3 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION This paper has been prepared to support the next stage in the development of the Reducing Reoffending Programme led by the Justice Directorate in the Scottish Government. Its aim is to review the evidence on the effectiveness of different approaches to reduce reoffending or, in other words, promote desistance from crime among young people and adults. The term desistance is used extensively in the paper and refers to an extended period of refraining from further offending. However, there is considerable disagreement among researchers about how long an offender must be crime-free before being considered a desister, with some researchers claiming that true desistance can be determined with certainty only after offenders die. In most evaluations, a two-year follow-up period is used to differentiate desisters from recidivists. The review did not consider studies that assessed the effectiveness of criminal justice interventions in achieving outcomes other than reduced reoffending such as increased public confidence in the criminal justice system and justice to victims. Where available, information on value for money of interventions is provided. The timescales for completing this piece of work were very tight and precluded a comprehensive search of the literature. The review draws heavily upon some key sources of evidence from within Scotland, the rest of the UK and other countries that were easily accessible, mainly systematic reviews of what works to reduce reoffending and qualitative studies investigating offenders own perceptions of the desistance process and the factors that facilitated or hindered a sustained abstinence from offending. It is hoped, however, that this paper will remain a work in progress that will be updated as additional evidence becomes available. The paper was subject to peer review from analytical and policy officials in the Scottish Government, academics and other experts whose contributions greatly enhanced its quality. This paper also includes a review of what works with women offenders. Despite a wealth of studies of male offenders there is a paucity of research which can provide answers to what works to reduce reoffending in women. Only three studies in a review by Harper and Chitty (2005) of what works with offenders included women, while for their meta-analysis of interventions with female offenders, Dowden and Andrews (1999) were only able to identify 26 studies solely (16) or predominantly (10) involving women. Although there are very few robust outcome studies in the UK that disaggregated by gender, the search of the literature did find a small number of international studies which did measure differences in recidivism. The review also draws evidence from qualitative research which elicits the views of women offenders to gain insights into their perceptions of the offending and desistance pathway. It is important to note that this review does not claim to provide a gold-standard solution to the problem of reoffending that can successfully fit all offenders as desistance from offending is a complex, subjective process and what may work for some may not work for others. However, it is hoped that the review will provide some direction to policy makers on the type of interventions that have, overall, proven more effective in reducing reoffending. 3

4 CHAPTER TWO: HOW DO INDIVIDUALS DESIST FROM OFFENDING? Individual influences The majority of offenders will have desisted from crime by the time they reach their mid 20s or early 30s. A highly consistent finding of longitudinal studies, both in the UK and internationally, is that offending begins in early adolescence, peaks during the late teens and tapers off in young adulthood. In the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development which followed a cohort of 411 men born in a working class neighbourhood in South London from ages 8 to 46, the majority of offenders had desisted from crime by the age of 28, with a peak decrease in offending shown at the age of 23. Findings from the Edinburgh Study of Youth Transitions and Crime 1 found that 14 was the peak age for offending, with a sharp decrease after that. At age 14, 52% of boys had engaged in four or more delinquent acts in the previous 12 months. By age 17, nearly half of these had stopped or sharply reduced their offending. Some longitudinal studies have documented that a small minority of offenders (about 5% of the offender population) continue to offend throughout adulthood and are responsible for a disproportionally large number of offences 2. The relationship between age and offending is interpreted as reflecting underlying changes in biology, social contexts, attitudes and life circumstances that influence offenders motivation to desist from crime rather than a unitary maturation process 3. Quality social ties formed through employment, marriage or cohabitation and education promote conformity and desistance. It is a consistent finding in the literature that the occurrence of key life events such as obtaining and remaining in suitable employment, acquiring a stable partner and completing education degrees increase the likelihood of desistance from offending by adding structure to offenders lives and acting as a source of informal monitoring and emotional support 4. The same effect has been observed when offenders move away from criminal peers 5. More recently, researchers have stressed that the perceived strength, stability and quality of social attachments matter more than the events per se 6. Women, for example, are more likely to desist from offending once they develop attachments to a law-abiding husband and enter a good-quality marriage. There is 1 2 Healy, D. (2010) The Dynamics of Desistance: Charting Pathways through Change Cullompton: Willan. 3 McNeil, F. and Weaver, B. (2010) Giving Up Crime: Directions for Policy Glasgow: SCCJR. 4 Sampson, R.J. and Laub, J.H. (1993) Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points through Life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 5 Farrall, S. (1995) Why Do People Stop Offending, The Scottish Journal of Criminal Justice Studies, 1(1), Healy, D. (2010), ibid 4

5 also clear evidence that just having a job does not encourage desistance. A U.S. longitudinal study found that, among women, those who were homemakers and those who worked in the domestic sector had increased chances of desisting from offending 7. There are gender differences in the process of desistance from crime. The process of desistance may be similar in some respects for young men and women being driven by maturation, transitions, changed lifestyles and relationships 8. However, some gender differences have been found in the rationales given for desisting from crime. Young women tend to offer moral as opposed to utilitarian rationales for stopping offending and were more likely to emphasise the importance of relational aspects of the process including parental attitudes, experiences of victimisation, the assumption of parental responsibilities and disassociation from offending peers 9. Some young women link their decisions to desist to the assumption of parental responsibilities. In general, young men focus more on personal choice and agency. Amongst persisters, girls and young women were more often keen to be seen as desisters, perhaps reflecting societal disapproval of female offending 10. A study conducted in Scotland between , using the accounts of 20 young men and 20 young women, found that offenders made proactive decisions to stop, irrespective of whether they were employed, in a stable relationship or whether there were positive incentives. However, many of the women were encouraged in their decision to stop by the support of friends, family, children and loving relationships with law-abiding partners. This study concluded that in general terms women stopped offending as a result of actual commitments (to children, partners or parents) whereas men s desistance was more in preparation for potential commitments 11. In their study to explore the routes into and out of offending for young people in Scotland, Jamieson et al (1999) 12 interviewed 75 young people (aged years) categorised into desisters (those who had not offended with the last year), resisters (young people who had never offended) and persisters (young people who had recently offended and were going on to criminal careers). They concluded that whilst younger desisters (like resisters) are inclined to fear the consequences of crime and view offending as futile and morally wrong, older desisters are more likely to associate their abstinence with becoming more mature and moving on with their lives such as pursuing training or education. 7 Broidy, L.M. and Cauffman, E.E. (2006) Understanding the Female Offender Report submitted to the U.S. Department of Justice. 8 Giordano, P. C., Cernkovich, S.A. and Rudolph, J.L. (2002) Gender, crime, and desistance: Toward a Theory of Cognitive Transformation, American Journal of Sociology, 107, Jamieson, J., McIvor, G. and Murray, C. (1999) Understanding Offending Among Young People, Edinburgh: The Stationery Office. 10 Barry, M (2007) in Trotter, C. Sheehan R and McIvor (2007) What Works with Women Offenders: Willan Publishing pp Jamieson et al. (1999), ibid 12 Jamieson et al,

6 Males were more likely to say that their abstinence was personal choice, whilst females were more inclined to explain their desistance in terms of relational aspects such as having gained parental responsibilities, not wanting to let their families down or having become more aware of the consequences of crime on their victims. In contrast, young people who offend classed as persisters were found to be less committed to education and employment and were most likely to have family members or peers also involved in crime. Persistent offending was often linked to drug addiction (particularly the need to fund a drug addiction) and in the case of females, was usually linked to involvement in relationships with male partners also involved in crime. Female persisters however, were more likely than their male counterparts to say they were trying to desist from crime and were more likely than young men to have adopted avoidance techniques to facilitate desistance. The literature suggests that girls mature (physically and emotionally) at an earlier age than boys and therefore will reach and pass through the turbulent period associated with offending at a younger age 13. Research around desistance from offending illustrates that for many young people abstinence from crime is linked to conscious lifestyle changes related to the coming of age. 14 Research evidence also points to differences in moral reasoning between the genders to explain why females have a stronger inclination than boys to desist from offending. Underpinning female moral-reasoning is a general ethic of care and responsibility to others. In their 1999 study exploring young people s pathways into and out of crime, Jamieson et al 15 found that boys were much more likely than girls to have been the victims of physical assaults outside their own homes and as a result of their own experiences were more likely to adopt an individualistic approach to moral reasoning with a specific tendency towards victim blame. Girls on the other hand were found to have a more relational approach to moral reasoning, their accounts of offending where much more likely to take account of the effects of actions on others. Deterrence and incapacitation This section examines the impact of different forms of punishment on reoffending. Deterrence is either general or specific in nature. General deterrence refers to the effects of punishment on the general public (i.e., potential offenders) whereas specific deterrence refers to the potential inhibiting effect of punishment on the individual made subject to it. As the focus of this paper is on reoffending, we only review the evidence on specific deterrence. Incapacitation refers to the act of making an individual incapable of committing further offences usually by restraining his or her physical movement. Prison can represent value for money in the short-term when it is used for high-risk serious and/or certain types of prolific offenders. Prison prevents reoffending in the short term through incapacitation effects, however it can also negatively impact on long-term 13 McIvor, Hirschi and Gottfredson, 1983, Smith and McAra, 2004,McIvor, Jamieson et al,

7 recidivism by weakening social bonds and decreasing job stability 16. There is evidence that prison can deter some individuals from committing further offences 17, especially those with stable jobs or relationships who have more to lose from imprisonment 18. There is evidence that, when tangible and intangible costs of crime are included, imprisonment of high-risk serious and/or prolific offenders can represent value for money in the short-term, however costs are more likely to outweigh benefits when less serious, non-repeat offenders are imprisoned 19. These analyses do not take account of possible negative long-term effects of prison on reoffending, and should, therefore, be interpreted with caution. Community sentences are more effective in reducing reoffending than short-term prison sentences. Scottish and English data suggest that community sentences are more effective in reducing recidivism than short-term prison sentences (less than 12 months). In Scotland, we have not controlled for the difference in offender characteristics but we do find that reconviction rates are lower for those given community sentences compared to those released from short custodial sentences. Sixty two per cent of those released from custody in were reconvicted within the following two years and the reconviction rate for those given short custodial sentences (of 6 months or less) is as high as 72%. Whilst not directly comparable, 42% of those given community service orders in , and 58% of those given probation orders in , were reconvicted within the following two years. Among females, 55% of those discharged from custody in 2006/07, 27% of those given a community service order and 55% of those given a probation order were reconvicted within 2 years but the same caveat of non-comparability of groups applies. In England, the reoffending rate of offenders commencing probation supervision (either Community Order or Suspended Sentence Order) in 2007 was seven percentage points lower than for those who had served short-term custodial sentences after controlling for individual differences 20. Scottish and international evidence suggests this may be due to the fact that offenders on community sentences have more opportunities to access rehabilitation services compared to offenders on short-term prison sentences that have limited access to rehabilitation programmes in the short period of time they are in prison 21. There is evidence from metaanalyses that the quality of the service that is provided within a sanction rather than the 16 Sampson, R.J. and Laub, J.H. (1993) Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points through Life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 17 von Hirsch, A., Bottoms, A.E., Burney, E. and Wikstrom, P.O (1999) Criminal Deterrence and Sentence Severity: An Analysis of Recent Research, Oxford: Hart Publishing. 18 McGuire, J. (2002), ibid 19 McDougall, C., Cohen, M.A., Swaray, R. And Perry, A. (2003) The Costs and Benefits of Sentencing: A Systematic Review, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 587: Ministry of Justice (2010), ibid 21 Armstrong, S and Weaver, B. (2010) What Do the Punished Think of their Punishment? The Comparative Experience of Short-term Prison Sentences and Community-based Punishments Glasgow: SCCJR. 7

8 sanction in itself can impact on recidivism 22. In Scotland, McIvor found that, in the context of drug courts, judicial review and, in particular, continuity of sentencer review was associated with increased compliance and reductions in recidivism 23. Despite the increasing numbers of women given community sentences in the UK and in other jurisdictions in recent years, there has been little research into if they reduce women s reoffending rate or their experiences of these disposals. Women are proportionately more likely than men to be placed on a probation order; however the risk of breach for those with more chaotic lifestyles means that the intervention may ultimately result in a custodial sentence. While women are more likely to complete probation and community service orders than men, where breach proceedings are pursued, women are slightly more likely than men to have their orders breached as a result of non-compliance, while men s orders are more likely than women s to be revoked as a result of a further offence 24. Women are also more likely to breach a Drug Treatment and Testing Order (DTTO) than men 25. Interviews with women on probation in Scotland indicate that they are dealing with a wide range of social, financial and emotional issues which they raise with workers to seek help with dealing with them. This finding raises important questions about whether community disposals should take these contributory factors into account in the design and provision of community penalties 26. The study concluded that community disposals can provide opportunities to access practical and emotional help but that they are not being used to their full potential. If community disposals were designed to provide more structured help to women, this clearly has consequences for workers involved in supervising and supporting women in terms of skills, focus of interventions, criteria for measuring success and time as a resource 27. There is limited cost-benefit analysis evidence comparing community-based sanctions with prison. Matrix Knowledge Group 28 found some evidence that surveillance using either an Intensive Supervision Programme or Home Detention Curfew (HDC) represents value for money compared to prison. However, they also found that that there was no statistically significant difference in savings to society between community service and prison, or between community supervision with a cognitive behavioural element and prison. These 22 Andrews, D.A. and Bonta, J (2010) The Psychology of Criminal Conduct (5 th ed.), Newark, NJ: Lexis/Nexis. 23 McIvor, G. (2010) Beyond supervision: Judicial involvement in offender management, in F. McNeill, P. Raynor and C. Trotter (eds.) Offender Supervision: New Directions in Theory, Research and Practice, Cullompton: Willan.; McIvor, G. (2010) Drug Courts lessons from the UK and beyond, in A. Hucklesby and E. Wincup (eds.) Drug Interventions in Criminal Justice, Open University Press. 24 Scottish Government (2010a) Criminal Proceedings in Scottish Courts, 2008/09, Edinburgh: Scottish Government. 25 Scottish Government (2010b) Criminal Justice Social Work Statistics, 2008/09, Edinburgh: Scottish Government. 26 Malloch, M and McIvor,G (2011) Women and Community Sentences Glasgow: SCCJR. 27 Malloch and McIvor, (2011), ibid 28 Matrix Knowldge Group (2007) The Economic Case For and Against Prison, Technical Appendix 8

9 results should be interpreted with caution as they were based on a small number of studies and did not take into account incapacitation effects. According to a systematic review, longer prison sentences are associated with increases in recidivism. A systematic review of studies comparing offenders who spent more time (an average of 30 months) versus less time (an average of 12.9 months) in prison found that offenders on longer prison sentences were more likely to reoffend following release 29. These analyses controlled for offenders level of risk. However, the results should be interpreted with caution as the studies did not control for other differences between groups, and the results were mainly based on US studies conducted during the 1970s. The effectiveness of swift sentences in reducing reoffending has not been proven. As far as we are aware of, there are extremely few studies that have tested the effects of celerity (or swiftness) of punishment on reoffending. Although there is some recent evidence of weaker quality that increasing the celerity of punishment may contribute to reductions in high-risk driving behaviours 30, its effect on other types of crime is under-investigated, making the drawing of any useful conclusions impossible. In relation to young people, there is some argument that a swift response (not necessarily a punitive one) is important as it relates the response to the behaviour 31. Intensive supervision programmes are ineffective in reducing reoffending. Petersilia and Turner 32 evaluated intensive supervision programmes in which parolees or probationers are placed in small caseloads, face regular and unannounced visits by supervising officers, and are threatened with revocation and incarceration if they misbehave. They found no reductions in recidivism and, in fact, the overall one-year recidivism rate for offenders in the ISPs was higher than for those in the probation-as-usual control groups (37% versus 33%). Remand can prevent some individuals from reoffending in the short-term through incapacitation; however it is also associated with negative effects that may hinder longer-term desistance. Remand prevents reoffending in the short term through incapacitation effects. However, alongside this incapacitation effect, international and Scottish research has consistently documented the negative effects associated with remand including an increased risk of suicide and mental distress, disintegration of social supports 29 Gendreau, P., Goggin, C. and Cullen, F.T. (1999) The Effects of Prison Sentences on Recidivism Report to the Corrections Research and Development and Aboriginal Policy Branch, Ottawa: Solicitor General of Canada. 30 Bouffard, J. and Bouffard, L.A. (2009) Deterrence in the Real World: Certainty, Severity and Swiftness in a DUI Court Context Paper presented at the annual meeting of the ASC Annual Meeting, Philadelphia, PA. 31 McQueen, S. (forthcoming) Evaluation of the Dumfries and Galloway Council's youth justice 'diversion from prosecution' model. 32 Petersilia, J. and Turner, S. (1993) Intensive probation and parole in M. Tonry (ed.) Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, 17, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 9

10 and family ties, and disruption to employment that increase the likelihood of reoffending upon release 33. Deterrence-based interventions such as Scared Straight do not reduce reoffending. Deterrence-based programmes such as Scared Straight or boot camps are ineffective in reducing reoffending or, in the worst of cases, can even lead to increases in offending 34. Early release schemes Offenders released on electronic tagging are no more likely to engage in criminal behaviour when released from prison compared to those who are not eligible for early release. There is clear evidence from both Scotland and England that only a small proportion of offenders released on Home Detention Curfew (HDC) reoffend whilst on curfew. In England, 4.6% of offenders reoffended whilst on HDC in 2008/ An evaluation of Home Detention Curfew by the Ministry of Justice found that offenders who receive Home Detention Curfew (HDC) under the current provision, are no more likely to engage in criminal behaviour when released from prison, when compared to offenders with similar characteristics, who are not eligible for HDC 36. Electronic tagging was also recently evaluated in Sweden using a quasi-experimental design. The evaluation found that offenders who participated in an early release programme that included electronic monitoring in the home, a job placement and a treatment programme were less likely to be reconvicted in the 3-year period following completion of their prison sentence compared to the control group 37. However, it was not possible to ascertain to what extent this positive effect on reoffending was a result of the electronic monitoring in the home or of the other elements included in the programme. The majority of offenders released on parole successfully complete their licence period but evidence on the longer-term impact of parole on reoffending is lacking.. A Scottish study of release outcomes of prisoners sentenced to 4 years or more on or after 1 October 1993 and whose full sentence expired on or before 31 March 2001 found that 79% of those released on parole successfully completed their full licence period, and among 33 Armstrong, S. (2009) Fixing the Remand Problem in Scotland, in D. Hare and C. Lightowler (eds.) Prisons and Sentencing Reform: Developing Policy in Scotland, Scottish Policy Innovation Forum and Scottish Centre for Crime and Justice Research. 34 Petrosino, A., Turpin-Petrosino, C. and Buehler, J. (2004) Scared Straight and Other Juvenile Awareness Programmes for Preventing Juvenile Delinquents A Campbell Collaboration Systematic Review 2004:2; Wilson, D.B., MacKenzie, D.L., Mitchell, F.N. (2003) Effects of Correctional Boot Camps on Offending A Campbell Collaboration Systematic Review 2003:1 35 Ministry of Justice (2010), ibid 36 Marie, O., Moreton, K. and Goncalver, M. (2011) The effect of early release of prisoners on Home Detention Curfew (HDC) on recidivism. Ministry of Justice. nt 37 Marklund, F. and Holmberg, S. (2009) Effects of early release from prison using electronic tagging in Sweden, Journal of Experimental Criminology, vol. 5:

11 those, 82% did not attract any convictions while they were on licence 38. In the time available, we were not, however, able to find any studies that assessed how successful parole is in reducing recidivism in the period after completion of the licence period. Diversion In this section the term diversion refers to alternatives to court disposals including diversion to social work, direct measures and other forms of youth diversion. Diverting young people away from the criminal justice system can be effective in reducing their reoffending. Findings from the Edinburgh Study of Youth Transitions and Crime indicate that the deeper a youth is carried into the formal processing system, the less likely he/ she is to stop offending. The authors argue that the most significant factor in reducing offending is minimal formal intervention and maximum diversion to programming that does not have the trappings of criminal processing 39. A recent systematic review of 29 experiments found that young people with a prior criminal record who were diverted from the criminal justice system to social work were less likely to reoffend compared to those who went to court. Diversion to social work produced bigger reductions in reoffending compared to simple release that was not combined with some form of intervention 40. Positive effects on reoffending have also been reported in the process evaluation of the Triage initiative which is currently being piloted in England and Wales 41. Triage diverts young people who have offended for the first time under police custody to support services provided by a youth worker and, where appropriate, restorative justice informed interventions. Throughout the literature, there is the recurring concept that both needs as well as deeds are important to understanding youth offending and desistance from it. As Fraser at al. highlight, findings from the Edinburgh Study indicate a strong relationship between involvement in violent offending and a range of vulnerabilities, including self-harm. The literature argues that there are strong and consistent links between needs and deeds within the youth justice context; links which provide strong support for the Kilbrandon ethos underpinning the Children's Hearings System 42. Up to age 17 years and 6 months Sheriff s can request the advice and disposal of a case at the Children s Hearing System. It is argued 38 Hutton, L. and Levy, L. (2002) Parole Board Decisions and Release Outcomes, Edinburgh: Scottish Executive 39 McAra, L. and McVie, S. (2007) Youth Justice?: The Impact of System Contact on Patterns of Desistance From Offending in European Journal of Criminology, 4(3), Petrosino, A., Turpin-Petrosino, C. and Guckenberg, S. (2010) Formal System Processing of Juveniles: Effects on Delinquency Campbell Systematic Review 2010:1 41 Ministry of Justice (2010) Breaking the Cycle: Effective Punishment, Rehabilitation and Sentencing of Offenders Green Paper Evidence Report available at 42 Fraser, A; Burman, M; Batchelor, S; McVie, S; (2010) Youth Violence in Scotland: Literature Review, The Scottish Centre for Crime and Justice Research 11

12 that increasing the number of under 18s diverted to this childcare system, where their offence and criminogenic needs can be addressed together, reduces the risk of them reoffending and entering into the adult system. There is less evidence on the effectiveness of diversion in reducing reoffending among adult offenders though some UK studies are currently underway. To the best of our knowledge, there is no systematic review of the effectiveness of diversion among adult offenders. There is some international evidence that diversion to drug or mental health treatment can reduce reoffending among offenders that experience such problems 43. In Scotland, an evaluation of diversion to social work schemes found that the majority of accused had completed their period on diversion successfully and the majority of the objectives set were recorded as having been fully or mostly achieved by the time diversion ended. For the 111 accused for whom information about further charges was available, ten (out of 46) on social work diversion programmes and 17 (out of 65) from mediation and reparation schemes had further charges or convictions recorded against them (57% of those referred) 44. In England and Wales, positive results have been reported in the process evaluation of the Intensive Alternatives to Custody (IAC) diversion programme that offers an intensive community order as an alternative to short-term custody. The programme is getting favourable feedback from offenders, however outcome information on reoffending is lacking to date 45. Diversion has also been traditionally used with female offenders. In England and Wales, women can be diverted to community-based centres that aim to provide support to tackle underlying causes of offending. The outcome evaluation of these centres is currently underway but initial feedback from service users has been positive 46. Rehabilitation, community supervision and throughcare This section examines evidence on the effect of rehabilitative programmes and supervision on reoffending. Holistic interventions that address multiple criminogenic needs are more likely to be effective in reducing reoffending. The evidence suggests that offenders often experience multiple problems, many of which are considered criminogenic in the sense that they contribute directly towards offending. It has, therefore, been argued that multi-modal, holistic 43 National Institute of Drug Abuse (2003) Crossing the Bridge: An Evaluation of the Drug Treatment Alternative-to-Prison (DTAP) Programme, 44 Barry, M. and McIvor, G. (2000) Diversion from Prosecution to Social Work and Other Service Agencies: Evaluation of the 100 per cent funding pilot programmes, Edinburgh: The Stationery Office. 45 Ministry of Justice (2010) Breaking the Cycle: Effective Punishment, Rehabilitation and Sentencing of Offenders Green Paper Evidence Report available at 46 Ministry of Justice (2010), ibid 12

13 interventions, which address a range of problems, are more likely to be effective in reducing reoffending 47. Scotland s Choice (2008) reported that: prisoners are 13 times more likely to have been in care as a child; 63% of young people have substance misuse issues on admission to prison; of all prisoners 80% have writing, 65% have numeracy; and 50% have reading skills of an 11 year old 25% of these young people have clinically significant communication impairment. Data from 10,000 assessments of offenders needs in England and Wales using the Offender Assessment System (OASys) show that over half of offenders had needs related to education, employment and thinking styles. Additionally, just over half of offenders in custody were assessed as having a need related to their lifestyle and associates. Drug problems were more common among offenders in custody (39% of those assessed) than in the community (27% of those assessed). Overall, offenders in custody were found to have a greater number of needs. Among adult reception prisoners that took part in the Surveying Prisoner Crime Reduction (SPCR) study conducted in England and Wales, 68% reported that having a job would help them desist from offending, followed by having a place to live (60%) 48. These findings are congruent with desistance studies in which offenders report they value practical support more than any type of intervention 49 even though they are not necessarily accustomed to actively seeking help from outside agencies to solve their problems 50. This suggests offender managers might need to adopt a more proactive approach to solving offenders practical needs while, at the same time, trying to enhance their problem-solving skills and empower them to search out suitable help when needed. A holistic approach to addressing offenders needs further means that ongoing support should be available as required. For example, there is strong evidence that provision of practical support in prison is unlikely to have a lasting impact on the risk of reoffending unless it continues upon release 51. Aftercare should, therefore, form part of a comprehensive intervention package. It is also important that the services provided are appropriately sequenced: for example, employment, while critical in the longer term, is often not a realistic short-term goal until other issues and needs have been addressed. Although the prevalence of victimisation, poverty, low self-esteem and low self-efficacy is higher in women offenders than males, analysis of data using the Level of Service/Case 47 Ministry of Justice (2010) Breaking the Cycle: Effective Punishment, Rehabilitation and Sentencing of Offenders Green Paper Evidence Report available at 48 Ministry of Justice (2010), ibid 49 Maruna, S. (2010) Understanding Desistance from Crime, NOMS: Ministry of Justice. 50 Shapland, J., Bottoms, A., Farrall, S., McNeill, F., Priede, C. and Robinson, G. (2011) The Quality of Probation Supervision A Literature Review, Unpublished research report. 51 Harper, G. and Chitty, C. (2005) The Impact of Corrections on Reoffending: A Review of What Works, Home Office Research Study 291, London: Home Office. 13

14 Management Inventory (LS/CMI) has also found that gender-neutral needs (housing, employment and education) are better predictors of reoffending in women than gender specific factors (parenting responsibility and stress, victimisation history, and self-harm) 52. Taking the findings of several studies overall, findings showed no gender differences in the predictors of recidivism suggesting that the factors likely behave in a gender-neutral manner. Several authors have concluded that perhaps gender-specific concerns may be best viewed as specific responsivity factors in the delivery of mainstream interventions than as criminogenic needs. Results from several studies conclude that while victimisation experiences possibly play a role in the onset of criminal offending, they are not associated with recidivism 53. A study in the US found that even women offenders who have experienced victimisation said they found services that offered long term tangible support as more helpful than therapeutic or support services the most helpful service being welfare benefits 54. These accounts from women suggest that the sequencing of interventions in holistic approaches is important. Longer term and more complex needs such as dealing with stress and mental health might be better dealt with after basic, practical needs are addressed first. Young people who offend require holistic interventions. The international research literature shows that the throughcare strategies with the most favourable results in relation to reoffending rates are holistic ; that is, focused on the whole range of an individuals needs and integrated with support in the prison and in the community. This support is necessary not only in the early weeks of readjustment on release but also in the long term. 55 Indispensable processes for successful habilitation or integration include teaching basic skills, helping young people to develop the capacity to cope with their survival needs in the outside world and establishing meaningful links whilst in prison with a range of community services that can offer continuing support 56. Fraser et al. point to similar evidence based on systematic reviews of programmes and interventions in the US. In terms of the reintegration of young people who had offended, early intervention with those starting to offend and reducing reoffending through community programmes the following types of programmes had success or were found to be promising : Preventing offending: Education and health home visits and programmes for pre-school intervention; capacity building in schools; awareness raising campaigns in schools with clear 52 Blanchette,K. and SL, Brown (2006) The Assessment and Treatment of Female Offenders. John Wiley & Sons. 53 Blanchette and Brown (2006), ibid 54 Severson, M. E. (2001). Women's mental health issues: Twentieth-century realities; Twenty-first century challenges. In K. J. Peterson & A. A. Lieberman (Eds.), Building on Women's Strengths: A Social Work Agenda for the Twenty-First Century (2nd ed., pp ). New York: Haworth Press. 55 Peters, R.H. and Steinberg, M.L., 2000, Substance Abuse Treatment in US Prisons, in D. Shewan and J. 56 Tombs, 1994, Throughcare: A Process of Change; CJSWDC Briefing 14

15 messages and pro-social norms; training in social competency e.g. managing stress, self-control, problem solving, emotional intelligence. Reducing re-offending: The use of civil and criminal responses as situational management to reduce reoffending (e.g. responding quickly to breaches); specific rehabilitation programmes for juvenile (and adult) re-offenders using treatment appropriate to their risk factors ; intensive supervision and aftercare for more serious offenders; proactive arrests for carrying weapons. Promising Strategies: Proactive police strategies focusing on specific offences delivered in a respectful manner e.g. polite field interrogation of suspicious people; community based mentoring; after-school pro-social activities; residential employment focussed interventions for youths; thinking skills intervention for high risk youth; situational risk management e.g. metal detectors in schools; gang monitoring by community workers, probation and police. The following strategies were found not to work: Short term non residential employment interventions, summer work programmes, diversion from court to job training for young people, arrest for minor offences, increased arrests on drug dealing locations, boot camps or scared straight programmes (taking young people who offend to adult prisons), shock probation, parole or sentencing, home detention and electronic monitoring vague unstructured rehabilitation programmes 57. A systematic review undertaken in 1998 of over 200 experimental or quasi-experimental studies of interventions with young people who offend (mainly males aged between 10 and 21 years) found that three intervention types showed the strongest and most consistent evidence of reducing re-offending. These were interpersonal skills training, individual structured counselling and behavioural programmes. The review found that these interventions reduced re-offending by about 40 percent. 58 Multi-systemic therapy which combines intensive family therapy and work with schools and communities has been found to be another example of a holistic intervention that has been found to work with chronic and violent juvenile offenders 59. Interventions are more effective when they are based on a sound assessment of risk, need and responsivity. There is a strong research literature that speaks to the centrality of risk, needs and responsivity (RNR) assessment to effective interventions and improved 57 Fraser, A; Burman, M; Batchelor, S; McVie, S; (2010) Youth Violence in Scotland: Literature Review, The Scottish Centre for Crime and Justice Research 58 Fraser, A; Burman, M; Batchelor, S; McVie, S; (2010) Youth Violence in Scotland: Literature Review, The Scottish Centre for Crime and Justice Research 59 McGuire, J. (2002) Integrating Findings from Research Reviews in J. McGuire (ed.) Offender Rehabilitation and Treatment: Effective Programmes and Policies to Reduce Reoffending, West Sussex: Wiley. 15

16 outcomes in reduced reoffending 60. Recent Scottish developments such as the introduction of the LS/CMI and the development of a shared approach to risk practice are based on this evidence. In addition, the Multi Agency Protection Arrangements in Scotland and England provide an opportunity to test the impact of the collaborative approach to risk practice. More recently, there has been an interest in incorporating strengths and protective factors in assessment and instruments that support the structured assessment of risk with attention to protective factors are emerging 61. The development, application and rigorous testing of such instruments will allow for greater understanding of the relative contribution of strengths and protective factors to risk assessment. Great care must be taken in applying a risk assessment approach to young people who offend. Fraser et al. highlight that over the past 15 or so years, the risk factors and assessment approach to devising preventative strategies has become a dominant discourse in youth justice and that something of a consensus has been built around the precipitating factors of family conflict, truancy, drug use, lack of/ irresponsible parenting, low intelligence, delinquent peers and community organisation 62. One of the dangers of looking at risk factors for offending is the potential to pre-emptively stigmatise young people based on assumptions about what they might do in the future, not what they have done, and may lead to netwidening of services. In addition, whilst many risk factors have been identified, less is known about how to robustly establish which risk factors are causes and which are merely correlations. Interventions that are appropriately matched to the offenders level of motivation are more likely to be effective in reducing reoffending. It is a consistent finding in the desistance literature that only those offenders who are sufficiently motivated to change and are optimistic about the future will manage to desist from offending. Therefore, interventions are more likely to be successful if they target motivational factors and provide a sense of hope 63. Research suggests that only a minority of offenders are prepared for change at the start of an intervention 64, therefore, in most cases, some motivational work would be required to increase participation and retention in services. Motivation should, therefore, be seen not simply as a selection criterion but a treatment need. Especially for those at the start of the journey towards desistance providing a sense of hope for the future can help promote and sustain their motivation to change. Offenders who are contemplating change need to believe that an alternative future is possible and, therefore, it is worth changing to 60 Andrews, D.A. and Bonta, J (2010) The Psychology of Criminal Conduct (5 th ed.), Newark, NJ: Lexis/Nexis. 61 Serin, R.C., Lloyd, C.D. and Hanby, L.J. (2010) Enhancing Offender Re-entry: An Integrated Model for Enhancing Offender Re-entry, European Journal of Probation, 2(2), Fraser, A; Burman, M; Batchelor, S; McVie, S; (2010) Youth Violence in Scotland: Literature Review, The Scottish Centre for Crime and Justice Research 63 Caverley, A. And Farrall, S. (2011) The Sensual Dynamics of Processes of Personal Reform: Desistance from Crime and the Role of Emotions in S. Karstedt, I. Loader & H. Strang (eds) Emotions, Crime and Justice. Oxford: Hart Publishing. 64 McMurran, M. (2002) Motivating Offenders to Change: A Guide to Enhancing Engagement in Therapy, Willey-Blackwell. 16

17 accomplish future goals 65. Strategies to increase motivation to change include setting realistic goals appropriately matched to the offenders stage of readiness to change, reinforcing positive behaviours on a one-to-one basis and within a group and building helping relationships (e.g. buddy systems, self-help groups). It is also important that professionals help offenders recognise the positive changes that desistance from offending can bring to themselves and their environment. Offenders will be motivated to change only when the pros of changing outweigh the cons and change is more likely to be sustained if it is chosen freely rather than imposed 66. There is some evidence that motivational interviewing can help offenders recognise their problems as well as initiate and sustain motivation to change throughout treatment 67. Additionally, focusing on offenders personal strengths rather than over-emphasising risks is advocated in the literature as an effective way to increase motivation 68. This strengths-based approach to treatment forms the basis of the Good Lives Model which has been used with some success with sex offenders 69. A respectful, participatory and flexible relationship with a supervisor can trigger the motivation to change and promote desistance. Supervision should place adequate emphasis on helping offenders overcome practical obstacles to desistance such as unemployment and drug misuse. For both male and female offenders, qualitative research suggests that a good working relationship between the offender and his or her supervisor can act as a catalyst for change, especially when the offender has already taken the decision to give up crime, but it is unlikely to produce big reductions in reoffending on its own right 70. In England and Wales, Rex found that for some probationers simply being on probation served as a deterrent whereas for others getting help on to how to solve practical problems was more important 71. Other research from Scotland and England confirms that offenders particularly value getting help from their supervisor on practical problems such as unemployment and lack of accommodation 72. Another English study that followed-up a larger sample of 199 male and female probationers concluded that an individual s level of motivation to change and his or her social circumstances largely determined whether they 65 Caverley, A. and Farrall, S. (2011), ibid 66 McMurran, M. (2002) Motivating Offenders to Change: A Guide to Enhancing Engagement in Therapy, Willey-Blackwell. 67 McMurran, M. (2002), ibid 68 Maruna, S. (2010) Understanding Desistance from Crime, NOMS: Ministry of Justice. 69 Ward, T., & Stewart, C. A. (2003). The treatment of sex offenders: Risk management and good lives. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 34, Healy, D. (2010) The Dynamics of Desistance: Charting Pathways through Change Cullompton: Willan.; Leibrich, J. (1993) Straight to the Point: Angles of Giving Up Crime, Otago: New Zealand: University of Otago Press. 71 Rex, S. (1999) Desistance from Offending: Experiences of Probation, The Howard Journal, 38(4), Shapland, J., Bottoms, A., Farrall, S., McNeill, F., Priede, C. and Robinson, G. (2011) The Quality of Probation Supervision A Literature Review, Unpublished research report.; McIvor, G. & Barry, M. (1998) Social Work and Criminal Justice: Volume 6 - Probation, Edinburgh, The Stationery Office. 17

18 would succeed in desisting from crime with probation exerting a smaller influence 73. However, when probationers were interviewed 4 years later they were more inclined to see the value of what they had taken from probation 74. Overall, studies report more benefits in cases where the supervisor respects and fosters the offender s personal agency, focuses on strengths as well as criminogenic needs and risk and draws up an action plan in consultation with the offender 75. Keeping the same officer has also been associated with successful outcomes in probation 76. When interviewed about the quality of supervision, offenders often cite empathy, respect, flexibility, the ability to listen and professionalism as the defining characteristics of an effective working relationship with the supervisor that triggered change 77. The use of prosocial modelling (where the case manager acts as a positive role model and encourages prosocial actions) has also been associated with higher rates of compliance and lower rates of reoffending 78. Overall, research suggests that desistance is more likely to be achieved when a working alliance with the supervisor is developed 79. These findings point to the need to invest in interpersonal skills training for offender managers. Finally, other important features of supervision include dealing with relapse (e.g. breach, reoffending) in a proportionate and fair manner, rewarding progress towards change and involving users in the design of interventions. Some studies have found that public recognition of offenders progress towards desistance can help them develop a new, noncriminal identity and lead to improved self-esteem 80. This discovering of a new self is closely 73 Farrall, S. (2002) Rethinking What Works with Offenders, Cullompton: Willan Publishing. 74 Farrall, S. and Calverley, A. (2006) Understanding Desistance from Crime, Crime and Justice Series, London: Open University Press. 75 McNeil, F. and Whyte, B. (2007) Reducing Reoffending: Social Work and Community Justice in Scotland Willan Publishing. 76 Folkard, S., Lyon, K., Carver, M.M. and O Leary, E. (1966) Probation Research: A Preliminary Report, Home Office Research Unit Report No. 7, London: HMSO. 77 McIvor, G. & Barry, M. (1998) Social Work and Criminal Justice: Volume 6 - Probation, Edinburgh, The Stationery Office; McIvor, G. and Barry, M. (2000) Social Work and Criminal Justice: Volume 8 - The Longer-term Effectiveness of Supervision, Edinburgh: Scottish Executive Central Research Unit.; Malloch, M. and McIvor, G. (2011) Women and community sentences, Criminology and Criminal Justice, 11(4), Ministry of Justice (2010) Breaking the Cycle: Effective Punishment, Rehabilitation and Sentencing of Offenders Green Paper Evidence Report available at 79 Healy, D. (2010) The Dynamics of Desistance: Charting Pathways through Change Cullompton: Willan. 80 Caverley, A. And Farrall, S. (2011) The Sensual Dynamics of Processes of Personal Reform: Desistance from Crime and the Role of Emotions in S. Karstedt, I. Loader & H. Strang (eds) Emotions, Crime and Justice. Oxford: Hart Publishing. 18

19 associated to sustained abstinence from offending 81. As a consequence, researchers have recommended that the criminal justice system should find ways to formally mark and reward desistance markers such as for example the successful completion of a prison or community sentence 82. Caverley and Farrall 83 report examples of offenders who felt particularly good about themselves when invited by local drug agencies to give a talk about their experiences of coming off drugs. Such opportunities provide ex-offenders with a sense of reward and achievement and remind them of the benefits of staying away from crime 84. Other ways to reward desistance might include sealing of criminal justice records earlier in the offenders criminal career than usual, restoration of civil rights, awarding certificates or pardons and using a system of graduated rewards and sanctions to reward compliance and support motivation as implemented in the context of problem-solving courts 85. It is also important to help offenders develop a sense of personal agency and higher levels of self-efficacy that will empower them to change. When asked about effective supervision, offenders often say they value being listened to and recognised as individuals 86. For these reasons, it has been argued that service users should be involved in co-designing the interventions that are meant to support them in desisting from crime 87. This suggestion is backed up by some evidence from evaluations of mentoring services that show mentoring is more likely to work when its goals are defined in agreement with the service user 88 and when the amount of contact is proportionate to the offenders level of needs 89. However, more research is required to understand what might be the most effective ways of involving service users in the design of interventions and how effective such approaches would be in reducing reoffending. Cognitive-behavioural programmes can lead to modest reductions in reoffending especially when they are rigorously implemented and combined with support in 81 Healy, D. (2010), ibid 82 Maruna, S. (2010) Understanding Desistance from Crime, NOMS: Ministry of Justice. 83 Caverley, A. And Farrall, S. (2011), ibid 84 Caverley, A. And Farrall, S. (2011), ibid 85 Maruna, S. and Lebel, T.P. (2010) The Desistance Paradigm in Correctional Practice: From Programmes to Lives in F. McNeill, P. Raynor and C. Trotter Offender Supervision: New Directions in Theory, Research and Practice, Oxon: Willan Publishing. 86 Shapland, J., Bottoms, A., Farrall, S., McNeill, F., Priede, C. and Robinson, G. (2011) The Quality of Probation Supervision A Literature Review, Unpublished research report. 87 McNeil, F. and Weaver, B. (2010) Changing Lives: Desistance Research and Offender Management, Management/ Finnegan, L., Whitehurst, D. and Deaton, S. (2010) Models of mentoring for inclusion and employment. London: Centre for Economic and Social Inclusion. 89 Maguire, M., Holloway, K., Liddle, M., Gordon, F., Gray, P., Smith, A. and Wright, S. (2010) Evaluation of the Transitional Support Scheme. Final Report to Welsh Assembly Government. 19

20 solving practical problems. Antisocial attitudes are among the strongest predictors of reoffending 90. There is good evidence from experiments conducted in the United States that cognitive-behavioural programmes that aim to change offenders thinking styles and attitudes can result in modest reductions in reoffending when rigorously implemented 91. Evidence from the UK is more mixed, with some studies reporting modest reductions in reconviction rates and frequency of reoffending among programme participants (e.g. the evaluation of the Enhanced Thinking Skills programme) and others no significant effects 92. However, differences in results of American and UK studies may reflect variations in the quality and rigour of programme implementation rather than genuine differences in effectiveness. Programmes may work better in the U.S. simply because they are implemented better, though differences in the characteristics of programme participants may also account for some of the variation in outcomes. In fact, process evaluations of cognitivebehavioural programmes delivered in England and Wales have reported a range of problems and shortfalls in implementation including high attrition rates, long waiting lists, lack of booster work prior to release and ineffective targeting 93. In Scotland, no outcome evaluations of accredited programmes have been conducted as yet but process evaluations have highlighted similar problems to those in England 94. A recent UK review of the quality of offender supervision highlighted that accredited programmes cannot operate effectively in isolation, without addressing the broader context in which offending takes place and the multiplicity of offenders needs 95. Significantly fewer women than men are assessed as having considerable attitude problems requiring intervention. Although prevalence rates are low, there is preliminary evidence to suggest that the evaluation of anti-social attitudes is an important part for assessment of risk for women 96. Results of prediction studies on US samples do show statistically significant relationships between particular anti-social attitudes and recidivism in female offenders 97. In 90 Healy, D. (2010) The Dynamics of Desistance: Charting Pathways through Change Cullompton: Willan. 91 Lipsey, M.W. and Cullen, F.T. (2007) The Effectiveness of Correctional Rehabilitation: A Review of Systematic Reviews, Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 3, Harper, G. and Chitty, C. (2005) The Impact of Corrections on Reoffending: A Review of What Works, Home Office Research Study 291, London: Home Office. 93 Harper, G. and Chitty, C. (2005), ibid 94 Schinkel, M. and Whyte, B. (2009) Formative Evaluation of the Constructs PSSO Groupwork Programme, Edinburgh: Criminal Justice Social Work Development Centre; Hutton, L. (2009) Implementation of the Community Sex Offender Groupwork Programme in Scotland: Process Evaluation, Edinburgh: Criminal Justice Social Work Development Centre. 95 Shapland, J., Bottoms, A., Farrall, S., McNeill, F., Priede, C. and Robinson, G. (2011) The Quality of Probation Supervision A Literature Review, Unpublished research report. 96 Boe, R., Nafekh, M Vuong,B, Sinclair, R. & Cousineau, C (2003) The changing profile of the federal inmate population: 1997 and 2002 (research report R-132) Ottowa: Correctional Service Canada. 97 Andrews, D. A., & Bonta, J. (2003). The psychology of criminal conduct (3rd ed.). Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing. 20

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