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(1642–1727). The chief figure of the scientific revolution of the 17th century was Sir Isaac Newton. He was a physicist and mathematician who laid the foundations of calculus and extended the understanding of color and light. He also studied the mechanics of planetary orbits, formulated three fundamental laws of motion, and developed the law of gravitation, thus founding what is now known as classical mechanics. His work established the commonly held scientific view of the world until Albert Einstein published his theories of relativity in the early 20th century.

Isaac Newton was born on Dec. 25, 1642, in Woolsthorpe, England. His father had died before he was born. Within a couple of years his mother remarried and sent him away to live with his grandmother. Newton was later sent to grammar school at Grantham to prepare for the university.

When Newton arrived at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1661, he began studying the ancient teachings of Aristotle, as was then customary. Soon, however, he learned of the scientific revolution that had been going on in Europe through the work of Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, Galileo, and René Descartes. Newton became intrigued by the work of Descartes and other natural philosophers who—in contrast to Aristotle—viewed physical reality as composed entirely of particles of matter in motion. They held that all the phenomena of nature result from their mechanical interaction. In 1665 Newton graduated and returned to Woolsthorpe. There he continued his study of light, gravity, and mathematics that ultimately led him to three of the greatest discoveries in the history of science.

Newton’s experiments with light showed that white light passed through a prism broke up into a wide color band, called a spectrum. Passed through another prism, the color band became white light again. Next he passed a single color through a prism. It remained unchanged. From this he concluded that white light is a mixture of pure colors. He also formulated the corpuscular theory of light, which states that light is made up of tiny particles, or corpuscles, traveling in straight lines at great speeds. (See alsooptics.)

The law of gravitation arose from Newton’s question: what keeps the Moon in its regular path around Earth? Newton concluded that an invisible force—gravity—acts between them, and he formulated a mathematical expression for the gravitational force. It states that every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force that operates through empty space. This force varies with the masses of the objects and the distance between them (seegravitation).

In mathematics, Newton used the concepts of time and infinity to calculate the slopes of curves and the areas under curves. He developed his “fluxional” method—later known as calculus—in 1669 but did not publish it until 1704.

Meanwhile, Newton had been appointed professor of mathematics at Cambridge in 1669. Three years later he invented the reflecting telescope. In 1687 he published his major work, Principia (Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, or Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy). One of the fundamental works of modern science, it set forth the basic principles of classical mechanics concerning force, mass, and motion as well as the theory of gravitation.

Newton was elected to Parliament twice, as a representative of Cambridge. In 1696 he was appointed warden of the mint. At that time a complete recoinage and standardization of coins was taking place. When the project was completed in 1699, he was made master of the mint. He was elected president of the Royal Society in 1703 and was knighted in 1705. Newton died in London on March 20, 1727, and was the first scientist to be honored with burial in Westminster Abbey. (See alsophysics, “Newton’s Monumental Contributions.”)

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