"The earliest findings of archeological material in
the Plains date back possibly over 10,000 years..." (Lowie, 1954; pg.
184). The process of linking these discoveries directly to the Plains
Indians, is somewhat difficult. Nevertheless, ongoing research in the
past 20 years, led by archaeologist William D. Strong, indicates some
type of correlation between recent findings and discoveries from the
prehistoric era, which is as far back as the Plains Indians can be
traced. It was in this era that their ancestors, the Woodland
Indians, migrated to the Midwest and settled there, coming from the
eastern part of the country. At about the same period, another group
of Indians, known as the Basket Maker folk, from the western part of
the country, also came to live in the plains. Both groups were
scattered throughout this new land and so vast it was that acres and
acres of uninhabited territory lay between any two closest
"neighbors". For years, these two aboriginal tribes, and even their
own individual members, lived in seclusion from one another.

It wasn't until after the year 1200, with the coming of
the Caddoan Indians, that a more thorough occupation of the land
occurred. These people, coming in different groups, settled in
various parts of the land, and arranged themselves into small
communities. It was through this penetration of the "Great Plains"
that these groups of people we call the Plains Indians (the Pawnee,
Sioux, Cherokee, Blackhawk, Crow and Cheyenne) came to be.

As a whole, the tribes that came to occupy the plains
(and those that descended from them) shared similar traits. Beginning
with the early settlers, they were all basically large-game hunters,
rarely making use of fish as a primary source of food. They depended
on hunting as much as they did on agriculture. As far as housing, the
Plains Indians didn't make structures from adobe or stone; rather,
they were content with sleeping under "tipi's", which were conical,
animal-skin covered tents. Most of the Indians also commonly
displayed the tendency to be warlike. They regularly promoted
military spirit, as it was a part of their tradition. Still another
similarity dealing with their culture involves the significance of
the family, or at least, the maturing youngsters. A tribesman who had
just acquired a son might not be expected to have another child until
anywhere from seven to fourteen years. This was essential to the
development of the child so that it could be "spoiled", if you will.
If a couple had more children, less stress would be put on the
rearing of that child, hence, not having him mature "properly"
(according to the preferences of each individual tribe). It was
important that it be this way so that children would grow up to be
very much like the elders (as it was believed that children were
actually adults, lacking only in experience). (Hoebel, 1960; pg.
99)

Geography of the Sioux and Plains
Peoples

The Sioux depended most of all on the buffalo. These
great beasts were their lifeline and what gave them their identity.
Where the encampments of the Sioux were located depended upon where
the buffalo roamed. Therefore, it is easy that the Sioux lifestyle
was a nomadic one. The Sioux were efficient in their moving. The
whole tribe could be neatly mobilized in fifteen minutes. The Sioux
might remain in one place for as little as a few weeks or as long as
a couple of months. It is because of this that the Sioux was not even
a partly agrarian society.

In order to have vegetables and fruits in their
diets, the Sioux had to search and gather them. The Sioux even
labeled some seasons or periods of time by the type of fruits that
were plentiful. Such examples are the summer months: Moon of
Strawberries, Cherry Ripening Moon, and Moon of Ripe Plums. Some of
the other months were also labeled following the change in the flora
of the season such as the Moons of the Yellow and Falling Leaves. The
women were in charge of gathering and were often times very
proficient in procuring vegetables and fruits due to their knowledge
of the seasons and area. Primarily, however, the Sioux depended on
the results of their hunts.

This was necessary because they were a nomadic tribe.
One's status in the tribe was attributed to how well he hunted. A
good hunter was a wealthy one, relatively speaking, while a poor
hunter lived in poverty, ridiculed by others. To be a good hunter not
only involved skill and knowledge, but an understanding of the
animals and their spiritual qualities. They didn't have time to and
didn't even bother to begin planting crops unless they were sure that
they would be camped for a growing season.

The Plains Indians were, for the most part, situated
in all or parts of: North and South Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Kansas,
Colorado, Nebraska and Wyoming. The climate was, at times, somewhat
extreme but not so that the Plains Indians would have to migrate now
and then. The flora, in this area, and at that time, mostly included
edible plants and fruits, such as berries, chokecherries and wild
turnips. Wild turnips, in particular, were a prized delight. This was
of course, apart from the usual maize, beans, squashes, pumpkins, and
sunflowers. As far as animals of the time, the only domesticated
animal [before any contact with the Spanish or British(who introduced
the horse)] was the dog, which was either small and coyote-like or
large and wolf-like. Mostly, dogs were kept as pets, although they
were useful for chasing deer. They were also used to transport small
"packages" and the such, on such devices that horses use to carry
loads. Just as well dogs could be used as sentries, to warn of
strangers. Wild animals at the time included the elk, deer, antelope
and buffalo. All of these were hunted by the Plains Indians, often by
being stalked and shot at.

The Sioux nation was comprised of seven major
divisions known collectively as the Seven Council Fires. These
included the Mdewakantons, the Wahpetons, the Wahpekutes, the
Sissetons, the Yanktons, the Yanktonais, and the Tetons. Each of
these divisions spoke the Siouan language, although over time, like
many languages, dialects formed.

Political and Social
Structure

After some time, if the divisions lived in close
proximity to each other, they combined and the distinctions between
them were lost. Nevertheless, the Sioux Nation assembled each summer
to hold council and give the Sun Dance, the ultimate of spiritual
expression. Here, is where national policy was formed, where plans
were rejected of accepted, and where the Wicasa Yatapickas, the four
great leaders, sat to judge offenses.

The Sioux knowledge of the past was important at this
time for it was what helped them to make their decisions. Their past
was recorded on painted deerskins. The records were painted spirally
with the first records painted at the center, and the years were not
numbered, but rather titled after some significant event that
occurred. The records were always portable because the Sioux were a
nomadic people who moved relatively often.

Leadership in the tribe was passed hereditarily from
the headmen to their sons who had proven themselves through their war
records and generosity. The stronger the headman, the larger and
better his following. A good family was known as such if it had good
hunting and the four great virtues of bravery, fortitude, generosity,
and wisdom.

There were also fraternal societies which were
devoted to maintaining the well being of the community. There were
two factions in this grouping. The Akicitas, which was open to all
young men, and the Nacas, who were composed of elders and former
chiefs. The Nacas held a considerable job of telling the tribes when
and where to move when they thought the time had arrived. They were
known as the real government.

The Sioux religion was a moral one which declared
that good outweighed evil. There was a list of virtues to be followed
and penalties for disregarding them. The Sioux religion answered many
of the questions for its followers, but at the same time, left a lot
to be pondered. A Sioux man was a part of his religion.

He was gratified through the supernatural instruction
in hunting, lodge-building, and in the making of clothes. The Sioux
religion helped dispel fears through supernatural guardians, rituals,
protective symbols, and human spirits. Their fear of death was
subsided with the concept that one's spirit could attain life after
death.

A woman's painted buffalo
robe, Dakota.

Self denial was a price one had to pay in believing
in the Sioux religion. Self-indulgence and uncontrolled gratification
were looked upon with much contempt.

Ceremony and Ritual

For the Plains Indians, ceremonial rituals, from the
simplest to the most significant, were not usually spectacular, often
involving the smoking of a long, flat pipe. There were of course some
exceptions, such as the Sacred Arrow Renewal, the Sun Dance, and the
Animal Dance. The Sacred Arrow Renewal was usually "sponsored"
voluntarily by someone who risked personal loss, such as a warrior
going off to battle, a man wishing for the wellness of a sick
relative, or, more seriously, when a tribesman murdered a fellow
tribesman. This ceremony took place over four days. The first day was
used for making the offerings and preparing the ceremonial place, the
Sacred Arrow Lodge. On the second day, the priests took their
corresponding positions in the Lodge. The highlight of the third day,
when the sacred arrows were revealed to the community, represented
the unity of the tribe. On the fourth and final day, these arrows
were exposed to the sun and for the public to view.

The Sun Dance would be performed for any of the
reasons pertaining to the Arrow ritual. This ceremony, however, took
eight days to complete, with four days given to build a dance lodge,
and four days to actually do the dancing. There was four basic
features of the dance: "1) the building of the lodge; 2) the priests'
rituals; 3) dancing before the center pole, and 4) individual
self-torture as a kind of sacrificial offering." (Hoebel, 1960; pg.
13) Throughout the course of the ceremony, the "sponsor" and his wife
were to repress any sexual desires they might have so as to keep the
ritual as pure as possible.

The Animal Dance as well, was a ceremony to promote
the well-being of the tribe, that is to say, so that there would be
plenty of meat available. Chiefly a hunting ritual, the ceremony was
completed in a matter of five days, with tribesmen dressed up as a
certain type of game, such as deer, running around frantically and
pretending to be hunted down and shot.

Astronomy and Cosmology of the Plains
Indians

The Pawnee followed the movements of the stars very
closely. This is quite evident even by the way that they set up their
homes, which in fact were constructed to represent a universe within
universe.

The fact that the Pawnee designed their beliefs
around the stars makes them unique. Other Native American tribes
looked not to the heavens but to the earth itself, connecting
themselves to the animals of the area. So while the Native Americans
like the Utes say they descended from the wilderness, the Pawnee
claim to be born of the stars.

In the beginning, only the council of gods existed.
They were headed by Tirawahut (the Universe-and-Everything-Inside),
his chief, Tirawa (the All-Powerful), and his wife, Atira. Tirawa
told the gods where each would be stationed upon the creation of the
Earth.

He told Sakuru, the Sun, to stand in the east in
order to give light and warmth and Pah the Moon to stand in the west
to provide light when darkness comes upon the Earth. Then he turned
to Tcuperekata, White Star Woman, and told her to stand the east
where she would be known as the Mother of all things. Tirawa then
told Operikata (Morning Star) that he would be a warrior who would
drive the people towards the west. To Karariwari, the North Star and
one of the most important of the stars, Tirawa turned and commanded
that he stand in the north to be the chief of all the gods in the
heavens. Then he spoke next to the four gods who are known
collectively as the Stars of the Four Directions. In the northeast,
northwest, southeast, and southwest they were told by Tirawa to stand
and hold up the heavens. They were given the power to create and were
in charge of issuing the bundles upon which the Pawnee society is
based. Tirawa gave orders to others, but none are of as great
importance as the ones mentioned above.

A man's painted buffalo
robe, Dakota.

When Tirawa decided that the time for the Earth to be
formed, he told all the gods, except for the Stars of the Four
Directions, to take their stations. He sent the Stars of the Four
Directions to White Star Woman in the form of Clouds, Winds,
Lightnings, and Thunders. She in turn placed them in between herself
and her garden. Tirawa was now ready to drop the pebble that would
become the Earth.

The Stars of the Four Directions began to sing,
summoning the Clouds, Lightnings, and Thunders. Into them, Tirawa
dropped his pebble. When the storm subsided, there was only water.
The Stars of the Four Directions then struck the water with their war
clubs. Upon doing this, the water separated and earth formed.

After the earth was formed, again the Stars of the
Four Directions began to sing, causing yet another storm. The
Lightning that struck the earth put life into it while the Thunder
evened out the landscape. The Wind then came and blew away the storm.
Then Tirawa commanded that the Stars of the Four Directions cause
other storms. The storms resulted in the establishment of plant life
and the sweetening of the waters.

People appeared only after Morning Star and White
Star Woman laid together, giving birth to a daughter. This is
discussed in more detail in the star tale segment.

Folk tales were a source of recreation for the Plains
Indians. Much of the tales they told sought to explain elements of
the natural world, while other stories were for the sole purpose of
entertainment. In one Crow myth, the main character, Old Man Coyote
comes along in time and appears when the earth is supposedly covered
with water. He orders three water birds to dive through the water in
search for land, and upon seeing them fail, bids a fourth one, who
inevitably fetches a bit of mud. From this mud Old Man Coyote then
forms the earth. Upon completion of this task he goes on to create
mankind, who he then instructs to live and multiply. Of course, this
is not the only story in which Old Man Coyote appears. In most other
stories about him, he is usually portrayed as a delinquent, or at
least some sort of "trickster", eager to get his own way. He does
things for his own benefit, being selfish and self-centered. In many
ways he was most likely seen by the Plains Indians as the type of
person not to be.

The Pawnee Venus Sacrifice
Ritual

The planetary courtship and morning star sacrifice
seems to be the most prominent of the Pawnee star tales. It is
suggested that Mars and Venus are the celestial bodies involved, Mars
because of its red color and Venus because of it's brilliant white.
White Star Woman is associated with Venus while the movements of
Morning Star are those of Mars.

White Star Woman was also known as Evening Star, and
she made her home in the west. She was beautiful in addition to being
powerful and so was the object of desire of many stars. Then, in
search of a wife, came Morning Star from the east. White Star Woman
was the one he admired and who he eventually obtained. This, however,
was not an easy task for the closer he came, the farther away she
moved. In addition to this, in his way, White Star Woman placed ten
obstacles. Being a great warrior, Morning Star dispatched the
obstacles with his balls of fire only to be met by White Star Woman's
guardian stars: Black, Yellow, White, and Red (also known as the
Stars of the Four Directions). He managed to make the stars follow
him but he still had to do the bidding of White Star Woman before the
marriage was to be completed. She told him to build a cradleboard and
bring freshwater and a mat for their future child. The water that
would cleanse the child is the rain which cleanses the earth. The
resulting child, a daughter, was the first human on earth, and
together with the son of the Moon and Sun, they parented the human
race.

This Pawnee tale explains the movements of Venus and
Mars across the sky. As was stated earlier, Venus is in the west
sometimes appearing high in the heavens and sometimes low. But no
matter where it does appear, Mars is seen making its way towards
Venus in the west from the eastern sky.

The Pawnee capture this heavenly event in their own
earthly ways by way of an elaborate sacrifice. When a warrior dreams
that this sacrifice should take place, it does. After ritual
preparation, Pawnee braves encircle a neighboring tribe. The man who
had the vision is dressed to represent Morning Star himself while
others are dressed to appear as other characters such as the four
guardian stars. The men raid the village and when an appropriate
White Star Woman has been appointed, the Morning Star impersonator
abducts her.

The girl is taken back to the village and treated
well, not being told of what is to become of her. After a period of
time, the girl is put up on a scaffolding representing the sky and is
painted half-black and half-red. Beneath her, a small pit is made
representing White Star Woman's garden in the west, where her
daughter was conceived.

When the actual Morning Star appears, two men with
torches touch each side of her body. Shortly thereafter, the Morning
Star impersonator shoots an arrow through her heart. The blood that
falls from the maiden/White Star Woman fertilizes the garden while
her spirit is ultimately sent to Morning Star as a gift. The slain
maiden has now become a star which signifies that rain would come,
bison would be plentiful, victories won, and crops grown.