1884 became an agent of the Moscow department of the Okhranka, or secret police; 1896-1902 head of Moscow Okhranka; 1901-1903 established pro-government workers’ organizations, such as the Society of Mutual Aid of Workers in Mechanical Production. These organizations were under surveillance and a means of averting social agitation, a phenomenon referred to as “police socialism” or Zubatovshchina [Zubatovism]; 1903 banished to Vladimir after his failure to restrain a strike; March 2, 1917 shot himself out of fear of becoming a victim of the revolution.