Answering essay questions on literature exams can be daunting, especially with timed exams. Before the test, you should have a full understanding of how the different parts of a classical argument fit together to make a whole. The best way to quickly write an organized essay is to outline your argument before you begin your answer. With a little bit of preparation, you can ensure a good grade on your exam.

Steps

Part 1

Structuring Your Argument

1

Learn the six basic parts of the classical oration model.[1] Classical oration survives today through Cicero’s (106 BC - 46 BC) De Inventione — a manual for how to argue. Cicero was a philosopher, a lawyer, a statesman — in short, a man who spent a lot of time arguing. Cicero's six-part structure still influences how we argue, whether we've heard of him or not. It’s engrained in our Western culture. The six parts of the classical oration model are:

Introduction (exordium)

Statement of Facts (narratio)

Thesis (partitio)

Proof (confirmatio)

Refutation (refutatio)

Conclusion (peroratio)

The introduction, statement of facts, and thesis are often grouped together in the first paragraph of the answer.

2

Invite the reader into your argument in the introduction. Though we call it the introduction now, Cicero's Latin for this first section of the paper was "exordium." This ancient word shares a root with the modern word "exhort," which means "to urge forward."[2] To capture the spirit of what Cicero advised in opening an argument, you should use the introduction to urge the reader forward into your paper. Many arguments open with an interesting fact or quote — a "hook" to grab the reader's attention. Explain why the subject of this answer is so important. Your goal here is to make the reader care enough to want to keep reading.

Another way to think of the exordium is to consider where the word "introduction" comes from. The prefix "intro" means "inward," as in introspection (looking inward). "Duction" comes from the Latin root "ducere," which means "to lead." This is where we get the modern words duke (one who leads) and orchestra conductor (one who leads together).[3][4]

In the introduction, you want to intro + duce, or lead the reader inward, further into your argument.

3

Provide background information in the statement of facts. In this section, you give readers all the information they need to understand the subject of your argument. For example, if your readers have never read To Kill a Mockingbird, they won't be able to follow your analysis of the mockingbird symbol. You must first provide a short summary of what the book's about, so they can follow your nuanced argument.

If your reader already knows the background information, you may be able to skip this section.

In Cicero's Latin, this section was called the "narratio," which is where we get the modern word "narrator." The narrator is the voice in a book that gives readers information that can't be delivered through dialogue or action.

The word "knowledge" itself shares a root with narration: gnoscere.[5] In this section, you give the readers the knowledge they need to follow your argument.

4

Break down your argument in your thesis.[6] Depending on how complex and long your argument is, your thesis might be one sentence or two to three sentences. If this is a short-answer question, the thesis should be a single sentence. If you have three hours to answer this question, it might be two or three sentences. A thesis statement does three things: 1) state your claim/stance; 2) state the key issues you will discuss to support that claim/stance; and 3) provide the order in which those issues will be covered. A good model for the thesis is: I will argue [claim/stance] through an analysis of X, Y, and Z. You must address points X, Y, and Z in this exact order.

Cicero's Latin word, partitio, shares a root with the modern word "partition," which means division or separation. When Beyonce sings "Driver roll up the partition, please," she's asking the driver to roll up the window that separates him from the passengers in the back.

So the thesis is where you list out the different parts of your argument — your X, Y, and Z — in list form, separately.

5

Show the readers the evidence for your claim in the proof.[7] These are the body paragraphs of your argument. In shorter answers, the number of body paragraphs can correspond with the number of points in your thesis. If you offered an X, a Y, and a Z, you can discuss each element in a single, brief paragraph. In longer, more advanced essay questions, though, you should feel free to spend as many paragraphs as you need on each point of analysis. If the question asks for external sources, you want to use them in your body paragraphs as the supporting evidence for your claim. Fill your body paragraphs with as many supporting quotes and statistics from credible sources as you need to prove your point.

Note that it's not enough to just list a bunch of quotes and statistics from sources. That's not making an argument — it's restating someone else's information or argument.

The sources you use should only be used to support your own argument. Most of what you write in the body paragraphs should be your own thoughts on the subject.

6

Refute the counterargument.[8] After you've laid out your own argument, you should address the opposition position. Doing so demonstrates that you're knowledgeable on the subject and you know what the people who disagree with you are arguing. It also shows that you're not scared of a fight: your argument is so strong that you can give dissents a voice in your paper without worrying they have a better argument than you. Most importantly, though, you want to demonstrate that you can dismantle the counterargument with your analysis and evidence.

Don't include a counterargument without refuting it. To refute means to "beat back."[9] The only reason you include the opposing point of view is to beat it back and strengthen your own position.

7

Synthesize your argument in the conclusion.[10] In the conclusion, you should transition back from your refutation of the counterargument into a restatement of your own argument. But you should do more than just reword your thesis. At this point, your readers will have read all the evidence you provided. Now, you can explain to them how X, Y, and Z work together to actually prove your claim/stance. You might note that in the thesis you state your points, and in the conclusion you explain how they fit together as a whole.

Do not transition into your conclusion with a signal phrase like "in conclusion" or "in summary." Find a less obvious, more sophisticated transition.

Part 2

Writing Your Essay

1

Begin by outlining your essay. Now that you understand how the different parts of your argument work together, you can begin sketching out your ideas. You may be tempted to skip the work of outlining your paper and jumping right into the paper. You should know, though, that this doesn't save you any time. When you outline your ideas, you'll be able to actually write your essay much more quickly than you would without an outline.

Create a bullet point for each point you choose to make in your paper.

Your first point should include the introduction, statement of facts, and thesis.

You should break up the “proof” or body paragraphs into however many points you laid out in your thesis. If you promised three points, create three bullet points. If you promised four points, create four bullet points. Remember that the body paragraphs must follow the exact order of the thesis.

Create a point for the statement of the counterargument. You can either create a new point/paragraph for your refutation of it, or keep it all in one paragraph by making the refutation a subpoint.

Create a point for the conclusion.

2

Fill out your outline.[11] For each point in your outline, fill in the important information that will jog your memory when writing the essay. You don't have to write in full sentences or flesh ideas out in detail — just jot down whatever you need to keep you on track when you're lost in your sentences later.

If you're using external sources, you should include them in your outline. You don't want to accidentally leave out a great source because you got caught up in the writing and forgot about it.

3

Write your topic sentences into your outline.[12] The first sentence of each paragraph is called the "topic sentence," and it serves as a thesis for the paragraph. A thesis tells you the scope of what will be argued in the whole paper. A topic sentence tells you the scope of what will be argued in the paragraph. But the topic sentence does more than just point forward to what its paragraph will discuss. It also reaches back to create a smooth transition from the previous paragraph. Transitions can be difficult when you’re in the middle of the essay. When looking at an outline, you can see how all the pieces fit together.

Use transition words like furthermore, similarly, or indeed to transition between agreeing ideas.[13]

Use "conflict" transition words and phrases to transition between conflicting ideas — like the counterargument and your refutation of it. Examples include however, in contrast, on the other hand, or conversely.

4

Use the outline to write your essay. If you put some thought into your outline, you should be able to follow it line by line to create the content of your essay. Even with a strong outline, you may have trouble getting the writing process started. Especially if the exam is timed, just start writing, even if you think it's terrible.[14] If you just sat there staring into space, you wouldn't have anything down at all. This way, at least you have something to show, and you can always delete the bad material when you find your way to stronger language and points.

Make sure to refer back to your outline repeatedly during the writing process. This is the roadmap of your answer. Don't wander away from it and get off-course.

5

Decide when to correct errors. Think about what the exam is testing. Are you being tested on your analysis or on your ability to write? The answer to this question will determine how much effort you should put into editing your sentences as you go.

If you're being graded primarily on the content of your argument, leave grammar and spelling editing for your last step.

If you're being graded primarily on your grammar and spelling, by all means, correct your errors as you go!

In most cases, you won't be graded on one or the other. Keep your specific teacher or standardized test in mind. Have a strategy for when you plan to correct your errors before you take the test.

6

Proofread your essay before submitting it. Hopefully, you have time left over when you finish writing your essay, before you have to turn it in. Use this time wisely. Even if you're sick of working on the answer and you just want to be done with it, use this time to proofread your writing.

If you're in an isolated room, read the essay aloud to yourself to look for grammar errors that sound wrong. It's easier to hear mistakes than see them on the page.[15]

Read your sentences backwards to look for spelling errors you might skim over if you were reading the sentences normally.[16]