to increasing mobility, and a growing population of non-Alemannic descent. Despite the varied dialects, the Swiss can still understand one another, but may particularly have trouble understanding Walliser dialects. Most Swiss German dialects, being High German dialects, have completed the High German consonant shift, that is, they have not only changed t to or and p to or, There are, however, exceptions, namely the idioms of Chur and Basel. Basel German is a Low Alemannic dialect, and Chur German is basically High Alemannic without initial or, North of the Benrath line up to the North Sea, this consonant shift did not happen. The Walser migration, going on between the 12th and 13th centuries, spread upper Wallis varieties towards the east and south, into Grisons and even further to western Austria and northern Italy. Informally, a distinction is made between the German-speaking people living in the canton of Valais, the Walliser, and the migrated ones, so, the Walser were pioneers of the liberalisation from serfdom and feudalism

32.
Swiss National Museum
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The Swiss National Museum — part of the Musée Suisse Group, itself affiliated with the Federal Office of Culture — is one of the most important art museums of cultural history in Europe. It is located in the city of Zurich, Switzerlands largest city, the museum building of 1898 in the historicist style was built by Gustav Gull in the form of the French Renaissance city chateaus. The exhibition tour takes the visitor from prehistory through ancient times, there is a very rich section with gothic art, chivalry and a comprehensive collection of liturgical wooden sculptures, panel paintings and carved altars. Zunfthaus zur Meisen near Fraumünster church houses the porcelain and faience collection of the Swiss National Museum, the boats of the Zürichsee-Schifffahrtsgesellschaft start their round trips on the Limmat through the city of Zürich at the Swiss National Museum. Media related to Swiss National Museum at Wikimedia Commons National Museum Zurich

33.
Global city
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A global city, also called world city or sometimes alpha city or world center, is a city generally considered to be an important node in the global economic system. The most complex of these entities is the city, whereby the linkages binding a city have a direct. Patrick Geddes also used the world city later in 1915. More recently, the term has been described as being synonymous with an influence and financial capital. Global city status is considered to be beneficial and desired, and because of this, many groups have tried to classify, although there is a consensus upon leading world cities, the criteria upon which a classification is made can affect which other cities are included. Smith and Peter J. Taylor established the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, the GaWC inventory identifies three levels of global cities and several sub-ranks. The 2004 rankings acknowledged several new indicators while continuing to rank city economics more heavily than political or cultural factors. The following is a list of the cities in the rankings, as they appear on the GaWC website, Alpha ++ cities are cities most integrated with the economy, London. Alpha + cities are advanced service niches for the economy, Hong Kong, Paris, Singapore, Shanghai, Tokyo, Beijing, Sydney. The Institute for Urban Strategies at The Mori Memorial Foundation in Tokyo issued a study of global cities in 2016. The ranking is based on six categories, Economy, Research & Development, Cultural Interaction, Livability, Environment. This Japanese ranking also breaks down top ten world cities ranked in subjective categories such as manager, researcher, artist, visitor, Global Power City top 10,1. Vienna In 2008, the American journal Foreign Policy, in conjunction with the Chicago-based consulting firm A. T, kearney and the Chicago Council on Global Affairs, published a ranking of global cities, based on consultation with Saskia Sassen, Witold Rybczynski, and others. Foreign Policy noted that the world’s biggest, most interconnected cities help set global agendas, weather transnational dangers and they are the engines of growth for their countries and the gateways to the resources of their regions. The Wealth Report is made by the London-based estate agent Knight Frank LLP together with the Citi Private Bank, the report includes a Global Cities Survey, evaluating which cities are considered the most important to the world’s HNWIs. In 2012, the Economist Intelligence Unit, ranked the competitiveness of cities according to their demonstrated ability to attract capital, businesses, talent. The State of the World’s Cities

34.
Monocle (2007 magazine)
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Monocle is a global affairs and lifestyle magazine, 24-hour radio station, website, retailer and media brand, all produced by Winkontent Ltd. It was founded by Tyler Brûlé, a Canadian entrepreneur, Financial Times columnist, the magazine is edited by Andrew Tuck. The magazine launched on 15 February 2007, in September 2014, Brûlé sold a minority stake in Monocle magazine to Japanese publisher Nikkei Inc. The deal valued Monocle at about U. S. $115 million, in December 2014, Monocle launched a new annual publication called The Forecast, intended to fill the gap between the Dec. /Jan. and February issues of Monocle. The Escapist, an annual magazine, was introduced in July 2015. Along with a group of private investors, Brûlé created and financed Monocle. The first issue appeared in February 2007, the magazine, all in English with no regional editions, addressed a mobile global audience. Hamilton Nolan, journalist for Gawker, described it as a magazine for young, stylish. It had also previously been described on Gawker as a travel-culture magazine, in June 2010, Monocle launched a summer newspaper, Monocle Mediterraneo. The newspaper directly opposed the iPad trend, with Brûlé declaring you cannot read an iPad on the beach, in December 2010 Monocle launched a winter newspaper, Monocle Alpino. The magazine believes in print media, and has neither a Facebook nor a Twitter account, both newspapers were discontinued as of December 2014 and replaced by The Forecast and The Escapist magazines. As well as advertisements, Monocle runs advertorials. Monocle has also carried separate surveys on a range of cities, countries and regions. These correspondents are in Perth, Paris, Washington, Nairobi, Belgrade, Warsaw and Bogotá, in September 2015, Monocle launched The Monocle Minute – a free daily email bulletin of news, opinions and opportunities for subscribers – also published on its website. Monocles website contains magazine archive content only available to paid subscribers and it also contains over 500 films, slideshows and documentaries that are available to the public. The film content is available on iTunes and YouTube. C. These are also sold in Monocle shops in London, Hong Kong, Toronto, Tokyo, Singapore and New York, Monocles internet radio station, Monocle 24 can also be accessed from the website and an iOS app. Listeners can tune in live or browse the archive of all the stations speech-based shows, initially launched alongside the magazine in 2007, the website was redesigned in November 2012

35.
World's Most Livable Cities
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The worlds most liveable cities is an informal name given to any list of cities as they rank on an annual survey of living conditions. Regions with cities commonly ranked in the top 50 include New Zealand, North America, Northern Europe, three examples of such surveys are Monocles Most Liveable Cities Index, the Economist Intelligence Units Global Liveability Ranking, and Mercer Quality of Living Survey. Numbeo has the largest statistics and survey data based on cities and countries, Liveability rankings may be used by employers assigning hardship allowances as part of job relocation. Since 2006, the lifestyle magazine Monocle has published an annual list of liveable cities, the list in 2008 was named The Most Liveable Cities Index and presented 25 top locations for quality of life. The 2015 Monocle Survey determined the worlds most liveable city was Tokyo, followed by Vienna, the two most populous Australian cities were in the top 5, while no cities in South America, South Asia, or Africa made the list. It is part of the EIUs Worldwide Cost of Living survey, a 2010 opinion piece in The New York Times criticised the Economist Intelligence Unit for being overly anglocentric, stating that The Economist clearly equates livability with speaking English. American global human resources and related financial services consulting firm Mercer annually releases its Mercer Quality of Living Survey, New York City is given a baseline score of 100 and other cities are rated in comparison. Important criteria are safety, education, hygiene, health care, culture, environment, recreation, political-economic stability, public transport and access to goods, the list is intended to help multinational companies decide where to open offices or plants, and how much to pay employees. European Green Capital Award Global Liveability Survey List of most expensive cities for expatriate employees List of metropolitan areas by population

36.
Economist Intelligence Unit
–
The EIU provides country, industry, and management analysis worldwide and incorporates the former Business International Corporation, a UK company acquired by its parent company in 1986. The EIU has several offices across the globe including two offices in China and one in Hong Kong, the Economist Intelligence Unit also produces regular reports on liveability and cost of living of the worlds major cities that receive wide coverage in international media. The Economist Intelligence Units Quality-of-Life Index is another noted report and its current Managing Director is Robin Bew, formerly the companys Editorial Director and Chief Economist. Headquartered in London, Bazian was founded by Vivek Muthu and Anna Donald in 1999, clearstate was founded in 2006 and is headquartered in Singapore. In July 2015, the Economist Intelligence Unit acquired Canback & Company, renamed EIU Canback, the firm was founded in 2004 and is headquartered in Boston. It was created to support a report conducted by The Economist Intelligence Unit’s Access China Service, CHAMPS, the report coined the acronym CHAMPS. In January 2011, the Unit released the Government Broadband Index that assesses countries on the basis of government planning, with ambitious targets for both the speed and coverage of next-generation broadband networks, the developed countries of Southeast Asia scored highest. According to the index, Greece is the country measured, due to its relatively low coverage target. Greece also suffers due to the size of its public-funding commitment as a percentage of overall government budget revenues. The goal of the study was to identify the most creative models used by businesses to hire. A full list of The EIUs special reports can be downloaded on their website, in November 2015 the Economist Intelligence Unit launched Market Explorer in Collaboration with EIU Canback. It is a tool which was designed to scan markets in various countries and cities across the globe

37.
Swiss German
–
Swiss German is any of the Alemannic dialects spoken in the German-speaking part of Switzerland and in some Alpine communities in Northern Italy bordering Switzerland. Linguistically, Swiss German forms no unity, the linguistic division of Alemannic is rather into Low, High and Highest Alemannic, varieties of all of which are spoken both inside and outside of Switzerland. The only exception within German-speaking Switzerland is the municipality of Samnaun where a Bavarian dialect is spoken, the dialects of Swiss German must not be confused with Swiss Standard German, the variety of Standard German used in Switzerland. Most people in Germany do not understand Swiss German, therefore, when an interview with a Swiss German speaker is shown on German television, subtitles are required. Unlike most regional languages in modern Europe, Swiss German is the everyday language of all social levels in industrial cities. Using the dialect conveys neither social nor educational inferiority and is done with pride. There are a few settings where speaking Standard German is demanded or polite, e. g. in education, in multilingual parliaments and this situation has been called a medial diglossia, since the spoken language is mainly the dialect, whereas the written language is mainly Standard German. Swiss German speakers on TV or in films are usually dubbed or subtitled if shown in Germany. Dialect rock is a music genre using the language, many Swiss rock bands, however, the Swiss Amish of Adams County, Indiana and their daughter settlements also use Swiss German. Swiss German is a regional or political umbrella term, not a linguistic unity, for all dialects, there are idioms spoken outside Switzerland that are more closely related to them than some Swiss German dialects. Low Alemannic is only spoken in the northernmost parts of Switzerland, in Basel, High Alemannic is spoken in most of the Swiss Plateau, and is divided in an eastern and a western group. Highest Alemannic is spoken in the Alps, each dialect is separable into numerous local subdialects, sometimes down to a resolution of individual villages. Speaking the dialect is an important part of regional, cantonal and national identities, in the more urban areas of the Swiss plateau, regional differences are fading due to increasing mobility, and a growing population of non-Alemannic descent. Despite the varied dialects, the Swiss can still understand one another, but may particularly have trouble understanding Walliser dialects. Most Swiss German dialects, being High German dialects, have completed the High German consonant shift, that is, they have not only changed t to or and p to or, There are, however, exceptions, namely the idioms of Chur and Basel. Basel German is a Low Alemannic dialect, and Chur German is basically High Alemannic without initial or, North of the Benrath line up to the North Sea, this consonant shift did not happen. The Walser migration, going on between the 12th and 13th centuries, spread upper Wallis varieties towards the east and south, into Grisons and even further to western Austria and northern Italy. Informally, a distinction is made between the German-speaking people living in the canton of Valais, the Walliser, and the migrated ones, so, the Walser were pioneers of the liberalisation from serfdom and feudalism

38.
Romansh language
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Romansh has also been recognized as a national language of Switzerland since 1938 and as an official language along with German, French and Italian since 1996. It is sometimes grouped with Ladin and Friulian as a Rhaeto-Romance language, Romansh has also been heavily influenced by German in vocabulary and morphosyntax. The language gradually retreated to its current area over the centuries, being replaced by Alemannic, the earliest writing identified as Romansh dates from the 10th or 11th century, although major works do not appear until the 16th century when several regional written varieties began to develop. The 19th century saw a shrinkage of the language area but also a literary revival. In the 2000 Swiss census,35,095 people indicated Romansh as the language of best command, in 2010, Switzerland switched to a yearly system which uses a combination of municipal citizen records and a limited number of surveys. Based on this system, the number of people aged 15. The language area and number of speakers of Romansh have been continually shrinking, Romansh is divided into five different regional dialects, each with its own standardized written language. In addition, a variety called Rumantsch Grischun was introduced in 1982. Romansh is a Romance language descending from Vulgar Latin, the language of the Roman Empire. Within the Romance languages, Romansh stands out because of its peripheral location, another distinguishing feature is the centuries-long language contact with German, which is most noticeable in the vocabulary and to a lesser extent the syntax of Romansh. Romansh belongs to the Gallo-Romance branch of the Romance languages, which includes such as French, Occitan. The main feature placing Romansh within the Gallo-Romance languages is the fronting of Latin /u/ to or, as seen in Latin muru wall, which is mür or mir in Romansh. This sound change is partially absent in some varieties of Romansh, however, especially in Sursilvan, retention of word-final -s as in buns chavals good horses as opposed to Italian buoni cavalli. Retention of L following /p b k ɡ f/, Latin clavem key > clav as opposed to Italian chiave, another defining feature of the Romansh language is the use of unstressed vowels. Whether or not Romansh, Friulan and Ladin should compose a separate Rhaeto-Romance subgroup within Gallo-Romance is an unresolved issue, some linguists posit that these languages are descended from a common language, which was then fractured geographically through the spread of German and Italian. This position goes back to the Italian linguist Graziadio Ascoli, who first made the claim in 1873, linguists who take this position often point out that the similarities between the languages are comparatively few. This position was first introduced by the Italian dialectologist Carlo Battisti and this linguistic dispute became politically relevant for the Italian irredentist movement. Italian nationalists interpreted Battistis hypothesis as implying that Romansh, Friulan and Ladin were not separate languages and they used this as an argument to claim the territories where these languages were spoken for Italy

39.
Umlaut (diacritic)
–
The diaeresis, also spelled diæresis or dieresis and also known as the tréma or the umlaut, is a diacritical mark that consists of two dots placed over a letter, usually a vowel. When that letter is an i or a j, the diacritic replaces the tittle, the diaeresis and the umlaut are diacritics marking two distinct phonological phenomena. The diaeresis represents the phenomenon known as diaeresis or hiatus in which a vowel letter is not pronounced as part of a digraph or diphthong. The umlaut, in contrast, indicates a sound shift and these two diacritics originated separately, the diaeresis is considerably older. Nevertheless, in computer systems using Unicode, the umlaut and diaeresis diacritics are identical. The same symbol is used as a diacritic in other cases. For example, in Albanian and Tagalog ë represents a schwa, the word diaeresis is from Greek diaíresis, meaning division, separation, or distinction. Umlaut is the German name of both the Germanic umlaut, a sound-law also known as i-mutation, and the corresponding diacritic. The diaeresis indicates that two adjoining letters that would form a digraph and be pronounced as one are instead to be read as separate vowels in two syllables. The diaeresis indicates that a vowel should be pronounced apart from the letter that precedes it, for example, in the spelling coöperate, the diaeresis reminds the reader that the word has four syllables co-op-er-ate, not three, *coop-er-ate. In British English this usage has been considered obsolete for many years, nevertheless, it is still used by the US magazine The New Yorker. In English language texts it is perhaps most familiar in the spellings naïve, Noël, and Chloë, languages such as Dutch, Catalan, French, Galician and Spanish make regular use of the diaeresis. However, it was used to indicate that a vowel formed its own syllable, as in ηϋ. In Modern Greek, αϊ and οϊ represent the diphthongs /ai̯/ and /oi̯/, and εϊ the disyllabic sequence /e. i/, whereas αι, οι, and ει transcribe the simple vowels /e/, /i/, and /i/. The diacritic can be the one on a vowel, as in ακαδημαϊκός akadēmaïkos academic, or in combination with an acute accent. The diaeresis was borrowed for this purpose in several languages of western and southern Europe, among them Occitan, Catalan, French, Dutch, Welsh, when a vowel in Greek was stressed, it did not assimilate to a preceding vowel but remained as a separate syllable. Such vowels were marked with an accent such as the acute, for example, the Portuguese words saia skirt and the imperfect saía I used to leave differ in that the sequence /ai/ forms a diphthong in the former, but is a hiatus in the latter. In Catalan, the digraphs ai, ei, oi, au, eu, to indicate exceptions to this rule, a diaeresis mark is placed on the second vowel, without this the words raïm and diürn would be read * and *, respectively

40.
Tombstone
–
A headstone, tombstone, or gravestone is a stele or marker, usually stone, that is placed over a grave. They are traditional for burials in the Christian, Jewish and Muslim religions, in many parts of Europe insetting a photograph of the deceased in a frame is very common. The stele, as it is called in a context, is one of the oldest forms of funerary art. Originally, a tombstone was the lid of a stone coffin, or the coffin itself. Now all three terms are used for markers placed at the head of the grave. Some graves in the 18th century also contained footstones to demarcate the end of the grave. This sometimes developed into full kerb sets that marked the perimeter of the grave. Footstones were rarely annotated with more than the initials and year of death. Many cemeteries and churchyards have removed those extra stones to ease grass cutting by machine mower, note that in some UK cemeteries the principal, and indeed only, marker is placed at the foot of the grave. Owing to soil movement and Downhill creep on gentle slopes, older headstones and footstones can often be tilted at an angle. Over time, this movement can result in the stones being sited several metres away from their original location, graves, and any related memorials are a focus for mourning and remembrance. The names of relatives are often added to a gravestone over the years, since gravestones and a plot in a cemetery or churchyard cost money, they are also a symbol of wealth or prominence in a community. Some gravestones were even commissioned and erected to their own memory by people who were living, as a testament to their wealth. In a Christian context, the wealthy often erected elaborate memorials within churches rather than having simply external gravestones. Crematoria frequently offer similar alternatives to families who do not have a grave to mark, carved or cast commemorative plaques inside the crematorium for example may serve this purpose. A cemetery may follow national codes of practice or independently prescribe the size and use of certain materials, some may limit the placing of a wooden memorial to six months after burial, after which a more permanent memorial must be placed. Others may require stones of a shape or position to facilitate grass-cutting. Headstones of granite, marble and other kinds of stone are usually created, installed, restoration is a specialized job for a monumental mason

41.
Gaulish
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Gaulish is an ancient Celtic language that was spoken in parts of Europe as late as the Roman Empire. In the narrow sense, Gaulish was the language spoken by the Celtic inhabitants of Gaul. In a wider sense, it also comprises varieties of Celtic that were spoken across much of central Europe, parts of the Balkans, and Asia Minor, the more divergent Lepontic of Northern Italy has also sometimes been subsumed under Gaulish. Together with Lepontic and the Celtiberian language spoken in the Iberian Peninsula, the precise linguistic relationships among them, as well as between them and the modern Insular Celtic languages, are uncertain and a matter of ongoing debate because of their sparse attestation. Gaulish texts were first written in the Greek alphabet in southern France, after the Roman conquest of those regions, writing shifted to the use of the Latin alphabet. Gaulish was supplanted by Vulgar Latin and various Germanic languages from around the 5th century AD onwards and it is estimated that during the Bronze Age, Proto-Celtic started fragmenting into distinct languages, including Celtiberian and Gaulish. Their precise linguistic relationships are uncertain because of the nature of the evidence. Among those regions where substantial inscriptional evidence exists, three varieties are usually distinguished.600 BC and it has been described either as an early dialect of an outlying form of Gaulish, or else as a separate Continental Celtic language. Attestations of Gaulish proper in present-day France are known as Transalpine Gaulish and its written record begins in the 3rd century BC with inscriptions in the Greek alphabet, found mainly in the Rhône area of southern France. After the Roman conquest of Gaul, the writing of Gaulish shifted to the Latin alphabet, as they were written after the time of the Gaulish conquest of Cisalpine Gaul, they are usually identified as Cisalpine Gaulish. The relationship between Gaulish and the other Celtic languages is subject to debate. Most scholars today agree that Celtiberian was the first to branch off from the remaining Celtic languages, other scholars place more emphasis on shared innovations between Brittonic and Goidelic, and group these together as an Insular Celtic branch. Sims-Williams discusses a composite model, in which the Continental and Insular varieties are seen as part of a continuum, with genealogical splits. At least 13 references to Gaulish speech and Gaulish writing can be found in Greek, the word Gaulish as a language term is first explicitly used in the Appendix Vergiliana in a poem referring to Gaulish letters of the alphabet. Caesar relates that census accounts written in the Greek alphabet were found among the Helvetii, according to the Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises, nearly three quarters of Gaulish inscriptions are in the Greek alphabet. Later inscriptions dating to Roman Gaul are mostly in the Latin alphabet and have been principally in central France. Latin was quickly adopted by the Gaulish aristocracy after the Roman conquest to maintain their power and influence. Early references to Gaulish in Gaul tend to be made in the context of problems with Greek or Latin fluency until around 400,450, Gaulish begins to be mentioned in contexts where Latin has replaced Gaulish or Celtic

Limmat
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The Limmat is a river in Switzerland. The river commences at the outfall of Lake Zurich, in the part of the city of Zurich. From Zurich it flows in a direction, after 35 km reaching the river Aare. The confluence is located north of the town of Brugg. The main towns along the Limmat Valley downstream of Zurich are Dietikon, Wettingen and its main t

1.
The Limmat in Zürich, looking downstream to Rathausbrücke from Quaibrücke at Lake Zurich, Stadthausquai to the left and Limmatquai to right.

2.
Rathausbrücke and Hotel zum Storchen at Weinplatz in Zürich

3.
The confluence of the Limmat and Sihl, just downstream of Zurich city centre

4.
Letten Power Station in Zurich

Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a

1.
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.

Switzerland
–
Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switz

1.
Founded in 44 BC by Lucius Munatius Plancus, Augusta Raurica was the first Roman settlement on the Rhine and is now among the most important archaeological sites in Switzerland.

2.
Flag

3.
The 1291 Bundesbrief (Federal charter)

4.
The Old Swiss Confederacy from 1291 (dark green) to the sixteenth century (light green) and its associates (blue). In the other colors are shown the subject territories.

Cantons of Switzerland
–
The 26 cantons of Switzerland are the member states of the Swiss Confederation. The nucleus of the Swiss Confederacy in the form of the first three confederate allies used to be referred to as the Waldstätte, with the Napoleonic period of the Helvetic Republic the term canton/cantone/Kanton was fully established. From 1833, there were 25 cantons, w

1.
The 22 cantonal coats of arms (all but Jura, with the half-cantons represented jointly) in stained glass set in the dome of the Federal Palace of Switzerland (ca. 1900)

2.
Valais

3.
Caricature of the division of Basel, 1833

Districts of Switzerland
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In contrast to centrally organised states, in the federally constituted Switzerland each canton is completely free to decide its own internal organisation. Therefore, there exists a variety of structures and terminology for the subnational entities between canton and municipality, loosely termed districts, most cantons are divided into Bezirke. The

Corine Mauch
–
Corine Mauch is a Swiss Social Democrat politician who serves as mayor of Zurich. She is the first female and first openly gay person to be elected mayor of the city, Mauch was elected mayor in March 2009, after ten years on the city council. In the first round of balloting, she finished in place, barely 1,300 votes behind Kathrin Martelli. In the

1.
Corine Mauch

Social Democratic Party of Switzerland
–
The Social Democratic Party of Switzerland is a political party in Switzerland. It is represented by two Federal Councilors since 1960 and got the second-most votes in the 2015 national elections, the party was founded on 21 October 1888, and is currently the second largest of the four leading coalition political parties in Switzerland. It is the o

1.
The SP's positions in the Swiss political spectrum (2007).

Parliament
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In modern politics and history, a parliament is a legislative, elected body of government. Generally a modern parliament has three functions, representing the electorate, making laws, and overseeing the government, historically, parliaments included various kinds of deliberative, consultative, and judicial assemblies. The term is derived from Anglo

1.
The chamber of the House of Commons of the British Parliament in the City of Westminster, London.

2.
The Federal Assembly of Switzerland.

3.
Session Hall of Parliament of Finland.

4.
The Israeli Knesset chamber.

Demonym
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A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a mem

1.
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary has not adopted the term "demonyn" for these adjectives and nouns

German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other member

1.
Old Frisian (Alt-Friesisch)

2.
The widespread popularity of the Bible translated into German by Martin Luther helped establish modern German

3.
Examples of German language in Namibian everyday life

4.
German-language newspapers in the U.S. in 1922

Adliswil
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Adliswil is a town and a municipality in the district of Horgen in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland. The official language of Adliswil is German, but the spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect. Adliswil is first mentioned in 1050 as Adelenswile, in the second half of the 12th Century it was mentioned as Adolol

1.
Adliswil

2.
Adliswil with the Üetliberg ridge behind

3.
Church in Adliswil, from the Luftseilbahn Adliswil-Felsenegg

Kilchberg, Zurich
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Kilchberg is a municipality in the district of Horgen in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland. Kilchberg is the site of a regional cemetery, Kilchberg is first mentioned in 1248 as Hilchberch. In 1250 it was mentioned as Kilchperch and it grew out of the mediaeval village of Bendlikon where Kilchberg was just a section of the village. Its coat of ar

1.
Church of Kilchberg

2.
Lindt & Sprüngli Kilchberg

3.
Thomas Mann's grave in Kilchberg

Maur, Switzerland
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Maur is a municipality in the district of Uster in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland. Maur is first mentioned between 874-887 as de Mure, Maur has an area of 14.8 km2. Of this area,52. 6% is used for agricultural purposes, of the rest of the land,20. 2% is settled and the remainder is non-productive. In 1996 housing and buildings made up 14. 9% o

1.
Maur

2.
Maur castle (1741)

Oberengstringen
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Oberengstringen is a municipality in the district of Dietikon in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland, located in the Limmat Valley. Oberengstringen is first mentioned in 870 as Enstelingon, in 1306 it was mentioned as Obren Enstringen. Oberengstringen has an area of 2.1 km2, of this area,23. 5% is used for agricultural purposes, while 26. 3% is for

1.
Oberengstringen

2.
Werdinsel in the Limmat river in Zürich

Opfikon
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Opfikon is the name of a municipality in the Swiss canton of Zürich, located in the district of Bülach. Blazon, Party per fess gules and argent, in chief a half length portrait of a man wearing a coat sable with a white collar, in base cross pattee sable. Opfikon is situated right to the northeast of the city of Zürich in the Glatt Valley, near Zür

1.
Opfikon

2.
Zürich, Opfikon and Kloten as seen from the Albis

3.
Adecco headquarters in Opfikon

4.
The Stadtbahn Glattal in Opfikon

Regensdorf
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Regensdorf is a municipality in the district of Dielsdorf of the canton of Zurich in Switzerland. It is the biggest city in the region Furttal, Katzensee is a lake that also includes the bath/lido Strandbad Katzensee on the border with the Affoltern quarter of the city of Zürich. Regensdorf is first mentioned in 870 as Reganesdorf, in 931 it was me

1.
Regensdorf

2.
Gut Katzensee (an estate) at Lake Katzensee

Stallikon
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Stallikon is a municipality in the district of Affoltern in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland. Stallikon is first mentioned in 1124 as Stallinchoven, Stallikon has an area of 12 km2. Of this area,39. 5% is used for agricultural purposes, of the rest of the land,8. 8% is settled and the remainder is non-productive. The municipality stretches along

1.
Stallikon

2.
Hamlet Mädikon on Albis hiking trail

3.
Village Sellenbüren, Stallikon

Uitikon
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Uitikon is a village and municipality in the district of Dietikon in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland. Besides the village of Uitikon itself, the municipality includes the villages of Waldegg, Uitikon lies on the northern end of the Albis hills that include the Üetliberg mountain and form the western bound of the city of Zürich. The Üetliberg it

1.
Uitikon

Urdorf
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Urdorf is a municipality in the district of Dietikon in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland, located in the Limmat Valley. Urdorf has an area of 7.6 km2, of this area,32. 2% is used for agricultural purposes, while 32. 6% is forested. Of the rest of the land,34. 5% is settled, in 1996 housing and buildings made up 25. 9% of the total area, while tr

1.
Urdorf

2.
Protestant church Urdorf

3.
Schlieren (in the foreground) and Urdorf as seen from Käferberg -Waidberg

Wallisellen
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Wallisellen is a municipality in the district of Bülach in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland, and belongs to the Glatt Valley. The first settlement at Wallisellen dates from 58 BC, the municipality Wallisellen has its origin between 400 and 700 BC, after the Germanic migration of the peoples. Wallisellen is named according to both parts Walchen a

1.
Wallisellen

2.
Protestant church of Wallisellen

Zollikon
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Zollikon is a municipality in the district of Meilen in the canton of Zürich, Switzerland known for being one of Switzerlands most exclusive districts. Besides the main settlement of Zollikon, which lies on the shore of Lake Zürich, Zollikon has an area of 7.9 km2. Of this area,21. 2% is used for agricultural purposes, of the rest of the land,40. 8

1.
Zollikon

2.
Protestant church in Zollikon

3.
Zollikon SAR boat (Seerettungsdienst) on Lake Zürich (June 2009)

4.
Settlements

Kunming
–
Kunming is the capital of and largest city in Yunnan Province, Southwest China. Kunming is also called the Spring city due to its weather, the headquarters of many of Yunnans large businesses are in Kunming. It was important during World War II as a Chinese military center, American air base, located in the middle of the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau, Kun

2.
Old Kunming quarter, containing the narrow and curved Sister Buildings (姊妹楼) behind the Victory Monument on Guanghua Jie, located across the street to the north of the old Bird and Flower Market

3.
The Flying Tigers and P-40 Warhawk in Kunming Air Base, 1944

4.
An old wooden house and a modern skyscraper in the background

San Francisco
–
San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856

List of cities in Switzerland
–
These are lists of towns in Switzerland. Until 2014 municipalities with more than 10,000 inhabitants were considered to be towns, since 2014, the Swiss Federal Statistical Office uses a new algorithm to define whether a municipality can be called a town or not, it newly also depends on its character. Currently, FSO considers 162 municipalities as t

1.
Zurich

2.
Population of cities with more than 10,000 inhabitants

3.
Geneva

4.
Lugano

Roman Empire
–
Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesars adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavians power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power, the imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,

1.
The Augustus of Prima Porta (early 1st century AD)

2.
Aureus of Augustus, the first Roman Emperor.

3.
A segment of the ruins of Hadrian's Wall in northern England

Turicum
–
Turicum is the Latin name of the Swiss municipality of Zürich and one of the most important aerchologicals sites in the canton of Zürich. The original gravestone dates from 185/200 AD and was found on the Lindenhof hill, the gravestone was erected for Lucius Aelius Urbicus, a one-year-old child, by his parents Unio, freedman of Augustus, and Aelia

1.
Lindenhof hill, Schipfe and the Roman wall of the later Pfalz fortifications, as seen from Limmatquai, Weinplatz to the left.

2.
Roman remains of a building at Lindenhofkeller

3.
2nd/3rd century AD remains of pluster, Weinplatz (Thermengasse)

4.
Modern replica of the Roman gravestone along Pfalzgasse on Lindenhof hill in Zürich

Imperial immediacy
–
As confirmed by the Peace of Westphalia, the possession of imperial immediacy came with a particular form of territorial authority known as territorial superiority. In todays terms, it would be understood as a form of sovereignty. They formed the Imperial Estates, together with roughly 100 immediate counts,40 Imperial prelates and 50 Imperial Citie

1.
Document signed by the Abbot of Marchtal, immediate and exempt

2.
The Prince-Bishop of Liège, member of the Imperial estates, enjoyed Imperial immediacy and therefore could negotiate and sign international treaties on his own, as long as they were not directed against the Emperor and the Empire.

Protestant Reformation
–
The period is usually considered to have begun with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Luther in 1517 to the Thirty Years War and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura, the initial movement within Germany diversified, and other refor

1.
Protestant Reformation

2.
Execution of Jan Hus, an important Reformation precursor, in 1415.

3.
Martin Luther, shown in a portrait by Lucas Cranach the Elder, initiated the Protestant Reformation in 1517.

4.
Martin Luther's 1534 Bible translated into German. Luther's translation influenced the development of the current Standard German.

Huldrych Zwingli
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Huldrych Zwingli or Ulrich Zwingli was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. He continued his studies while he served as a pastor in Glarus and later in Einsiedeln, in 1519, Zwingli became the pastor of the Grossmünster in Zurich where he began to preach ideas on reform of the Catholic Church. In his first public controversy in 1522, he attac

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Huldrych Zwingli as depicted by Hans Asper in an oil portrait from 1531 (Kunstmuseum Winterthur)

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House where Zwingli was born in Wildhaus in what is now the Canton of St. Gallen

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The Grossmünster in the centre of the medieval town of Zurich (Murerplan, 1576)

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Relief of Zwingli preaching at the pulpit, Otto Münch, 1935

Alemannic German
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Alemannic is a group of dialects of the Upper German branch of the Germanic language family. The name derives from the ancient Germanic alliance of tribes known as the Alemanni. S, ISO 639-3 distinguishes four languages, gsw, swg, wae and gct. At this level, the distinction between a language and a dialect frequently is considered a cultural and po

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The traditional distribution area of Western Upper German (=Alemannic) dialect features in the 19th and 20th century

Swiss German (linguistics)
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Swiss German is any of the Alemannic dialects spoken in the German-speaking part of Switzerland and in some Alpine communities in Northern Italy bordering Switzerland. Linguistically, Swiss German forms no unity, the linguistic division of Alemannic is rather into Low, High and Highest Alemannic, varieties of all of which are spoken both inside and

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French (Romandy)

Swiss National Museum
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The Swiss National Museum — part of the Musée Suisse Group, itself affiliated with the Federal Office of Culture — is one of the most important art museums of cultural history in Europe. It is located in the city of Zurich, Switzerlands largest city, the museum building of 1898 in the historicist style was built by Gustav Gull in the form of the Fr

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The Swiss National Museum

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The Museum as seen from the Platzspitz park

Global city
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A global city, also called world city or sometimes alpha city or world center, is a city generally considered to be an important node in the global economic system. The most complex of these entities is the city, whereby the linkages binding a city have a direct. Patrick Geddes also used the world city later in 1915. More recently, the term has bee

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London

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Globalization

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New York

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Tokyo

Monocle (2007 magazine)
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Monocle is a global affairs and lifestyle magazine, 24-hour radio station, website, retailer and media brand, all produced by Winkontent Ltd. It was founded by Tyler Brûlé, a Canadian entrepreneur, Financial Times columnist, the magazine is edited by Andrew Tuck. The magazine launched on 15 February 2007, in September 2014, Brûlé sold a minority st

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Cover of the first issue of Monocle magazine (March 2007)

World's Most Livable Cities
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The worlds most liveable cities is an informal name given to any list of cities as they rank on an annual survey of living conditions. Regions with cities commonly ranked in the top 50 include New Zealand, North America, Northern Europe, three examples of such surveys are Monocles Most Liveable Cities Index, the Economist Intelligence Units Global

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Tokyo was ranked highest by Monocle in 2015

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Melbourne has been ranked by the Economist Intelligence Unit as the world's most liveable city since 2011

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Vienna was top ranked in the 2015 Mercer Quality of Living Survey

Economist Intelligence Unit
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The EIU provides country, industry, and management analysis worldwide and incorporates the former Business International Corporation, a UK company acquired by its parent company in 1986. The EIU has several offices across the globe including two offices in China and one in Hong Kong, the Economist Intelligence Unit also produces regular reports on

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Economist Intelligence Unit Limited

Swiss German
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Swiss German is any of the Alemannic dialects spoken in the German-speaking part of Switzerland and in some Alpine communities in Northern Italy bordering Switzerland. Linguistically, Swiss German forms no unity, the linguistic division of Alemannic is rather into Low, High and Highest Alemannic, varieties of all of which are spoken both inside and

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French (Romandy)

Romansh language
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Romansh has also been recognized as a national language of Switzerland since 1938 and as an official language along with German, French and Italian since 1996. It is sometimes grouped with Ladin and Friulian as a Rhaeto-Romance language, Romansh has also been heavily influenced by German in vocabulary and morphosyntax. The language gradually retrea

Umlaut (diacritic)
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The diaeresis, also spelled diæresis or dieresis and also known as the tréma or the umlaut, is a diacritical mark that consists of two dots placed over a letter, usually a vowel. When that letter is an i or a j, the diacritic replaces the tittle, the diaeresis and the umlaut are diacritics marking two distinct phonological phenomena. The diaeresis

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Letters with umlaut on a German computer keyboard.

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New and old forms of umlaut

Tombstone
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A headstone, tombstone, or gravestone is a stele or marker, usually stone, that is placed over a grave. They are traditional for burials in the Christian, Jewish and Muslim religions, in many parts of Europe insetting a photograph of the deceased in a frame is very common. The stele, as it is called in a context, is one of the oldest forms of funer

Gaulish
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Gaulish is an ancient Celtic language that was spoken in parts of Europe as late as the Roman Empire. In the narrow sense, Gaulish was the language spoken by the Celtic inhabitants of Gaul. In a wider sense, it also comprises varieties of Celtic that were spoken across much of central Europe, parts of the Balkans, and Asia Minor, the more divergent

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The Curse tablet from L'Hospitalet-du-Larzac, Musée de Millau.

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The name ARAÐÐOVNA on a Gaulish tomb, illustrating the use of the tau gallicum (in this case doubled).

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Map of the Roman Empire under the Tetrarchy, showing the dioceses and the four Tetrarchs' zones of control.

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The insignia of the praetorian prefect of Illyricum, as depicted in the Notitia Dignitatum: the ivory inkwell and pen case (theca), the codicil of appointment to the office on a blue cloth-covered table, and the state carriage.

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Alemannic belt mountings, from a 7th-century grave in the grave field at Weingarten.

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Area settled by the Alemanni, and sites of Roman-Alemannic battles, 3rd to 6th centuries

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The Limes Germanicus 83 to 260 CE.

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The gold bracteate of Pliezhausen (6th or 7th century) shows typical iconography of the pagan period. The bracteate depicts the "horse-stabber underhoof" scene, a supine warrior stabbing a horse while it runs over him. The scene is adapted from Roman era gravestones of the region.

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Rottweil, c. 1435. Swabian Rottweil maintained its independence up to the mediatization of 1802–03.

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The Free Imperial Cities in the 18th century

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Partial list of the Free Imperial Cities of Swabia based on the Reichsmatrikel of 1521. It indicates the number of horsemen (left hand column) and infantry (right hand column) which each Imperial Estate had to contribute to the defence of the Empire

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In the strictest definition of illuminated manuscript, only manuscripts with gold or silver, like this miniature of Christ in Majesty from the Aberdeen Bestiary (folio 4v), would be considered illuminated.

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The decoration of this page from a French Book of Hours, ca.1400, includes a miniature, initials and borders

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Unterwalden depicted as one of the thirteen cantons in 1572. Its name is Latinized as Sylvania, and its date of foundation is given as 1315, the date of the Pact of Brunnen, taken as the traditional founding date of the Swiss Confederacy until the 19th century. The old flag of Unterwalden is also shown, identical to the later Flag of Solothurn.

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Flag

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Standesscheibe of Unterwalden (16th century), showing the red-and-white design for Obwalden and the double-key design for Nidwalden.