John Clifford Hodges Lee

John Clifford Hodges Lee, (born August 1, 1887, Junction City, Kansas, U.S.—died August 30, 1958, York, Pennsylvania), U.S. Army logistics officer who oversaw the buildup of American troops and supplies in Great Britain in preparation for the Normandy Invasion (1944) during World War II. He was an early and outspoken proponent of racial integration of the U.S. armed forces.

During a boyhood visit to the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, New York, Lee decided on a career in the U.S. Army. He graduated from the academy in 1909 and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Army Corps of Engineers. His first assignment was to the Canal Zone in Panama, and subsequent postings took him to Guam and the Philippines. In June 1916 he was promoted to captain, and later that year he oversaw a dam-building project on the Ohio River. After the United States entered World War I in April 1917, he was made aide-de-camp to Maj. Gen. Leonard Wood and promoted to the temporary rank of major. In February 1918 Lee arrived in Europe, now with the temporary rank of lieutenant colonel, and, after attending the Army General Staff College at Langres, France, he saw service as a staff officer in intelligence and operations. He was involved with the planning of the Saint-Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne offensives and was awarded both the Distinguished Service Medal and the French Croix de Guerre.

With the demobilization of the army, Lee reverted to the permanent rank of major. During the interwar years, he attended the Army War College, graduating in 1932, and served as an engineer in the Philippines and at posts across the United States. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel and colonel in rapid succession in 1938. He became a brigadier general in 1940 and oversaw the San Francisco Port of Embarkation, the army’s main West Coast shipping hub. One month prior to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Lee was given command of the 2nd Infantry Division.

He was promoted to major general in February 1942, and several months later, in May, Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall ordered Lee to take command of the Service of Supply (SOS) in Britain. The SOS had the critical job of supplying the U.S. forces in the European Theater of Operations (ETO) along with building up a supply base for a cross-Channel invasion of German-occupied western Europe. He had to acquire, transport across the Atlantic, and distribute to the troops hundreds of thousands of different items of supply—a task of gargantuan complexity. In addition to his equipment duties, he was in charge of the housing, feeding, and sanitation of the troops. In January 1944 he was also made the deputy commander of U.S. forces in the ETO, under Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower, and he was promoted to lieutenant general (temporary) the following month. After the invasion began on D-Day (June 6, 1944), Lee remained in charge of supplying the American forces fighting in the European campaign, whose numbers totaled about three million men by early 1945.

Although Lee was a brilliant logistics officer, his conduct as head of the SOS attracted criticism both during and after the war. He was accused of leading a lavish lifestyle during a period of wartime scarcity, often indulging in the best hotels and food. After the liberation of Paris, Lee relocated the SOS and 29,000 personnel to the French capital, in spite of Eisenhower’s desire to keep major headquarters away from large cities and to reserve Paris for combat troops on leave. Lee claimed that this was done because of the city’s role as a transportation and communications centre, but the move strained an already overworked supply chain. The general’s arrogance and religiosity led other officers to joke that his initials—J.C.H.— stood for “Jesus Christ Himself,” and Eisenhower labeled him “a modern Cromwell,” although he conceded that “his unyielding methods might be vital to success in an activity where an iron hand is always mandatory.”

Lee also stood out because of his outspokenness on racial issues and his early advocacy of integration. As the majority of African American soldiers in the ETO were assigned to supply units, they fell under Lee’s command. During a manpower shortage in the winter of 1944–45, Lee offered black soldiers the chance to volunteer for combat duty. His original ideas for integrated units met resistance at higher levels, and individual black soldiers were not allowed to replace their white counterparts as needed. Instead, segregated units were created, and some 37 African American rifle platoons had been formed from SOS personnel by March 1, 1945. Although the U.S. military would remain officially segregated until the signing of Executive Order 9981 by Pres. Harry S. Truman in 1948, Lee’s efforts have been seen by some historians as an important milestone in the integration of the U.S. armed forces.

Lee became commander of U.S. Army forces in the Mediterranean theatre of operations in December 1945, and his conduct in that role once again became a source of controversy. A series of sharply critical newspaper articles accused Lee of mistreating enlisted men under his command, but an internal army investigation cleared Lee of any wrongdoing and cast doubt on the articles’ accuracy. He retired from the army and public life in 1947.