United States Constitution: 14th Amendment

NARANARASection 1

All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United
States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or
immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without
due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.

Section 2

Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number
of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors
for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of
a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one
years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime,
the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to
the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.

Section 3

No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office,
civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress,
or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of
any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same,
or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two thirds of each House, remove such disability.

Section 4

The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions
and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States
nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States,
or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and
void.

Section 5

The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.

Related resources for this article

Introduction

Bettmann/Corbis

It is no coincidence that the words citizenship and city are similar. Both are derived from the Latin word for “city.” In ancient Greece and Rome, citizens were the free inhabitants of a city, or, more properly, of a city-state. The city-state was a self-governing community that came many centuries before the development of nations.

Concept of Citizenship

iStockphoto/Thinkstock

The philosopher Aristotle in the 4th century bc stated in his Politics that “a citizen is not a citizen because he lives in a certain place, for resident aliens and slaves share in the place.” Rather, he went on to say, the special characteristic of a citizen is that he “shares in the administration of justice, and in [public] offices.”

Aristotle’s definition leads to the conclusion that constitutional government and citizenship belong together. Constitutional government is self-government. This means that the people participate directly or through representatives in the decisions that their government makes. A country with a constitutional government is called a republic or a democracy.

Until constitutional government was devised, people lived as subjects of their government. They had no say in its operation or in the amount of power it wielded. The only rights that people could exercise were those granted by government.

Late in the 18th century, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant noted three things “that inseparably belong to [citizens] by right.” They are, as he defined them: (1) constitutional freedom, or the right of every citizen to have to obey no other law than that to which he has given his consent; (2) civil equality, or the right to recognize no one as superior to himself except insofar as another may have the moral power, through being an elected official, to impose obligations upon him; and (3) political independence, or the right to owe his existence and continuance in society not to the arbitrary will of another but to his own rights and powers as a member of the society. Kant also stated that the right to vote is the most important political qualification of a citizen as a member of a state. In 1863 United States President Abraham Lincoln summed up the nature of a republic of citizens in his Gettysburg Address when he spoke of a “government of the people, by the people, for the people.”

Exclusions from Citizenship

Not everyone in Aristotle’s city-state of Athens was a citizen. Women, slaves, foreigners, and those who had little property were kept from exercising the rights of citizens. Those groups were also excluded in the Roman Republic. In addition, citizens of Rome were divided into two classes: patricians and plebeians, or upper and lower classes. The upper classes voted and held office. The lower classes could only lay claim to private rights: to own property, bring up their families, and engage in business. Later, under the Roman Empire, the concept of citizenship was greatly expanded until it included nearly everyone who was not a slave. The so-called citizens had no voice in government, however; they were actually subjects of the emperor. This status as a subject of a ruler continued for many centuries for most of the world’s population. It persisted, in fact, until the American and French revolutions of the late 18th century.

The establishment of republics in the United States and France did not automatically guarantee all their inhabitants citizenship. The United States Constitution of 1787 prohibited the thousands of black slaves from enjoying both civil and human rights. Women were not given the vote until passage of the 19th Amendment and its ratification in 1920. Women were not given full voting rights in Great Britain until 1928. In the republic of Switzerland, women were not given the vote in national elections until 1971. In South Africa blacks and other nonwhites were denied rights and freedoms granted to white citizens until the late 20th century, when the policy of apartheid ended.

During the 19th century in the United States, Britain, and other countries, not even all white male citizens were permitted to vote. This was because the wealthy—mainly property owners—feared that letting everyone vote would weaken their influence and control in government and society. There were, therefore, property qualifications for voting.

Such qualifications did not last very long in the United States. One by one, citizens of the several states pressed the issue of universal suffrage (for white males only), and between 1800 and 1830 most of the states passed laws to allow more men to vote. The 15th Amendment, added to the Constitution after the Civil War, theoretically gave African American males the right to vote. But in fact most of them were prevented from voting for decades by state laws that instituted poll taxes, literacy tests, and other selective devices. Sometimes they were prevented from voting by simple intimidation and threats. Not until the federal Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed were blacks in the United States guaranteed the franchise—the right to vote.

In Great Britain matters proceeded much more slowly. By the middle of the 19th century, fewer than 15 percent of white males could vote, in spite of powerful movements demanding wider suffrage. The point of this exclusion was to keep working men from voting. But in 1867 the Reform Act extended the vote to skilled city workers while continuing to exclude town and country laborers. Not until the Reform Act of 1884 were those people (again, only males) given the vote.

All exclusions based on race, social class, sex, or other factors limit the participation of those who are in fact citizens in the operation of their government. They are limitations on the exercise of these people’s civil rights. There are reasonable exclusions that a government may impose upon those who live within its borders. Resident aliens, for example, live legally in a country but do not have the same status as citizens. They are protected by the laws of the land, but they may not vote or hold public office or receive certain other benefits guaranteed only to citizens. Aliens who are immigrants may in time become citizens through a process known as naturalization. Then they may fully claim all civil rights for themselves.

Infants and children are excluded from full participation in citizenship while being protected by and subject to the laws of state and nation. Convicted criminals normally lose their civil rights: They are not allowed to vote or hold office. Members of certain professions such as clergy, physicians, or lawyers who have violated the law may be forbidden to practice those professions.

Becoming a Citizen

The four basic ways to become a citizen in many countries are being born within the boundaries of the country, having a citizen as a parent, marrying a citizen, and naturalization. Naturalization is the act of giving an alien, or foreigner, citizenship. Laws on naturalization vary from country to country. In most cases the person must have lived in the country for a specific amount of time, intend to live there permanently, be at least a specified age, be able to earn a living, have command of the language, be healthy and of good character, and provide evidence that the former nationality will be lost or given up.

Rights and Responsibilities

Citizens of a republic have human and civil rights. Human rights are those that belong to a person simply for being human. They have been recorded in the American Declaration of Independence as the rights to “Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” These are not granted by government; rather, they belong to an individual at birth.

Voting is also a responsibility. To make sure that a government functions for the welfare of its citizens, all who have the right also have the responsibility to take part in the electoral process. Some countries, including Australia, Brazil, Egypt, and Thailand, have laws that require their citizens to vote. Other responsibilities of citizenship include paying taxes, supporting the national defense, obeying the laws, and supporting oneself and one’s family.

The Problem of Weak Constitutions

Constitutions provide legal frameworks within which governments are supposed to operate. To have a constitution means that all the citizens of the country—even officeholders, the police, and judges—must obey the laws of the land. If a government sets itself above the law and acts illegally, the constitution is impaired. It may become essentially nonexistent. This frequently occurs in countries that are ruled by only one political party. If this happens, citizens become only subjects. Their rights are had only as the gifts of government, and responsibilities are thrust upon them instead of being freely exercised.

The United States

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

NARA

NARA

The legal basis for citizenship in the United States is defined in the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. It states that “All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside.” The amendment established that national citizenship takes precedence over state citizenship. In other words, individuals are citizens of the United States first and of their states second. However, they enjoy the benefits of citizenship granted by both the national and state governments.

All aliens living in the United States are entitled to the protection of the laws, and they enjoy most of the fundamental rights of citizens. They may not vote or hold public office until they have been naturalized, but they may work for the government. In many states aliens cannot acquire licenses to engage in certain professions.

The U.S. government protects its citizens—but not its alien residents—when they are traveling in a foreign country. Aliens may be deported to the country of their origin if they commit certain crimes against the welfare of the United States.

The United States gives citizenship to everyone born within its boundaries. The only exceptions are the children of parents not subject to the jurisdiction of the government, such as foreign diplomats. Children born to parents living abroad also become American citizens as long as at least one parent is an American citizen and has previously lived in the United States or its possessions for at least 5 or 10 years, depending on the law in effect at the time of the child’s birth. Until the late 1970s there were also residency requirements for children born abroad with only one citizen parent. To retain the citizenship acquired from a parent, a child was required to spend at least two years in the United States or its possessions between the ages of 14 and 28. This and other so-called retention requirements were eliminated by a new citizenship law passed in 1978.

Citizenship by Naturalization

All aliens who are legally qualified may obtain U.S. citizenship by naturalization. Many aliens receive citizenship by special acts of Congress. Citizenship was conferred on all inhabitants of the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico. Many aliens serving in the U.S. armed forces have been granted citizenship without having to wait the usual period.

Giving Up or Losing Citizenship

American citizenship, once acquired, cannot be taken away except as provided by law. It may be voluntarily relinquished or lost. If obtained by naturalization, it may be set aside as a punishment for a crime. Congress in 1868 expressly recognized the right of citizens to expatriate themselves (to renounce their citizenship). The Nationality Act of 1940 made such relinquishment possible even in time of war.

Under the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 and later amendments, native-born or naturalized citizens can lose their citizenship in several ways. Among these are: by being willingly naturalized in a foreign state; by taking an oath of allegiance to a foreign state; by serving in a foreign army without the consent of American authorities; by accepting employment in the government of a foreign state if the employment requires one to be a national of the state concerned; by voting in an election in a foreign state; by formally renouncing American citizenship in the prescribed manner; by being convicted of treason; or by attempting or advocating the overthrow of the government by force.

Following passage of the 1952 act, the U.S. Supreme Court heard several cases that modified the list of actions that resulted in a loss of citizenship. In 1958 the Court declared unconstitutional a law by which citizenship was lost for desertion from the armed services in wartime. A 1963 ruling ended expatriation for absence from the country in wartime to avoid military duty. A year later the Court struck down a law by which naturalized Americans lost citizenship after three years’ continuous residence in their former country.

Britain and the Commonwealth

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Great Britain once governed the largest empire known to history. There were colonies in the Americas, Africa, Central and East Asia, and Australia and New Zealand. Citizens of those colonies were recognized as sharing a common British nationality and were called British subjects. During the first half of the 20th century, the colonies began to gain the right of self-government. But the new sovereign states maintained a relationship with Great Britain through what is called the Commonwealth. This is an association of countries, many of which recognize the monarch of Great Britain as head of state. The monarch is also considered the head of the Commonwealth.

After World War II, Great Britain granted independence to a growing number of its colonies, many of which joined the Commonwealth. The newly independent countries introduced their own citizenship laws and were no longer satisfied with their people being defined only in terms of their relationship to Britain. In recognition of that fact, Parliament redrew Britain’s citizenship laws in the British Nationality Act of 1948, which became effective on January 1, 1949. The act granted British citizenship to all people who were born—or whose fathers were born—in the United Kingdom or in a territory that was a colony on January 1, 1949, or at the date of birth, if later. Citizens of independent Commonwealth countries continued to be British subjects, but thereafter they were also known by the new term Commonwealth citizens.

The 1948 act also gave people of the Commonwealth the right to live and work in the United Kingdom without restrictions. The Immigration Act 1971 would later restrict the so-called right of abode to people with ties to the United Kingdom, such as a period of residence there or a parent who was born there.

Act of 1981

The law of 1948 was superseded by the British Nationality Act 1981, which went into effect on January 1, 1983. The new act replaced the singular citizenship of the United Kingdom and colonies with three separate citizenships: British citizenship for the people of the United Kingdom, the Channel Islands, and the Isle of Man; British Dependent Territories citizenship for people of the dependencies; and British Overseas citizenship for any citizen of the United Kingdom or colonies who did not become a British citizen or a citizen of a dependent territory. In 2002 the second category was renamed from “British Dependent Territories citizenship” to “British Overseas Territories citizenship.” Of the three categories, only British citizenship provides the right to live in the United Kingdom without restrictions.

According to the 1981 act, all citizens of the United Kingdom and colonies who had the right of abode in the United Kingdom automatically became British citizens when the act went into effect. Otherwise, citizenship may be acquired in a variety of ways: birth, descent, naturalization, or registration. Naturalization is an option for foreign nationals who have lived in the United Kingdom for five years, who are of “good character,” and who meet certain other requirements, including the ability to communicate in English. The registration procedure applies to British Overseas or Overseas Territories citizens as well as other people who meet certain conditions. It is typically simpler than naturalization.

The British Nationality Act 1981 also did away with the term British subject as a description of citizens of Commonwealth countries. Since then those people have been known only as Commonwealth citizens. Since the Commonwealth is not a sovereign body, citizenship in it can confer no rights that are not already inherent in the citizenship of a particular country. A citizen of India, for instance, is not a citizen of Canada simply because he is a Commonwealth citizen and Canada is part of the Commonwealth. If he desired Canadian citizenship, he would have to emigrate to Canada and comply with the residence requirements and other stipulations of the Canadian Citizenship Act.

Civil Rights

The members of the Commonwealth inherited their concepts of civil rights from Great Britain. In the Commonwealth countries and in the United Kingdom and its overseas territories and dependencies, civil liberties are assured to all people—citizens and aliens. Civil obligations, such as paying taxes and serving in the armed forces in wartime, are placed on all permanent residents.

British rights were won over the centuries. Some were secured only after long struggles (seeMagna Carta). Great Britain does not have a single constitutional document such as the United States does. But the British people are nevertheless well aware of their civil rights. Some of those rights are clearly set forth in Parliamentary enactments, while others are based on the development of common law.

Among the significant statutes on civil rights are the Habeas Corpus Act of 1679 and the Bill of Rights of 1689. By those and other acts of Parliament, the people of the United Kingdom are assured the right to release from custody on bail through writs of habeas corpus, the right to petition legislators, free elections, and protection from cruel and unusual punishment and from fines and forfeitures prior to conviction. Among the liberties based chiefly on common-law doctrines are the freedom of speech, of the press, of association, of assembly, and of religion.

Canada

The sense of Canadian citizenship was a gradual development as Canada grew to nationhood. It had its roots in the colonial experience and in the geographical separation from Great Britain. After confederation in 1867, the new Dominion of Canada moved gradually toward full sovereignty within the British Commonwealth.

Intensified national consciousness resulted from Canada’s participation in the two World Wars. After World War II it became clear that the majority of Canadians wanted to consider themselves as citizens of their own country and not as British subjects or citizens. That desire was made a reality by passage of the necessary legislation in 1946. The Canadian Citizenship Act, which became effective on January 1, 1947, established the status of Canadian citizenship. Under British law, however, Canadian citizens retained their status as British subjects.

The law of 1946 was superseded by the Citizenship Act of 1976, which became effective on February 15, 1977. Since that date the term citizen has meant only Canadian citizenship. Still, Canadians retained the status of Commonwealth citizens.

The Strengthening Canadian Citizenship Act, passed in 2014, made major changes to the country’s citizenship policies. The new law made Canadian citizenship more difficult to obtain by increasing residency requirements and providing for more scrutiny of applicants’ criminal records. The law also gave the Canadian government greater power to revoke the citizenship of people who are convicted of terrorism, espionage, or other offenses.

Qualifications for Citizenship

By the law of 1976 and its later revisions, all people born in Canada or born of Canadian parents are Canadian citizens. That includes children born outside Canada who have at least one Canadian parent. Other than birth or descent, an individual may become a citizen through naturalization. To be naturalized, a person must be at least 18 years of age; have been lawfully admitted to Canada and granted permanent resident status; have spent at least four of the six years prior to applying for citizenship in Canada as a permanent resident; intend to live in Canada; and have an adequate knowledge of Canadian history and institutions, the responsibilities of citizenship, and one of the two official languages (English and French). The applicant must then take the Oath of Citizenship, which promises allegiance to the monarch, respect for the nation’s laws, and fulfillment of the duties of citizenship.

Citizenship classes are conducted in almost every city and in many rural districts. The classes are sponsored by public school systems and private organizations and cover Canadian geography, history, government, and civics. Immigrants who do not know either English or French first spend time in language study.

Human Rights in Canada

Bob Cooper/Public Archives of Canada

Prior to the Constitution Act of 1982, the Canadian constitution did not contain a statement of rights comparable to the Bill of Rights in the U.S. Constitution. Human rights were spelled out in the Canadian Bill of Rights of 1960. In 1977 another act of Parliament, entitled the Canadian Human Rights Act, was added to this Bill of Rights. It prohibited discrimination in employment on the grounds of race, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, age, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, family status, disability, or conviction of a crime for which a pardon has been granted.

At the time when discussions of a new constitution were under way, it was realized that unless certain rights were specifically stated in the constitution itself, they could perhaps be legislated away by Parliament. Therefore the Constitution of 1982 has an extensive opening section entitled “Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.” Containing 33 articles, it is a much longer statement of rights than that in the U.S. Constitution. Its main sections cover fundamental freedoms, democratic rights, mobility rights, legal rights, equality rights, the official languages of Canada, and minority language educational rights.

Want to see it in action?

Start a free trial

E-mail

To

From

Sender NamePlease enter your name.

Sender EmailPlease enter a valid email address.

Translate this page

Choose a language from the menu above to view a computer-translated version of this page. Please note: Text within images is not translated, some features may not work properly after translation, and the translation may not accurately convey the intended meaning. Britannica does not review the converted text.

After translating an article, all tools except font up/font down will be disabled. To re-enable the tools or to convert back to English, click "view original" on the Google Translate toolbar.