The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 1

(BWV 846-869)

The Well-Tempered
Clavier 1 is a collection of educational pieces with
exceptionally high artistic contents. From all the works written in the
Baroque era, no other work has been so well-cherished, frequently
performed and thoroughly studied than this work of Bach's. Hence many
interesting episodes relating to this work can be found. Among the most
interesting are Hans von Bülow's aphorism "Pianists' Old Testament" and
R. Schumann's "Pianists' Daily Bread" — which, incidentally, can still
be heard in music education today.

Though the Well-Tempered Clavier
(hereafter WTC) was not published
during Bach's lifetime, many manuscript copies were made by his pupils
and copies spread steadily all over Europe with his fame. Influential
musicians
such as Mozart and Beethoven received manuscripts and as everyone
knows,
these composers in turn influenced the direction of the Western music.
The WTC was finally published 51 years after the composer's death,
which
marked the culmination of the strenuous efforts made by his son and
pupils.

Contents

TITLE AND HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND

Bach's autograph fair copy (in the possession of the
Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Preußischer Kulturbesitz) bears the
following title page:

The Well-Tempered Clavier,or Preludes
and Fugues through all the tones and semitones both as regards the tertia major or
Ut Re Mi
and as concerns the tertia minor or Re Mi Fa.
For the Use and Profit of the Musical Youth Desirous of Learning
as well as for the Pastime of those Already Skilled in this Study
drawn up and written by Johann Sebastian Bach.
p.t. Capellmeister to His Serene Highness
the Prince of Anhalt-Cöthen, etc.
and Director of
His Chamber Music.
Anno 1722."

The inclusion of an abstruse word, 'well-tempered', suggests
that in
those days, well-tuned keyboard instruments on which the pieces written
in all the 24 keys could be played were uncommon. From the second half
of the 18th century to the middle of the 20th century, it was commonly
thought that this word meant 'equal-temperament'. When we follow the
trail
of the word's historical significance, we ultimately arrive at the
history
of tuning methods advocated by A. Werckmeister. Related to this
development
was another historical change, namely, the establishment of the tonal
system.
Since the beginning of the Baroque era, a variety of church modes
eventually
became reduced to about two, and freer modulation became possible. As a
result, an increased number of major and minor keys were available for
common use. Thus it was not surprising that Bach considered launching
such
a project using all these theoretically possible keys. In this sense,
this
work can be seen to be epoch-making and evoking new ideas in the mind
of
the later generations.

However, J. M. Barbour questioned the traditional view. In
1947, he
proposed that this work should be interpreted as 'Well-Tuned Piano'.
Later,
it became fashionable to regard 'well-tempered' as a kind of unequal
temperament
and scholars made various attempts to ascertain the temperament used by
Bach. Under this type of tuning methods, every chord has a distinctive
colour as a result of having pure or impure intervals determined by the
chosen temperament. This argument was yet again overthrown by the
comprehensive
research by R. Rasch in 1985, who proposed that Bach's 'well-tempered'
meant 'equal-tempered'. His view may seem ludicrous to many. Yet if we
consider the accounts relating to Bach's own views on tuning as
discussed
by his son and pupils, together with the fact that Bach himself
transposed
his pieces widely and frequently, it is not too difficult to accept
Rasch's
view.

The 'clavier' means 'keyboard' - though no specific
instruments under
this name ever existed. Until the beginning of the 20th century, it was
generally thought to mean 'clavichord'. Indeed there is evidence for it
being referred to as 'clavichord' at the end of the 18th century.
Recently,
however, it has emerged that the word 'clavier' in Bach's time referred
to 'keyboard instrument' in general. A closer study of his scores
indicates
that Bach did not directly follow this trend; he apparently
distinguished
the organ from the other smaller stringed keyboard instruments, which
he
collectively called 'clavier'. These clavier instruments can be roughly
categorised as clavichord, fortepiano and harpsichord. Bach's
classification
of instruments was also a convenient way to refer to a particular
character
of sound and timbre, as well as the physical size of the instruments.
Indeed
such distinctions are important for a composer: it was an absolute
requirement
for him to consider the place where the piece was to be performed and
the
purpose of the composition, let alone the relationships between the
performer
and the listeners. These are also all relevant points when we discuss
the
style and character of music.

Another topic commonly debated is Bach's choice of an
instrument for
the WTC I. Some pieces are definitely suited to organ, such as fugues
no.
4 and no. 20. But it must have been the 'clavier' instrument to which
Bach
had regular access at home, as we are informed by the recollection of
H.
N. Gerber (discussed below). When the WTC I was to be performed in its
entirety on a single instrument, there would have been nothing better
than
to choose a harpsichord which is equipped with several stops. There
were
some arguments in the past with regard to the limited pitch range of C
to c''' used in this collection. The traditional view that Bach
intended
the work to be performed on his clavichord with the keyboard compass of
four octaves seems a little too confined. It is more logical to suppose
that Bach considered the limitation to suit the needs of an unspecified
number of prospective learners and performers. For him, a wider
dissemination
of the work must also have been an important consideration.

HISTORY OF
CONCEPTION AND REVISION PROCESS

The year '1722' (inscribed in the title-page) was a crucial
turning
point in Bach's entire career. In that year, Prince Leopold, his
employer,
married a Princess who was known for her ignorance in music. Because of
this situation at the court of Cöthen, he had never felt so awkward to
remain in his position and so, by the end of that year, he had already
made up his mind and sought a post in Leipzig. The WTC I was completed
during this period. Bach was apparently deeply engaged in keyboard
works
of an educational nature; from this period date two similar (though
smaller)
collections, namely the Clavierbüchlein for Anna Magdalena Bach (Bach
had
married her at the end of the previous year) and the fair copy of
Inventions
and Sinfonias, which was completed in the following year.

Through recent studies of the surviving manuscript sources,
the most notable of which are those by A. Dürr and R. Jones, it has
emerged that the work was compiled over many years and that Bach seemed
to have gathered some pieces which he had written previously, revising
them repeatedly and improving them constantly for perfection. Examining
the structural development of the work, it appears that the system of
the WTC — namely a prelude-fugue pair, starting from C major and
ascending on chromatic scale until reaching B minor while maintaining
the alternation between the major and minor keys — was gradually
formed. Furthermore, the manuscript sources that can be considered to
have stemmed from an early autographic score (which is lost) attest
numerous textual variants in the early shape of the text. The fact that
these observations coincide with equivalent information contained in
the other contemporary works by Bach gives much credibility to the
integrity of such information, which in turn, becomes valuable
chronological evidence. Further back along this line of the enquiries
lies J. C. F. Fischer's idea (which is discussed below).
Characteristics apparent in some of the fugue subjects used by Fischer
are also evident in the WTC. This leaves little doubt that Fischer was
the model of inspiration for Bach.

To some extent, it is possible to reconstruct the early part
of the compiling and revision process of the WTC I in three stages
(from α1 to α3). Firstly, in stage α1, twelve preludes from the first
fifteen (nos. 9, 11 and 14 are excluded) are shorter than the final
version. All the fugues are entitled 'fughetta' (meaning 'little
fugue'), though the pieces themselves do not show signs of major
revisions except nos. 15 and 22 (both of which are one bar shorter than
their final version). Stages α2 and α3 are reflected in the
Clavierbüchlein for Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, which was written in 1720
for his eldest son who then was nine years of age. In it we find 11
preludes in the form of an early version: stage α2 consists of pieces
from C major to F major on an ascending diatonic scale (C, c, d, D, e,
E, F); stage α3 consists of pieces filling the gap to form a fully
chromatic scale (C#, c#, eb, f (though Eb
is missing). Turning our attention to the musical maturity of the
pieces, we find that α2 is a slight improvement on stage α1, whereas α3
is much closer to the final version. Thus we can confirm a definite
chronological lapse between these stages. The manuscript copied during
a period from the end of 1722 into 1723 by one of Bach's pupils (known
to Bach scholars
as Anon.5)
also reflects this stage α3. Here we find
all the 24 prelude-fugue pairs arranged on the chromatic scale. It,
however, shows a trace of the diatonic scale arrangement seen in a2
in the form of the interchange between major and minor keys (i.e., d/D,
e/E and a/A). This manuscript was later updated to the version of the
autographic fair copy, but nonetheless the initial readings are still
legible. More important is the fact that even at this stage, all the
first fifteen preludes were already fully developed, transformed from
short études to respectable pieces comparable in
size and content to the accompanying fugues. In the light of both
musical style and technical requirements for performers, we can
establish the identity of α2 as a group, thus suggesting that these
pieces were composed closely together. Yet, when we look at the overall
history of the revisions, we notice an interesting fact: while the
fugues were virtually untouched, the preludes were extended
considerably in length. It may well be the case that the pair of
preludes and fugues in this collection originated separately to some
extent, especially since there is no fugue found in α2.

In completing the collection, one of the most challenging
tasks for
Bach must have been the composing of the pieces in those keys which he
very rarely used, even in modulated passages. In fact there is no
evidence
that Bach had ever written pieces in the keys which have more than 4
flats
or sharps in the key-signature, prior to the WTC I. It is fascinating
to
find, therefore, that some manuscript sources contain evidence of
transposition
being carried out from simpler keys: no. 8 (eb/d#,
from e/d
respectively), no. 18 (g#, from g), and no. 24 (b, from c). In
addition,
the notation of key-signatures contains some degree of chronological
information:
Bach often used modal key-signatures (with one sharp or flat fewer than
our modern form) for his early versions.

Time-signatures are another notational element which
determines the
character of the pieces: they also went through gradual refinement in
character,
for some evidence can be identified in the time-signature of preludes
no.
8 (from 3/4 to 3/2) and no. 13 (from 12/8 to 12/16).

Thus draft manuscript was completed by 1722, and there
followed the
autographic fair copy intended to be the final, definitive version.
Although
the manuscript exhibits frequent emendations as a result of his
continual
usage for over 20 years, Bach's beautiful calligraphy points to his
sparkling
confidence. It speaks to us of his great affection for this project and
his aim of bringing it to a satisfactory conclusion. At the end of the
volume is written "S.D.G" (Soli Deo Gloria), which is a customary
signature by Bach to conclude a fair copy volume. Nothing is known
about
whether or not Bach considered having the work published at this stage.
When his pupils needed to learn the pieces, Bach apparently lent them
his
earlier draft which was updated from time to time: it is likely that
Bach
did not lend his fair copy for at least another 20 years. Such untold
history
is hidden in the copies made by his pupils.

Bach's revision is in itself very fascinating. The study by W.
Dehnhard
in 1977 shows that Bach revised his fair copy manuscript in four stages
(from A1 to A4). According to him, A1 refers to the initial state of
reading
when the manuscript was made, allowing for the earliest corrections,
plus
an intriguing revision to the last fugue. A2 includes extensive
revisions
in prelude no. 3 and fugue no. 6. This stage corresponds with the
manuscript
copy started by Anna Magdalena in 1733. In fact the inscription "1732"
found at the end of the autographic fair copy may indicate the end of
this
phase of revision. A3 includes the extensive revision to fugue no. 1
and
minor revisions to nos. 9 and 15. This stage can be dated around 1737
after
Bach received the title of 'Composer to the Royal Court Capelle' at
Dresden.
A4 is the most extensive revision of all, affecting many movements.
This
can be dated around 1742 coinciding with the completion of the second
volume
of WTC. At that time Bach was working on a series of monumental
keyboard
pieces, and surely this latest revision of WTC I was a part of that
year's
activity.

The revisions on the preludes are, in general, restricted to
subtle
decoration of the texture in order to bring out more clearly the
inherent
character of the preludes; also we notice the insertion of
newly-composed
parts which help to achieve structural stability and formal integrity.
The revisions on the fugues are rather different, in that some of the
revised
part-writings attest to an attempt to disobey the rules of
textbook-style
counterpoint. In fugue no. 1, the subject itself receives new rhythmic
treatment as a result. Such instances reflect the idea that both fugue
subject and contrapuntal logic have the capacity to process
philosophical
thought in music, which should be manifested even more clearly in
performance.

HISTORICAL POSITION

Bach's explanation of "all the 24 keys" in the title page is
wordy and somewhat bizarre. This must reflect the fact that Bach was
unable to find a better phrase to explain the concept more neatly at
the time of writing. Yet several similar attempts had already been made
in the 20 years before him: in 1702 J. P. Treiber published Sonderbare
Invention: eine Arie in einer einzigen Melodey aus allen Tonen und
Accorden auch jederley Tacten zu componiren, and two years
later, Der accurate Organist im General-Bass. Then
in 1719, J. Mattheson published Exemplarische
Organisten-Probe im Artikel vom General-Bass, which contained
48 examples in all the 24 keys. G. Kirchhoff, who was the same age as
Bach — and presumably they knew each other — also wrote a similar work
entitled L'ABC musical: Praeludia und Fugen aus allen Tönen.
Yet the most influential of all was Ariadne Musica by
J. C. F. Fischer published in 1702: it was reported by his son that
Bach studied Fischer, whose work containing 20 preludes and fugues
shows unmistakable identity with the WTC in the shape of fugue subject
and the way the volume is organised. Thus there is little doubt that
Bach used Fischer's Ariadne Musica as the model
for his collection.

What, then, were Bach's objectives? Apart from the fact that
he wanted
to use all the keys, perhaps he intended to compile a collection of
pieces
covering diverse styles at the highest degree of artistic content and
integrity
as a whole. Here we can see a trichotomous image of Bach as
distinguished
composer, performer and educator.

CHARACTER

Comparing the preludes and fugues composed specifically for
organ with
those in the WTC I, we may notice that in the WTC I they are apparently
shorter and more modest in their expressive means. To certain extent
this
may apply to all the clavier pieces; we would expect the relationship
between
performer and listeners in the domestic environment to be more
intimate,
conducive to sharing the musical experience.

Doubtless such pieces full of artistic content are the best
textbook
for those learning composition or performance. Bach first began writing
large-scale composition of this nature - namely Orgelbüchlein from
Weimar
period - some 9 years before the WTC I was completed. In his own system
of clavier teaching, the WTC was placed at the final stage. It was
reported
that H. N. Gerber, who studied under Bach between 1724 and 1726, told
his
son of his experience with Bach. That story was published in 1790 by
Gerber's
son under the title of Historisch-Biographisches Lexicon der
Tonkünstler:

"At the first lesson he set his Inventions before him. When
he
had studied these through to Bach's satisfaction, there followed a
series
of suites, then the WTC. This latter work Bach played altogether three
times through for him with his unmatchable art, and my father counted
these
among his happiest hours, when Bach, under the pretext of not feeling
in
the mood to teach, sat himself at one of his fine instruments and thus
turned these hours into minutes."

Here we can witness his philosophy in education: pieces put in
front
of the student should be of sufficient variety, richness of style and
form
that the student is motivated strongly to learn.

STRUCTURE, FORMS
AND STYLES

As the churches in Bach's time were built in the symmetric
form, the concept of symmetry, which originates in the cross of Christ,
dominated the structure of the piece, penetrating deep into the
constituting elements of music and the musical form itself. If we
divide the WTC I into two halves, we then notice that the concluding
movement from each section is built around an identical compositional
concept: in section 1 (no. 12), all the twelve semitones are covered by
the subject and the answer, while in section 2 (no. 24), they are
contained in the single subject entry. This can be thought of as the
symbolic representation of the concept — 'all the keys'. If we extend
our search into the details by dividing the sections further, we find
sub-divisions in threes, marked by the large fugues in minor keys,
namely nos. 4, 8, 20 and 24 (no. 16 is not that substantial, however).

From a different angle, we can also find a concept of symmetry
in the
number of voices used in the fugues: in each section there is one
5-part
fugue written in stile antico; In the first section, there are seven
3-part
fugues (plus three 4-part and one 2-part), while there are seven 4-part
(plus four 3-part) in the second half. ('Seven' and 'twelve' [3 x 4 or
4 x 3], often quoted as 'holy numbers', seem to be stressed here by
Bach.)

There is some evidence in the WTC I suggesting that this was
intended
to be a mikrokosmos. The fact that the WTC I begins with the simplest
of
preludes and ends with a fugue of an extensive, most complicated nature
cannot be a mere coincidence. The work also embraces pieces in diverse
forms and styles, encompassing all the possible varieties of the day,
including
quasi-vocal fugue in stile antico, dance movement, virtuoso impromptu,
and others.

Fugues are often classified according to the number of voices
and the
contrapuntal techniques used. It is also possible to some extent to
approach
from so-called 'Charakterthema' in H. Besseler's term, or from a
stylistic
classification, as viewed from a chronological perspective.

The musical form of the prelude-fugue pair traditionally meant
what
the term implies; preludes were originally short, mirroring the early
development
process of WTC I already discussed. The original function of preludes
was
to establish the tonic key on which the fugue exposed its rich musical
discourse. In the WTC I however, the preludes began to acquire the
character
of an étude as well as that of an artistic piece in its own right. This
tendency is even more clearly seen in the WTC II.

SOME ISSUES ON
PERFORMANCE

In search of the 'authentic' performance, selecting the
original instrument
is just the starting point. Should we aim for historical accuracy
according
to Bach's intention as closely as possible? Or do we approach a
performance
from our modern aesthetic milieu, in order to reconstruct the history
of
the period? In either way, it is necessary to understand the elements
of
musical organisms, such as ornamentation and the correct interpretation
of rhythm and tempo when we realise the fact that music has never been
intended to be interpreted as actual sound itself but the expressive
character
of musical ideas.

It is well-known that Bach wrote in many more ornaments than
the standard
practice of his time. In his day, it was the performers' task to add
ornaments
and embellishments as a part of expressing the music according to its
melodic
shape, its harmonic progression and associated texture. Thus knowledge
about many diverse styles of music was the essential requirement to be
a good performer. The examples of Bach's teaching on this aspect can be
seen in some of the surviving manuscripts, to which Bach apparently
added
some ornaments during lessons with his pupils. It is worth adding that
the ornamentation is also determined by several other external factors,
such as the tone characteristics of the instrument selected and the
acoustics
of the room used.

Bach's clavier pieces do not often bear tempo marks. This is
partly
due to the domestic and educational nature of these compositions. When
learning pieces from the WTC, his pupils were expected to study not
only
how to play the correct notes, but also how to interpret individual
pieces
correctly. All this is actually contained in the form of musical
notation.
The source of information resides in the use of a variety of
time-signatures,
the way the main motifs are shaped, and the way the texture is
formulated.
The tempo signs written in the WTC I are all exceptional cases, which
are
intended to clarify the composer's intention. Here Bach used five
kinds,
namely Adagio, Largo, Andante, Allegro and Presto:
they appear
in preludes no. 2 (Presto, Adagio, Allegro), no. 10 (Presto),
no. 24 (Andante) and its accompanying fugue (Largo).
It is
important to note that they do not indicate the absolute tempo, as we
would
understand it today. In Bach's time the tempo indication meant its
emotional
character, which in turn suggested the speed to which it belonged.

Thus the deeper we study Bach's music from a historical
perspective,
the better we understand the historical meaning hidden deep in
individual
notes. There we may discover a bygone world — the eternal dimension in
which to search for an approximation of historical truth.

(c) Yo
Tomita,
1996 [updates are entered in the form of pop-up comments over the text in red/underline]

This essay is inspired by
the performance of the work
on the harpsichord by Masaaki Suzuki, 1996, and is used for his CD
(BIS-CD-813/814)
released in January 1997 from BIS.