Overview

With the rapid advances in Internet and digital technologies, communication and networking
have expanded vastly. E-mail and cell phones, for example, have decreased geographic
dispersion. Social networking sites such as Facebook have afforded people the opportunity to
share ideas, network, and connect or re-connect with others. Despite the overall benefits of
these technologies, domestic violence victims and their family members must be aware of the
increased risk these technologies can pose, as abusers may use these mechanisms to control
and monitor domestic violence victims' movements. This course will provide practical
strategies for educating domestic violence victims and identifying online resources to halt
the use of digital technology as a tool of abuse.

Audience

This introductory course is designed for psychologists in contact with victims of
domestic violence.

Accreditations & Approvals

NetCE is approved by the American Psychological Association to sponsor continuing education for psychologists. NetCE maintains responsibility for this program and its content.

Designations of Credit

NetCE designates this continuing education activity for 3 credit(s).

Course Objective

Because power, intimidation, and control are key dimensions to abuse, both online and
offline technologies have become new vehicles for abusers. Consequently, the purpose of this
course is to increase psychologists' awareness of how Internet and digital technologies can
place victims at risk so that they can better educate their patients.

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this course, you should be able to:

Define domestic violence, dating violence, and the dynamics of abuse.

Describe the scope of Internet and digital technologies and electronic communications.

Analyze how Internet and digital technologies have been used to perpetrate domestic violence.

Discuss the role of digital technology in providing services to victims and survivors of domestic violence.

Faculty

Alice Yick Flanagan, PhD, MSW, received her Master’s in Social Work from Columbia University, School of Social Work. She has clinical experience in mental health in correctional settings, psychiatric hospitals, and community health centers. In 1997, she received her PhD from UCLA, School of Public Policy and Social Research. Dr. Yick Flanagan completed a year-long post-doctoral fellowship at Hunter College, School of Social Work in 1999. In that year she taught the course Research Methods and Violence Against Women to Masters degree students, as well as conducting qualitative research studies on death and dying in Chinese American families.

Previously acting as a faculty member at Capella University and Northcentral University, Dr. Yick Flanagan is currently a contributing faculty member at Walden University, School of Social Work, and a dissertation chair at Grand Canyon University, College of Doctoral Studies, working with Industrial Organizational Psychology doctoral students. She also serves as a consultant/subject matter expert for the New York City Board of Education and publishing companies for online curriculum development, developing practice MCAT questions in the area of psychology and sociology. Her research focus is on the area of culture and mental health in ethnic minority communities.

Faculty Disclosure

Division Planner

James Trent, PhD

Division Planner Disclosure

The division planner has disclosed no relevant financial relationship with any product manufacturer or service provider mentioned.

About the Sponsor

The purpose of NetCE is to provide challenging curricula to assist
healthcare professionals to raise their levels of expertise while fulfilling their
continuing education requirements, thereby improving the quality of healthcare.

Our contributing faculty members have taken care to ensure that the
information and recommendations are accurate and compatible with the standards
generally accepted at the time of publication. The publisher disclaims any
liability, loss or damage incurred as a consequence, directly or indirectly, of
the use and application of any of the contents. Participants are cautioned about
the potential risk of using limited knowledge when integrating new techniques into
practice.

Disclosure Statement

It is the policy of NetCE not to accept commercial support. Furthermore, commercial
interests are prohibited from distributing or providing access to this activity to
learners.

Technical Requirements

Supported browsers for Windows include Microsoft Internet Explorer 9.0 and up, Mozilla Firefox 3.0 and up, Opera 9.0 and up, and Google Chrome. Supported browsers for Macintosh include Safari, Mozilla Firefox 3.0 and up, Opera 9.0 and up, and Google Chrome. Other operating systems and browsers that include complete implementations of ECMAScript edition 3 and CSS 2.0 may work, but are not supported.

#67491: Digital Technology and Domestic Violence

Review your Transcript to view and print your Certificate of Completion.
Your date of completion will be the date (Pacific Time) the course was electronically
submitted for credit, with no exceptions. Partial credit is not available.

INTRODUCTION

Domestic violence is characterized by a cluster of behaviors that an individual in an intimate relationship uses to control and maintain power over his or her partner [1]. These behaviors include physical, psychological, verbal, sexual, and economic/financial actions to threaten, assault, and ultimately control the victim. Power, intimidation, and control are key dimensions to abuse, and advances in online and offline technology offer a new arsenal of tools for abusers. Cell phones, video cameras, and global positioning systems (GPS) are examples of offline technologies domestic violence perpetrators may use to harass, intimidate, and locate victims. Perpetrators may call victims' cell phones or text message incessantly asking where they are, what they are doing, and who they are with. Abusers also utilize Internet tools like e-mail and social networking sites to threaten and intimidate. The purpose of this course is to increase healthcare professionals' awareness of how Internet and digital technologies can place victims at risk, allowing for better patient education. Practitioners are encouraged to familiarize themselves with these new technological tools, reformulate ways of thinking about safety planning, and consider about how to best educate the general public on how technology has changed the face of intimate partner violence.

DEFINITIONS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines domestic violence broadly to encompass a wide range of behaviors. The formal WHO definition is [2]:

The intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against
oneself, another person, or against a group or community, that either results in or has a
high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or
deprivation.

In their definition of violence, the WHO utilizes the term "power" to communicate that abuse can go beyond physical acts of violence and includes behaviors that emanate from a power relationship, such as threats and intimidation, as well as acts of omission and neglect [2]. Furthermore, the concept of intentionality is used to convey that abuse does not necessarily mean that there is an intent to cause injury; a perpetrator may employ force with no intention of physically hurting or injuring the victim. However, the consequences of psychological, emotional, or financial abuse can have tremendous short- and long-term implications without being physically injuring [2].

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention defines domestic violence or intimate partner violence as a continuum ranging from a single episode to ongoing episodes of abuse that may include physical violence, sexual violence, stalking, and psychological aggression used by one individual on another party within the context of an intimate relationship [3]. The perpetrator or victim can be male or female, and the abuse can be perpetrated within a dating relationship or marital dyad or within a heterosexual or homosexual context. Table 1 summarizes the types of abuse or violence that can occur.

Withholding of money, refusing to allow victim to open bank account, placing all
property in perpetrator's name, not allowing victim to work

Table 1

Source: Compiled by Author

In this course, the terms "domestic violence" and "intimate partner violence" are used interchangeably, as are the terms "abuser," "batterer," and "perpetrator." It is acknowledged that there are distinct differences and political ramifications in how these terms are utilized; however, it is beyond the scope of this curriculum to address this issue.

DYNAMICS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE: POWER AND CONTROL

Studies show that there appears to be two major patterns of
domestic violence [2]. The first is a more
severe type of abuse that encompasses multiple and various forms of abusive behaviors. In this
classification, the abuse and violence escalates and the perpetrator increasingly attempts to
control, monitor, and intimidate the victim. The second is a more moderate form of abuse
whereby physical violence is occasionally perpetrated [2]. Some domestic violence victims do not experience any physical or sexual
abuse for many years; rather, they regularly experience non-physical forms of abuse, such as
emotional, psychological, social, and economic abuse [4]. The terms emotional and psychological abuse are often used
interchangeably; however, they are distinct entities [4]. Emotional abuse consists of behaviors that are meant to gradually
deteriorate the victim's dignity, self-respect, and self-worth. These behaviors might involve
insults, put-downs, name-calling, and public humiliation. On the other hand, psychological
abuse is meant to gradually diminish a victim's rational perceptions, to make one feel
"crazy." The underlying intention in all types of abuse is power and control [4]. Understanding these dynamics provides a
context in how technology can be used by perpetrators to reinforce power and control.

PREVALENCE OF INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE

Most victims of inter-relationship sexual violence are women who were assaulted by their male partners; 99% of perpetrators of rape against women are men [5]. As of 2011 in the United States, 9% of women have been raped by an intimate partner in their lifetime and an additional 16% have been subjected to other forms of sexual violence by a partner [5]. Approximately 0.5% of men have been raped by an intimate partner (predominantly by a male partner) in their lifetime and 9.5% experienced other forms of sexual violence [5].

The prevalence of physical violence in relationships is high, and rates are similar among women and men. The lifetime prevalence of physical violence by an intimate partner is 31.5% among women, with about two-thirds of instances involving severe physical violence [5]. Physical violence by an intimate partner has been experienced by 27.5% of men in their lifetime, with about half of instances being acts of severe violence. However, the physical toll on women is typically more severe and with much greater consequences. Sexual, physical, emotional, and psychological abuse of women overlaps in many instances, and abuse (often ongoing) can escalate to accidental or intentional murder. Violence perpetrated by current or former boyfriends or husbands accounts for 40% to 70% of all female homicides each year [2].

Episodes of psychological aggression appear to be common in the United States. One or more acts of psychological aggression by an intimate partner have been experienced by 47% of women and 46.5% of men in their lifetime [5]. In addition, 9.25% of women and 2.5% of men have been stalked by an intimate partner or former intimate partner.

In societies/cultures rigidly bound by traditional gender roles, abuse of wives is often considered a husband's right. When women in these groups do not conform to social and cultural expectations, their husbands are expected to use violence to regain obedience and respect from their wives [2]. Studies highlighted by the WHO show that intimate partner violence is highly prevalent in Nicaragua, Papua New Guinea, Turkey, Egypt, and Ethiopia. Many first, second, or later generations of individuals from these cultures living in the United States experience and/or perpetrate the violence typical of their society of origin. Throughout the world, when physical abuse occurs in a marriage, psychological aggression almost always occurs and sexual assault occurs in one-quarter to one-half of instances [2]. However, in many countries (including the United States) studies are not conducted and/or intimate partner violence is hidden or not reported out of fear. In the United States, the prevalence of intimate partner violence varies among various ethnic/racial groups (Table 2) [5].

DATING VIOLENCE

Dating violence is a distinct type of intimate partner violence, characterized by
abusive behaviors that occur in a dating relationship. In a Midwestern study on adolescent
health and welfare, researchers found that 35% of girls and 36% of boys disclosed being
victims of physical violence in a dating relationship [6]. The study also found that 73% of girls and 66% of boys experienced
psychological aggression in a dating relationship in high school. Additionally, 64% of girls
and 45% of boys had engaged in verbal emotional abuse toward a dating partner. Up to 25% of
girls and 14% of boys expressed that they had been sexually coerced in a teen dating
relationship [6].

A New England study on teen violence and abuse found that 26% of adolescents had been
the victims of some form of cyber abuse in a dating relationship in the 12-month period
before the study [7]. Girls were twice as
likely as boys to experience sexual cyber abuse in a dating relationship. Teen cyber abuse
victims are also likely (84%) to experience in-person psychological dating abuse, and a
large proportion experience violence and sexual abuse in the dating relationship [7]. Cyber abuse perpetrators are often
perpetrators of physical, sexual, and psychological aggression; 52% also perpetrate
psychological dating abuse, 55% perpetrate physical dating violence, and 11% perpetrate
sexual coercion [7]. This study found that
all forms of teen dating abuse are common, but not as common as in the previous study. It is
unclear if there is a regional pattern to dating violence, or if study design accounts for
the variations; the Midwestern study's sample size was significantly smaller.

USE OF INTERNET AND ELECTRONIC TECHNOLOGIES

In order to understand the pervasive social, psychological, and cultural impact of the Internet on the lives of individuals, it is important to obtain a brief glimpse of Internet and digital technology usage and consumption. As of 2000 in the United States, it was estimated that 88.2 million people were accessing the Internet from their homes [9]. One year later, this increased 16%, to 102.1 million [9]. In 2014, the U.S. Census reported that 75% of all households had Internet access [10]. Pew Internet Research Center reports that 86% of men and women 18 years of age and older use the Internet [11]. Individuals 18 to 29 years of age are the most likely to utilize the Internet (98%), while adults 65 years of age and older are the least likely (59%) [11]. There is no doubt that Internet technology has become a ubiquitous part of the American landscape. Although data published in the last several years is among the most current, the Internet landscape changes so rapidly that obtaining accurate data is nearly impossible.

CELL PHONE USE

Mobile devices are also an integral part of the fabric of individuals' lives. It is estimated that 90% of adults in the United States own a cell phone and 64% have a smartphone [8]. The phone has become more than just a means to connect with other people. According to the Pew Internet and American Life Survey, 39% of adults in the United States, 70% of adolescents, and 72% of young adults (18 to 29 years of age) indicated that the phone is a way to deal with boredom [12]. In a focus group study of Australian adolescents and their use of cell phones, interesting themes emerged [13]. While it is not surprising they were attached to their cell phones, these adolescents expressed that the number of calls or texts they received on their cell phone was associated with how valued or loved they felt. When they could not use their cell phones, they felt disconnected. This speaks to how cell phones have become entrenched in individuals' social and personal lives.

Adolescents are the largest consumers of text messaging on
cell phones, and a Pew Internet survey showed that 38% of teens texted friends on a daily
basis in 2008; this increased to 54% by 2009 [14]. As of 2015, 90% of teens with phones text every day [15]. Adolescents (14 to 17 years of age) who
text frequently send and receive 30 to more than 100 texts daily [14,15]. These texts are not only sent via telephones' text feature, but are
shared through messaging apps such as Kik, Snapchat, or WhatsApp. In 2014, 88% of
adolescents 13 to 17 years of age had their own cell phones or access to cell phones [15]. About 95% of teens with mobile web access
go online at least once per day and about 25% say they are "constantly online."

SOCIAL NETWORKING

A huge number of individuals are using online social networking sites like Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, Twitter, and Snapchat. In 2014, 89% of young adults (18 to 29 years of age) were using social networking sites compared to 72% in 2010 [16,17]. As of 2014, an estimated 71% of Americans 18 years of age and older used Facebook, 28% used Pinterest, 26% used Instagram, and 26% used Twitter [17]. Teens are using social networking sites at a much higher rate (71% use Facebook, 52% use Instagram, 41% use Snapchat, 33% use Twitter, and 33% use Google+) [15]. Teenage girls are more likely to use image-based social media sites than boys. For example, Instagram (61% of girls/44% of boys), Snapchat (51% of girls/31% of boys), and Tumblr (23% of girls/5% of boys) are overwhelmingly used by girls [15].

People, and teens in particular, are sharing much more personal information online now than in the past, despite valid privacy and safety concerns. More than 90% of teens post their real name and photo online, and 82% post their birthdate [50]. Other personal information, such as the school they attend (71%), the city or town in which they live (71%), email address (53%), and phone number (20%), are freely posted online by teens. Posting personal information online has been a growing trend; in 2006, only 2% of teens posted their phone number online compared with 20% in 2012 [50]. However, 60% of teen Facebook users keep their profiles private.

Parental supervision of Internet use is not as strict as one might think. According to one source, 20% of parents do not supervise their children's Internet use at all, 52% moderately supervise their use, and 71% stop supervision after age 14 [18]. This is in spite of the fact that 60% of 10 to 17 year olds have received an email or instant message from a stranger (50% respond) and 20% have been sexually solicited online.

PATTERNS OF ELECTRONIC INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

It is difficult to assess the prevalence of domestic violence that has been perpetrated using some type of technology. Most available information regarding these behaviors is from small studies or extrapolated data. For example, one study of 339 college students found that 10% to 15% of participants had received repeated e-mails or text messages from a spouse, boy/girlfriend, or partner that were insulting, threatening, or harassing [19]. Another survey study of 256 victims of abuse indicated that 30% reported the harassment began with e-mails and an additional 30% reported the harassment began on Facebook [20]. The majority of the respondents in this study (60%) were female, and 53% had engaged in a prior relationship with the harasser [20]. In a survey study involving 479 victims who had received services, 25% of the women reported having their Internet browser history monitored, 23.6% stated that they had received threatening e-mails repeatedly, and 18% indicated that someone had monitored their e-mails [21].

DATING VIOLENCE

Dating violence has also been transformed in the cyberage. In a 2010 large-scale survey study, with a random sample of approximately 4,400 children and adolescents between 11 and 18 years of age, the researchers found that 10% of the adolescents had a romantic partner who would not allow them to use their cell phone or computer [22]. Approximately 10.4% of the boys and 9.8% of the girls disclosed that they received a threatening message on their cell phone from their boy/girlfriend. Less than 10% stated their romantic partner posted embarrassing or humiliating information or photos in an online forum or via a cell phone.

A smaller study of adolescent dating violence victims uncovered patterns in technology use, particularly the use of cell phones to monitor victims' activities and who they were with [23]. Furthermore, threatening, insulting, or disparaging messages that were meant to humiliate or intimidate were regularly left on voicemail accounts. Some participants reported that their partners used social networking sites to post hurtful messages. One young woman reported that her boyfriend at the time posted messages that he never loved her but only used her for sex. Another woman's boyfriend had developed a website titled "I Hate [Participant's Name]" and invited others to post hurtful messages about her. Some abusers even controlled who the victim could interact with on social networking sites. Demanding that victims "unfriend" certain individuals on social networking site(s) was relatively common [24]. An emerging behavior involves tagging pictures posted on sites like Facebook and Instagram with insulting, shaming, or hurtful tags.

CYBERSTALKING

In many domestic violence cases, stalking is an integral component of the abuser's arsenal of behaviors to intimidate the victim. Stalking is defined as repeated harassing, threatening, and/or intimidating behaviors used by an individual on another party [25]. Stalkers are often perceived as being unknown to the victim; however, this is often not the case. One study found that 60% of female stalking victims are stalked by an intimate partner, and 80% of women stalked by a current or former intimate partner are also physically assaulted by that partner [5]. A 2010 report to Congress published by the U.S. Department of Justice showed that 97% of stalking victims knew their stalker in some manner [48]. Specifically, 55% of the stalkers were a current or former intimate partner, 17% were an acquaintance, and 15% were a current or former dating partner [48].

Cyberstalking is a term coined to describe using computers or
electronic communications to harass and intimidate. Harassers might use the following
electronic communication methods to harass their victims [26]:

Flooding the victim's e-mail box with e-mails so as to disrupt the ability to receive incoming e-mails

Sending intimidating e-mail, texts, or instant messages

Monitoring the victim's computer communications through the use of software programs such as spyware or keystroke logging programs

Taking on the victim's identity to send false messages or to purchase goods on the Internet

Using the Internet to obtain personal information about the victim

The laws for cyberstalking vary from state to state, and the laws often have a difficult time keeping up with technology. To obtain information about the state laws regarding stalking and cyberstalking, visit the Working to Halt Online Abuse website at http://www.haltabuse.org/resources/laws/index.shtml.

HOW DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY IS USED BY PERPETRATORS

In general, Internet and electronic technology may be used by perpetrators to determine victims' plans and movements. If a victim is not technologically sophisticated, she or he can inadvertently provide more information than intended to the abuser. The following sections will explore specific ways technological tools have been used by perpetrators of intimate partner violence to stalk, control, and abuse their victims.

SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES

Social networking is a form of online communication that is
comprised of "web-based services that allow individuals to construct a public or semi-public
profile within a bounded system, articulate a list of other users with whom they share a
connection, and view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within
the system" [27]. As noted, examples of
social networking sites include Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn, Google+, and
Pinterest.

Although social networking sites have reduced geographic dispersion, connected family and friends with each other, and made the world "smaller," these sites can also be used by domestic violence perpetrators to track and locate victims and to inflict psychological abuse. Perpetrators can easily glean information from profiles, uploaded photos, and comments from others to make inferences about where the victim is located. Using such information, perpetrators can not only track a victim but can also send terrifying and abusive messages to continue the emotional and psychological abuse and reinforce the established dynamic of fear, power, and control [26]. Even if the victim does not have an account with a social networking site, perpetrators can trace family members, friends, work colleagues, and other individuals who may know the victim [26]. Many people, for example, are very detailed about where they work in their profiles, in part because they use these sites for networking purposes. Consequently, it is not inconceivable to envision a perpetrator showing up at the victim's workplace in order to obtain some personal information. Furthermore, abusers may create fake profiles in order to befriend a victim or the victim's family members and friends, all for the purpose of extrapolating enough information to stalk the victim [26].

SPYWARE PROGRAMS

Abusers can monitor victims' activities online (e.g., websites visited, sent and received e-mails) by simply looking at browser histories and reading deleted e-mails [28]. Browser history refers to an archive of websites that are visited; the pages are usually organized chronologically. This history can be stored in the computer's memory, making it difficult to completely erase. Perpetrators can also access victims' e-mails by opening the "deleted" e-mail folder or by reviewing the "sent" folder.

With increasingly sophisticated and easily accessible
software, hardware, and spyware programs, which are typically marketed for parents to
monitor their children's Internet activity, abusers have additional tools to monitor and
control victims' online activities. For example, abusers can install spyware (also referred
to as malware or stalkware) on victims' computers and gain the ability to take screenshots
of the computer, record passwords and personal identification codes, track websites visited,
and record incoming and outgoing e-mails, text messages, and chats [30]. Whenever the computer is used, e-mails
reporting the computer activity are then sent to the abuser [26,28]. Other abusers have used keystroke loggers, a hardware device that is
plugged into the keyboard and the computer and records everything typed, including e-mails,
passwords, and URLs [28].

E-MAILS AND TEXT MESSAGES

E-mail and text messaging are forms of electronic communication that involve sending messages over the Internet or cell phones. They are some of the most commonly used applications, allowing messages to be sent to another person or to a group of individuals rapidly, conveniently, and without incurring any long distance charges [31]. One study with college students explored how Internet technology influenced intimate partner violence and what this abuse or violence might look like in the new age of cybertechnology [32]. Study participants were asked to provide an example of a form of intimate terrorism, defined as the use of a range of tactics, such as threats, intimidation, physical violence, and financial barriers, to control another person [33,34]. Participants recounted partners who would go into online banking accounts and change banking records or go to the post office's website and redirect the victim's mail so the mail came to them. These actions can be accomplished with knowledge of the victim's username and password, information that allows access to almost every arena of the victim's life.

Another form of intimate violence is minor violence or situational couple violence [33,34]. Minor forms of violence that occur within a specific context and rarely escalate to severe violence fall under this category. Within the online technology context, this could include abusers monitoring text messages on cell phones or reading incoming or outgoing text archives. Jealousy and the desire to control are the underlying motives of these behaviors.

GPS AND WIRELESS VIDEO CAMERAS

GPS and wireless video cameras are now being used by perpetrators to control and monitor victims' movements [32]. GPS may be used to track victims' exact positions, where abusers would then continually show up. Web cameras, extremely small devices that can be strategically installed by the abuser, have also been used to perpetrate abuse. The images are transmitted to a web page, where the perpetrator can watch every movement [30]. Eventually, victims are paralyzed by fear and anxiety from being constantly watched.

PHONES AND FAX MACHINES

It is not uncommon for a victim of domestic violence to receive an inordinate number of harassing phone calls from the abuser. In some cases, the perpetrator will purchase prepaid cell phones or calling cards in order to eliminate any evidence linking the calls back to him or her [35]. Other abusers will monitor whom the victim has called by looking through bills, phone records, or the cell phone's internal record of incoming and outgoing calls [35]. Cell phones can also be utilized as a form of eavesdropping [30]. Settings may be manipulated in such a way that the phone does not ring but automatically answers, allowing the perpetrator to listen while the victim is unaware [30]. Depending on the phone's settings, it could also silently pick up sounds within certain proximity.

Faxes often include sender information (e.g., telephone number), and if faxes are used, this can aid the abuser in locating the victim [35]. Many of these "trace evidences" are taken for granted, but it may put victims' lives at-risk and/or minimize their chances of successfully leaving domestic violence situations.

CHATROOMS AND BLOGS

A chatroom is a virtual community in which a group of individuals "dialogue" and share information with each other. Blogs, on the other hand, are analogous to website journals, with entries ranging from commentary and information about events to graphics or videos posted by an individual and viewed in chronological order. Perpetrators might post lies about the victim in a chatroom, blog, or bulletin in order to humiliate the victim or encourage others to send humiliating e-mails or post degrading messages [36].

WEBSITES

With the many free software programs and online hosting platforms, it is easy for people to create their own websites. Domestic violence perpetrators may create websites and post false information about victims or encourage others to harass the victim [35]. Similarly, there have been reports of perpetrators using websites as "tributes" to victims, with graphic details of fantasies and obsessions [36].

Overall, the underlying themes of power, intimidation, and control are common denominators of intimate partner violence perpetrated both face-to-face and via online technology. However, the ease, relative speed, and public nature of aggression performed using Internet technologies present new problems in caring for victims of domestic violence. In this new Internet environment, individuals can respond immediately regardless of time or geographic distance. Similarly, individuals can easily make a private matter public and involve other parties who are not integral to the relationship [32].

INTERNET AND ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION TOOLS: BENEFITS FOR VICTIMS

Although this course focuses on increasing practitioners'
awareness of how technology can be used by abusers to harm victims of domestic violence, it is
important to briefly review how the Internet and other forms of electronic technology have
positively changed the landscape of the counseling, social service, mental health, and health
arenas, particularly for victims of violence. In a study exploring how Internet technology was
used by domestic violence organizations, seven types of direct online services were identified
[37]:

Online assessments of violent relationships

Education targeted to survivors

Information and referrals for domestic violence victims and survivors

Direct e-mail services

Online monitored chatrooms

Online support groups

Art and stories shared by survivors

Empowerment is a recurrent theme in the use of technology by
domestic violence victims. First, victims are able to easily access information. Being able to
easily retrieve information and communicate with practitioners using multiple communication
vehicles can promote patient/client autonomy, increasing victims' sense of confidence,
self-efficacy, and empowerment in terms of making decisions that promote their well-being and
safety. For example, all 50 states have a domestic violence coalition, with a website for the
public to access information about domestic violence, resources, shelters, and safety
planning. Victims of intimate partner violence can also research information about restraining
orders, shelters, and employment opportunities [38]. In a study by the Technology Safety Project of the Washington State
Coalition Against Domestic Violence, a project designed to promote awareness of how technology
can increase the risk of domestic violence, participants indicated that the Internet was an
important tool when researching strategies to promote safety, allowing victims to play an
active role in their own care [21,39]. Internet technology has also been used to
provide education regarding general life skills for domestic violence victims, such as job
training, money management, and practical survival skills. Victims have reported using the
Internet to help search for housing, obtain assistance in creating a résumé, and enhance their
skills in order to get a job [21].

Domestic violence victims often feel psychologically isolated, with overwhelming feelings of shame and worthlessness. They may also be physically isolated, given that abusers monitor victims' movements and/or restrict interaction with friends and family members. However, the Internet has opened opportunities for individuals to obtain social support. Online support groups, such as online self-help groups and discussion forums, can create communities for individuals to connect with each other based on common experiences. Victims and survivors of domestic violence share their stories in these online communities and through various Internet tools, including online social networking sites, video conferencing, and e-mail, to derive support from others with similar experiences [26,38].

Because domestic violence situations are intense and manifest as crises to victims, Internet and electronic technologies can quickly connect victims to helping professionals. For example, victims can e-mail their counselors to obtain support during crisis situations. Providers can also more readily provide victims with information about potential options and resources, instead of having to wait for office visits [36]. In one research project, funds were provided for healthcare providers to use personal digital assistants (PDAs) to screen for abuse [40]. When the practitioner determined that an individual was at-risk, information was transmitted as quickly as possible to social workers to follow-up, mobilize resources, and electronically file mandatory reports of domestic violence [40]. Ultimately, this could improve the practitioner/patient relationship through the provision of more seamless services, which can increase patient satisfaction and reduce attrition.

Just as perpetrators of domestic violence can use electronic tools to harass their victims, victims can use technology to increase their sense of security. Victims may install cameras in their homes for additional security and in order to obtain evidence if the abuser is violating a restraining order. Others use text messages as a way to let friends and family members know they may be in danger and to reach out for help [38]. However, it is always important for victims to remain vigilant regarding possible monitoring by their abusers. Victims who know or suspect that their online activities are being monitored should avoid visiting domestic violence sites or contacting triggering individuals unless an escape plan is in place.

REFORMULATING SAFETY PLANNING IN THE INTERNET AGE

Traditionally, safety planning involves victims having a bag packed with all the necessary documents in place in the event they need to leave an abusive situation immediately, and this is still advisable. However, safety planning should also be supplemented with extra precautions that ensure victims understand how electronic communication tools can place them at risk and further steps to protect their safety. Practitioners serve a vital role in educating their patients or clients.

Many domestic violence organizations disseminate a message of
fear in their communications about Internet safety [41]. Although fear can initially invoke safety behaviors, fear tactics tend to
actually prevent the behavior that one is trying to promote over time. In other words, while a
low amount of fear may not trigger any safety behaviors because individuals do not perceive
the threat as real, employing a tremendous amount of fear in education and communications can
also prove ineffective if individuals perceive there are no viable options to mitigate the
fear. In these cases, victims may merely suppress the fear and not engage in any safety
behavior [41]. As a result, practitioners must
strike a balance in providing both education and support. The following precautions can
promote technological safety for victims and survivors of intimate partner violence [42,43,44,45]:

Practitioners should encourage victims to Google themselves to see what personal information is available online.

If a perpetrator is harassing the victim by cell phone, the practitioner should discuss with the victim potential reactions and responses the abuser may have to changing the phone number. Would this enrage the perpetrator and place the victim in further danger? If the same number is retained, should the phone company be contacted to track calls? If the victim eventually decides to take legal action, having an archive of text and voice messages could be beneficial.

Practitioners should recommend that victims check their social networking sites and ensure that the information on their profiles is private. Explain to patients/clients how personal information posted about activities and schedules can be used by the abuser.

It is easy to believe computers and online accounts are secure when they are not. Victims should be reminded that their computers and phones are not secure. Using a public computer (e.g., at a library) is a safer option than accessing information from a personal computer or cell phone.

Practitioners should recommend that victims clear browser histories, temporary Internet files from downloads, and saved passwords on online accounts every time they use a computer.

Victims should change their passwords and identification numbers frequently and avoid selecting passwords or numbers that perpetrators could easily guess (e.g., important dates, nicknames, relatives' names).

E-mail addresses should be similarly anonymous. If an e-mail address contains names or other common terms to the victim, the perpetrator will be more likely to figure it out.

Victims may also be encouraged to set up multiple e-mail accounts. Incoming and outgoing e-mails that the victim does not necessarily want the abuser to see can be sent from one specific account accessed only from a public computer. Free e-mail accounts can be established through a variety of online hosts.

When working with victims to make an escape plan, consider obtaining a donated cell phone for the victim to use instead of a personal one. An abuser can easily access personal phone records to view incoming and outgoing calls, potentially determining when and where the victim is planning to leave.

Victims should be encouraged to look into their health records, as many are electronically based. There are no guarantees about privacy and security.

Education should be provided to victims detailing how software programs can be used to monitor computer activities. If a victim suspects such a program being used, he or she should not attempt to research the software or attempt to remove it, as this could be dangerous.

INTERVENTIONS AND EDUCATION

Many adults may be categorized as what is termed "digital immigrants," meaning they did not grow up in the digital world and are trying to learn and adapt to this new environment [46]. Digital immigrants may employ technology and acknowledge its importance for some tasks, but tend to be less familiar with its potential [47]. On the other hand, adolescents and young adults are generally considered "digital natives," as they were raised using digital technology and have no difficulty speaking about and utilizing new technological mediums with ease and familiarity [46]. Digital natives tend to use technology for numerous tasks and adapt as the tools change [47]. It is likely that the majority of health and mental health practitioners fall into the category of "digital immigrants," and many patients/clients, particularly adolescents and young adults, are "digital natives." Consequently, practitioners must quickly build their knowledge of new technology and how it is being used by their potentially younger patients or clients [47]. Unfortunately, this includes the need to understand how Internet technologies are being used to perpetuate abuse.

In order for practitioners to effectively educate patients/clients about the role of technology in intimate partner violence, they must understand the capacity of available programs and applications. Fortunately, there is a tremendous amount of information available online (Resources). These resources can be used to obtain a foundational knowledge in order to more effectively educate patients and clients.

Organizations and facilities share some responsibility in training professionals to become more computer and Internet savvy in general, especially in educating practitioners in how intimate partners can use the Internet and other forms of electronic communications to threaten, abuse, and intimidate their victims. It is important to identify cyberstalking and cyberabuse as crimes and respond accordingly, providing immediate services to protect victims [48]. When victims indicate that they feel they are being watched or that an abuser appears to know every movement made by the victim, practitioners should acknowledge and validate the experience [48].

To address the emotional turmoil and fear that victims of intimate partner violence experience, a variety of interventions can be offered [48]:

Community partnerships are vital, as it is often impossible for one organization or agency to provide multilevel services to meet all the needs of victims [48]. If Internet/technological safety is an issue, collaborations with technology experts, legal professionals familiar with laws pertaining to stalking (particularly cyberstalking), and/or businesses that are willing to donate cell phones to victims can all be valuable.

Practitioners should also familiarize themselves with the
Violence Against Women Act (VAWA). VAWA, enacted in 1994 and reauthorized in 2000, 2005, and
2013, was the first federal legislation that addressed domestic violence and other forms of
violence against women. Since the first enactment, the legislation has been updated to touch
on relevant issues such as privacy, the role of the Internet, and cyberstalking. Before anyone
or any court can obtain private information, agencies funded by VAWA must make every
reasonable effort to obtain permission and releases from victims [49]. Furthermore, VAWA restricts the online
publication of filings for orders of protection as this could place victims at risk for
discovery by perpetrators [49]. The 2005
reauthorization of VAWA updated stalking laws to reflect the use of Internet and electronic
communications for the purposes of monitoring and harassing [49]. Finally, the 2013 reauthorization helped to ensure that services are
available to persons of all sexual/gender identities, all races/ethnicities, college students,
young adults, and immigrants [29].

CULTURALLY SENSITIVE ASSESSMENT

During the assessment process, a practitioner must be open and sensitive to
the client's/patient's worldview, cultural belief systems, and how he/she views the injury or
situation. Professionals should be willing to acknowledge that they do not possess enough or
adequate knowledge in health beliefs and practices among the different ethnic and cultural
groups they come in contact with. Reading and becoming familiar with medical anthropology is a
good first step. Culturally sensitive assessment involves a dynamic framework whereby the
practitioner engages in a continual process of questioning. By incorporating cultural
sensitivity into the assessment of individuals with a history of being victims or perpetrators
of domestic violence, it may be possible to intervene and offer treatment more
effectively.

CONCLUSION

Technology is a tool, and as with any tool, it can be used for positive means or abused to manipulate and exploit others. The solution is not to restrict access to technology but to educate consumers regarding its safe use. In addition to educating consumers, social service agencies, mental health organizations, and other helping organizations play a vital role in raising awareness among key stakeholders about how technology can be used by abusers to place domestic violence victims at risk. Furthermore, domestic violence advocates and practitioners can advocate for the formulation of new laws to protect victims of technology-based abuse. As more organizations use various forms of Internet technologies as part of their models of service delivery, it has become vital to incorporate security systems to protect the privacy of patients and clients, particularly victims of abuse.

RESOURCES

Founded in 1994, this public interest research center focuses on emerging civil
liberties and privacy issues. They address the impact of the Internet on privacy issues in
the area of domestic violence, medical records, and civil liberties.

This special collection includes a categorized and annotated listing of selected
articles, fact sheets, papers, reports, and other materials regarding the use of technology
as it impacts and intersects with violence against women and children.

External Link

This link leads outside of the NetCE site to:

While we have selected sites that we believe offer good, reliable information, we are not responsible for the content provided. Furthermore, these links do not constitute an endorsement of these organizations or their programs by NetCE, and none should be inferred.