Hindi language

Hindi language, member of the Indo-Aryan group within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is the preferred official language of India, although much national business is also done in English and the other languages recognized in the Indian constitution. In India, Hindi is spoken as a first language by nearly 425 million people and as a second language by some 120 million more. Significant Hindi speech communities are also found in South Africa, Mauritius, Bangladesh, Yemen, and Uganda.

History and varieties

Literary Hindi, written in the Devanagari script, has been strongly influenced by Sanskrit. Its standard form is based on the Khari Bolidialect, found to the north and east of Delhi. Braj Bhasha, which was an important literary medium from the 15th to the 19th century, is often treated as a dialect of Hindi, as are Awadhi, Bagheli, Bhojpuri, Bundeli, Chhattisgarhi, Garhwali, Haryanawi, Kanauji, Kumayuni, Magahi, and Marwari. However, these so-called dialects of Hindi are more accurately described as regional languages of the “Hindi zone” or “belt,” an area that approximates the region of northern India, south through the state of Madhya Pradesh.

Within this zone, the degree to which regional languages resemble standard Hindi varies considerably. Maithili—the easternmost regional language of the Hindi belt—bears more historical resemblance to Bengali than to standard Hindi. Likewise, Rajasthani, the westernmost language of the belt, in some respects resembles Gujarati more than standard Hindi. Nevertheless, the majority of speakers of these regional languages consider themselves to be speaking a Hindi dialect. Among other reasons, they note that these languages were grouped with Hindi by the British in an attempt to classify languages in the early days of British rule. Furthermore, Hindi (rather than one of the regional languages) was chosen as the medium of instruction at the elementary-school level. In large part as a result of this colonial policy, members of the urban middle class and educated villagers throughout the zone claim to be speakers of Hindi because the use of these regional languages or dialects in public venues—that is, outside the circle of family and close friends—is perceived as a sign of inadequate education. In other words, speaking standard Hindi gives as much status to people in this region as speaking English gives in the south of India; both are treated as languages of upward social mobility. Thus, people in search of new jobs, marriages, and the like must use standard Hindi in everyday communication. In many cases, young people now have only a passive knowledge of the regional languages. Particularly since the 1950s, the prevalence of mass media (radio, television, and films) and growing literacy have led to an increase in the number of native speakers of standard Hindi.

Occasionally there are demands for the formation of separate states for the speakers of one or another regional language. Such demands are generally neutralized by counterdemands for the recognition of that regional language’s many dialects. For instance, when the demand for the formation of a separate state of Maithili speakers was raised in Bihar in the 1960s and 1970s, there was a counterdemand for the recognition of Angika in eastern Bihar and Bajjika in northwestern Bihar. The successful demands for forming the new states of Chhattisgarh (from territory once in Madhya Pradesh) and Uttaranchal (from territory in Uttar Pradesh) was more sociopolitical than linguistic.

Grammar

Sanskrit and the Prakrit and Apabhramsha languages—the precursors of Hindi—are nominally and verbally inflected. In the nominal realm, the adjective agrees in number and gender with the noun that it qualifies. This is less the case for Hindi because it was greatly influenced by Persian, in which the adjective does not change as a result of a number change in the noun. Instead, Hindi indicates number agreement via postpositions—small words that appear after nouns and function much like English prepositions. Hindi has also reduced the number of genders to two (masculine and feminine), whereas other Sanskrit-based languages, such as Gujarati and Marathi, have retained the neuter gender as well. Persian influence also caused the Hindi system of case marking to become simpler, reducing it to a direct form and an oblique form. Postpositions are used to indicate the other case relations.

The verbal inflection of Hindi is also simpler than that of the regional languages of the Hindi zone. Only the present and future indicative forms are fully conjugated in Hindi, while other tenses are indicated with the help of perfective and imperfective participles combined with the auxiliary verbs.

Vocabulary

Modern standard Hindi evolved from the interaction of early speakers of Khari Boli with Muslim invaders from Afghanistan, Iran, Turkey, Central Asia, and elsewhere. As the new immigrants settled and began to adjust to the Indian social environment, their languages—which were ultimately lost—enriched Khari Boli.

Most of the Persian words that were assimilated with Hindi concerned administration, such as faujdari ‘criminal (case),’ vazir ‘minister,’ and musahib ‘courtier.’ Words such as dalil ‘argument,’ faisla ‘judgment,’ and gavahi ‘witness’ have been completely assimilated and are usually not recognized as loanwords. Persian names for items of dress and bedding (e.g., pajama, chador), cuisine (e.g., korma, kabab), cosmetics (e.g., sabun ‘soap,’ hina ‘henna’), furniture (e.g., kursi ‘chair,’ mez ‘table’), construction (e.g., divar ‘wall,’ kursi ‘plinth’), a large number of adjectives and their nominal derivatives (e.g., abad ‘inhabited’ and abadi ‘population’), and a wide range of other items and concepts are so much a part of the Hindi language that purists of the postindependence period have been unsuccessful in purging them.

While borrowing Persian and Arabic words, Hindi also borrowed phonemes, such as /f/ and /z/, though these were sometimes replaced by /ph/ and /j/. For instance, Hindi renders the word for ‘force’ as either zor or jor and the word for ‘sight’ as nazar or najar. In most cases the sounds /g/ and /x/ were replaced by /k/ and /kh/, respectively. Contact with the English language has also enriched Hindi. Many English words, such as button, pencil, petrol, and college are fully assimilated in the Hindi lexicon.

Hindi has borrowed a number of prefixes and suffixes from Persian that, when combined with indigenous roots, have created new words. Similarly, the process of hybridization with English has produced a large number of derived nominals, such as kaungresi (congress + i), Ameriki (America + i), and vaiscansalari (vice-chancellor + i), in which the base word is English and the suffix is typically Hindi. Nouns that mix contributions from English and Persian, such as table-kursi ‘tables and chairs’ and school-imarat ‘school building,’ are also found. In spoken Hindi, English-based complex verbs are used as well. For instance, one can say either aram karna or rest karna ‘to rest,’ parhai karna or study karna ‘to study,’ and bahas karna or plead karna ‘to plead.’

Syntax

In earlier Hindi the relative clause was placed either at the beginning or at the end of the main clause. For instance, one could render ‘the boy who came here yesterday is my friend’ in several ways: wo larka mera dosht hai jo kal yaha aya tha, literally ‘that boy my friend is who yesterday came here’; jo larka kal yaha aya tha, wo mera dosht hai, literally ‘which boy yesterday here came, he my friend is’; or wo larka jo kal yaha aya tha, mera dosht hai, literally ‘that boy who yesterday here came, my friend is.’ After colonization, Hindi syntax was influenced by English, though in a limited way. For instance, until the mid-19th century, Hindi had no form for indirect narration—one could formerly say Ram ne kaha, mein nahi aaoonga ‘Ram said, “I won’t come,”’ and now one can also say Ram ne kaha ki wo nahi ayega ‘Ram said that he won’t come.’

From the mid-20th century, the use of Hindi on national television increased the use of a linguistic device called code switching, in which the speaker creates sentences by combining a Hindi phrase with another in English, as in I told him that mai bimar hu ‘I told him that I am sick.’ This device differs from code mixing, in which words of different origins are mixed: usne sick leave ki application de hai ‘he has applied for sick leave.’

Standardization

In 1931 linguist Sumit Kumar Chatterjee conducted a study in Calcutta (now Kolkata) detailing the use of a lingua franca that he called Bazaar Hindustani. It had minimal grammatical forms and a simplified basic vocabulary used by both Europeans and Indians who spoke such languages as Assamese, Bengali, Oriya, Tamil, and Hindi. In the early 21st century, what came to be known simply as Hindustani—a colloquialspoken language that, depending on geographic location, draws extensively from Hindi and Sanskrit or from Urdu and Persian—continued to be the lingua franca of Kolkata and other cosmopolitan and industrial cities that had drawn people from all parts of India. As Hindi originated in just such a multilingual situation centuries ago, so may urbanism instigate the development of an even richer lexicon and even more flexible syntactic devices.

Pressure on standard Hindi is felt not only from non-Hindi speakers but also from the many Hindi speakers who have recently switched over from their dialects to standard Hindi without having entirely eliminated the influences of those regional languages. In such cases, sound systems often retain a regional touch; for instance, Biharis use /s/ in place of /sh/, and the hill peoples (the so-called Scheduled Tribes) of Uttar Pradesh use /sh/ for /s/. The syntax of such speakers may also have recognizable variants; for example, instead of the standard Hindi form mujhey jana hai ‘I have to go,’ Punjabis and Delhites say maine jana hae, Hindi speakers of Teangana say maiku jana hai, and people of western Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra say apanko jana hai.

The Central Hindi Directorate, a government agency with the mission of standardizing and modernizing Hindi, is moving the language closer to Sanskrit. Non-Hindi speakers, however, are pulling the language in another direction by using increasing numbers of English words and phrases and by simplifying the complex rules of subject-verb agreement found in standard Hindi. Notably, both groups are motivated by the same goal—to widen the scope of Hindi by making it more comprehensible to non-Hindi speakers.