This short essay was originally published as part of Appendix 1 from my book Babylonian Star-Map. An Illustrated Guide to the Star-lore and Constellations of Ancient Babylonia by Gavin White.

Even though the Greek star-map is fundamental to modern astronomy, very little is actually known concerning its origins or date of creation. We can be certain that all, or nearly all, of the 48 traditional constellations were established by the 4th century BCE when Eudoxus of Cnidos wrote his Phaenomena. This work, which was subsequently lost, was versified by Aratos of Soloi a century or so after its creation, and fortunately for us, Aratos’ work does survive. From this we can infer that Eudoxus’ work described the appearances and locations of the constellations but didn’t pay much heed to the mythology associated with them.

This, at least, provides us with a latest possible date for the formation of the Greek constellations, but trying to trace back their origins any further becomes increasingly difficult. All we know for sure is that Ursa Minor, the Little Bear, was added in the 6th century BCE and that 4 or 5 constellations and a few individual stars were known to Homer and Hesiod – the earliest Greek writers whose births are conventionally dated between 700 and 750 BCE.In truth, this is the earliest date that any Greek star-lore can be positively ascribed to.

The stars and constellations mentioned by Homer and Hesiod – the Great Bear, the Pleiades, Hyades, Orion, Sirius and Arcturus – are very prominent figures, both in the heavens and in the realm of astral mythology. Even though some modern scholars argue that Homer and Hesiod only knew of these few star figures, many find it difficult to accept that this was the sum total of Greek star-lore in the 8th century BCE. Even though there is no textual evidence from Greece beyond this time, it is known that Homer’s epics draw on legends first formulated in the Mycenean period (1550-1100 BCE) and I believe that this is a plausible enough timeframe for the creation of at least some of the early Greek constellations. One factor in particular supports this early date – Mycenean Greece had strong trading and cultural contacts with the Near East, especially so in the 13th century BCE when Babylonia was actively exporting its literate culture.

The Near Eastern influence in Hesiod’s mythical works are relatively well-known but Homer too, also reveals that he knew a little star-lore that originated in Babylonia when he specifically states that the stars of the Great Bear were also called the Wagon (which is of course the Babylonian name for the seven principal stars of Ursa Major).

As we will see a little later, a considerable number of Greek constellations have been derived from Babylonian sources, even though many have been distorted, misplaced or otherwise transformed in the process of transmission.

Our detailed knowledge of the Greek star-map is largely due to the illustrations and descriptions found in medieval Arabic works on astronomy. These works, especially Al-Sufi’s Uranometry, were a substantial improvement on the earlier work of Ptolemy. The following map of the Greek constellations (fig 166) is primarily based on the illustrations found in the Uranometry.

Fig 1: The Greek Star-map according to Arabian astronomers

The Arabian version of the Greek star-map is well worth reproducing, not only for its greater artistic merit, but also for the occurrence of a number of instances where Arab astronomers have departed from the familiar forms of the Greek constellations. The following examples amply demonstrate the types of transformation and misunderstanding that inevitably arise when a body of traditional lore is transmitted from one culture to another.

The figure of Virgo has lost her barley stalk and date-palm frond, and to fit her image onto the star map she has had her right arm cut off above the elbow and shifted downwards towards her thigh.

The lion’s skin held by Orion has been transformed into an elaborately extended sleeve, which was popular among upper-class Arabian society during the medieval period.

The Greek Wolf (Lupus) has been changed into a lion or lioness. And curiously enough, this is actually closer to the Babylonian prototype of the Mad Dog, which was portrayed as a combination of man and lion.

Arabian astronomers have transformed the figure of Lyra, which should be a musical instrument whose sounding box was an empty tortoise shell, into a complete living tortoise.

Finally, the Gorgon’s head carried by Perseus has been transformed into the head of a masculine ghoul – from which we derive the modern star-name of Algol (literally meaning ‘the ghoul’).

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Received wisdom states that beyond the zodiac and such constellations as the Raven, Hydra and Southern Fish that are closely assimilated to zodiac figures, only 4 or 5 Greek constellations are derived from Babylonian sources.1 The remaining 28 or 29 constellations are widely regarded as either being native inventions or transmissions from non-Babylonian sources. The sea-faring Phoenicians are sometimes cited as a potential source, especially for the maritime constellations found in the southern reaches of heaven, even though next to nothing is actually known of Phoenician star-lore. 2

Now that more information is available on Babylonian star-lore, there is every reason to suspect that the Greek star-map has been influenced by the Babylonian tradition to a much greater degree than has previously been recognised. Personally, I would argue that some form of Babylonian influence is detectable in between 25 and 30 of the 48 Greek constellations, which is nearly double the conventional tally. Even so, beyond the zodiac figures and their associated constellations already mentioned, there are only two Greek constellations – the Charioteer and the Eagle – that are likely to be accurate representations of their Babylonian counterparts:

The Greek Charioteer (Auriga) is plainly based on the Babylonian constellation of the Chariot. Contrary to its name, the Chariot was also depicted as a chariot-driver, and as yet there is no reason to believe that he ever had a chariot. The figure of a goat(Capella), sometimes found at his shoulder is also a memory of a Babylonian star called the Crook, which was similarly envisioned as a goat-kid (see fig 37).

The Greek Eagle (Aquila) is almost certainly derived from the Babylonian Eagle. In their respective traditions, both stars are often associated or confused with a vulture; and both birds are carrying another object represented among the stars – the Greek Eagle carries an Arrow (Sagitta) while the Babylonian Eagle carries the constellation known as the Dead Man.

Beyond these well-known and potentially accurate transmissions, another 8 or 9 Greek constellations are more loosely based on Babylonian prototypes. The parallels are not so easy to recognise as various components of the figures have been transfigured in the process of transmission:

The Serpent-bearer (Ophiuchus) is represented on the Greek star-map by a hero wrestling with an enormous serpent. I believe that this figure is ultimately based on the Babylonian constellation known as the Sitting Gods. It was sacred to the serpent-god Nirah, who was sometimes depicted as a man with a huge serpent in place of his legs.

Two further Greek figures – Centaurus and Lupus – are obviously based on Babylonian prototypes, even if there are some notable changes in their respective appearances. The Babylonian forerunner of Centaurus wasknown as the Bison-man, a mythical creature that combined the torso of a man with the hindquarters of a bison. But during the process of transmission, this two-legged figure was transformed into the four-legged Centaurus, which combined a human torso with the body of a horse.

The Greek figure of the Wolf (Lupus)can be traced back to the Babylonian constellation known as the Mad Dog, which was portrayed as a combination of man and lion. Although the form of the Greek constellation may have changed considerably, its close relationship to the Babylonian figure is most clearly expressed in an alternative Greek title – the ‘Wild Beast’ – which is a surprisingly accurate translation of the Mad Dog’s name.

In Babylonian tradition, the symbolism of the Mad Dog and Bison-man is informed by a well-defined seasonal motif called the Lion-Bull conflict. The essential meaning of this motif is displayed in the stars where the Bison-man, who represents the autumn rainy season, is seen killing the lion, which symbolises the drought-stricken summer months. This basic motif appears to have entered Greek tradition as star-myths inform us that Centaurus is depicted in the act of sacrificing Lupus to the gods.

We can also be pretty certain that three more Greek constellations – Pegasus, Hercules and Eridanus – are all derived from Babylonian sources, even if their images have been re-orientated, relocated or otherwise distorted in relation to their Babylonian prototypes:

Pegasus is clearly based on the Babylonian Horse constellation, which has been faithfully preserved in Arabic stellar traditions. But quite why Pegasus is portrayed upside down on the Greek star-map and is further missing its hindquarters has proved impossible to explain.

Hercules too, has been inexplicably placed upside down on the celestial sphere, where he can be seen fighting the dragon (Draco), which guards the Golden Apples. His origins probably lie with the Babylonian constellation called the Standing Gods, which like the Sitting Gods mentioned earlier, was depicted as a man with a serpent for legs. In the earliest Greek traditions this constellation was simply known as the ‘Kneeler’ – which is, I believe, a misunderstanding of the names of the Sitting and Standing Gods.

There can be little doubt that Eridanus, the celestial river that flows from the region around Orion’s legs, derives its name from the Babylonian constellation known as the Star of Eridu. However, their respective constellation images are placed some distance apart on the celestial sphere, either side of Orion. In the section on the Star of Eridu, I suggest that Eridu was depicted as a enthroned goddess holding a vase overflowing with water, which represents the wellspring of the waters, and that Eridanus might be thought of as the extended outflow of the Babylonian figure.

Beyond the foregoing examples that bear an obvious, if corrupt, debt to Babylonian prototypes, a handful of remaining examples are much more uncertain:

It is possible that Ara, the Fire Altar, which is found close to the Scorpio’s tail, is derived, not from a Babylonian constellation but, from the lore of a star at the Scorpion’s Breast. This star, our Antares, is known as Lisi in Babylonian tradition, and her name is significantly written with the sign for ‘fire brazier’.

The origins of Andromeda have exercised the imagination of every investigator of the constellations, both ancient and modern. Many modern commentators suggest she comes from the Near East but no substantial evidence has ever been cited to support such claims. The figure of Andromeda is often compared to the Babylonian constellation of Anunitum, ‘the goddess of heaven’, who represented the Northern Fish of Pisces.

There is some tantalising evidence in Arabic lore that the image of a mermaid was once located in this part of the skies. It could be a remnant of the Sumerian figure known as Kulianna (the Mermaid) who was counted as one of the Slain Heroes. I believe it is possible that this mermaid was split up into separate parts as it became assimilated into the Greek star-map – its human element being transformed into Andromeda, and its fish element becoming the northern fish of Pisces. The close link between the Andromeda and the fish is best expressed by the cord that binds Andromeda’s feet, which can now be understood as another version of the cord that binds together the Piscean fish.

From the perspective of myth and star-lore, the Greek hero Perseus has always been regarded as a purely native figure. However, in the section on the Old Man, I argue that the principal elements of his iconography effectively identify him with Enmešarra, an ancient Babylonian god associated with the dead and the underworld.

Finally, I believe that the figure the Greek Swan (Cygnus) may be a distant memory of the archaic Babylonian constellation called the Anzu-bird (see fig 7). The Swan’s outstretched wings and trailing feet are suspiciously similar to representations of the Anzu-bird, which would originally have been located in this region of the sky.

The potential identification between Cygnus and the Anzu-bird is of considerable interest as, along with the Bison-man seen earlier, the Anzu-bird’s celestial image was actually removed from the Babylonian heavens in the mid 3rd millennium BCE, long before any constellation lore was transmitted to Greece. Both the Bison-man and Anzu-bird are counted among the Slain Heroes, a group of early gods and mythical monsters that were slain by Ninurta. In the section on the Slain Heroes, I suggest that several of the Heroes represented archaic Mesopotamian constellations, and that their deaths at the hands of Ninurta symbolised the removal of their constellation images from the celestial sphere.

Among the other Slain Heroes we find Kulianna (the Mermaid), who may be related to Andromeda and the Northern Fish of Pisces; the Magilum Boat that some commentators suggest maybe related to the Argo; and the Seven-headed serpent that may be a prototype for the Hydra. Additionally I would also suggest that the Greek figure of Cetus, the Sea-Monster, could be another ancient Mesopotamian constellation figure. This intriguing subject demands further study. 3

NOTES

1 I have published a set of short essays on the Zodiac figures of Babylonia on the Skyscript website. Please refer to these documents for information on the nature and history of these pivotal constellation figures.

2 The most up-to-date survey on the origins of the Greek star-map is to be found in two articles by John H. Rogers – The Origins of the Ancient Constellations: 1. The Mesopotamian Traditions; and 2. The Mediterranean Traditions published in the Journal of the British Astronomy Association 1998.

3 I hope to explore this subject in a future book on the reconstruction of the Babylonian Star-Map.

In Queen of the Night, author Gavin White develops a radial new theory of how the prehistoric peoples of the Near East conceived of the heavens that circled above them. Drawing on ancient art and design, the author elucidates the symbolism of the principal constellations of the zodiac, and furthermore explores the nature of the planets that weave their way around the skies. In doing so, he uncovers the basis of a perennial philosophy that lies at the very heart of ancient astrology, mythology and early religion.

Author: Gavin White Pages: 216

244 black & white drawings

Publisher: Solaria Publications Publication date: 11 June 2014

10 digit ISBN: 0955903731 13 digit ISBN: 978-0-9559037-3-1

Dimensions: 190mm x 246mm x 10mm

Wholesale: Available in the UK from Bertrams and Gardners at wholesale discount (55%)

Available in the USA from Ingram and Baker & Taylor at wholesale discount (55%) on a returnable basis

‘The Queen of Heaven’ is a step-by-step guide to symbolism of the so-called ‘fertility religions’ of the antique worlds. Behind the charming imagery of cattle and calves, flying birds, flowers and stars, there is a profound philosophy of human nature and its intimate relationship to the goddess and the wider cosmos.

Thousands of years before the invention of writing, the artists of the Near East – the potters, painters, and seal-cutters – invented a complex system of visual signs and symbols. The system they created was the foundation of the traditional visual arts for millennia hence. However, in time, the keys to that system were eventually lost – if they could be recovered, they would revolutionise our understanding of prehistory.

With over 150 line drawings, ‘the Queen of Heaven’, finally cracks the code of this symbol system. It is the indispensable guide to the nature and meaning of many of the major symbols found in ancient art and myth.

CONTENTS

PART ONE: The Child, Metaphors of the Child, Animal Metaphors, the Seed of Mankind, the Symbol System

PART TWO: the Goddess of Life, the Winged Goddess, the Storm Goddess, the Celestial Goddess, the Fertile Skies, the Waters of the Sun, the Flower of Heaven

PART THREE: the Battle of the Gods, the Sun and the Child, Death enters the World

Preview passages are now available on Amazon. Reader reviews are online at Amazon and Goodreads.

All illustrations are redrawn by the author. The picture sources are as follows:

Original – Gavin White. Loosely based on the ‘Babylonian Map of the World’ – see Horowitz 1998, pages 20-42 for line illustration and commentary. See also Black & Green 1992, fig 46, for a schematic version of the map.

Wallenfels 1993. Zodiac Signs among the seal impressions from Hellenistic Uruk. This article is found in ‘The Tablet & the Scroll: Near Eastern Studies in honor of William W Hallo’, pages 281-289. CDL Press.

Paragraphs (§) are numbered from the start of each gazette section and where the text continues they are numbered from the top of the page. The boxed sections are referred to as ‘Name-boxes’ and are not included in the paragraph count.

INTRODUCTION

Page 7 §1: Exportation of Babylonian astrology. Koch-Westenholz 1995, page 44 ff. This is a good general introduction aimed at students and academics that covers the topic of celestial divination within a chronological framework.

Page 10 § 3 :’If the Fish rises on time… ‘If the Fish rises late… BPO2 text X, line 23. I have slightly re-worked the first parts of both Fish omens in light of the other examples in this text.

Page 11 §1 :Origins of mathematical astrology. Brown 2000, pages 161 ff. Brown presents the thesis that the new mathematical astrology, including zodiacal astrology and horoscopes, had its origins in the Neo-Assyrian court of the late 8th and 7th centuries BCE.

Page 18 §2: Creation of man. The best known being found in the Sumerian myth Enki and Ninmah, lines 24-37 found on the ETCSL-website. In the Akkadian Atrahasis myth we have the motif of a slain god’s blood mixed in with the clay – see Dalley 1989, pages 14-18.

Page 40 §5: Mythical Tree of Life. This motif appears in the myth of Etana – see Dalley 1989 pages 189-202, and in the Sumerian myth entitled Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Netherworld, lines 36-46, best accessed on the ETCSL website.

Page 40 §6: The Gates of Men and the Gods. Stahl 1990, pages 133 ff, commentary on chapter XII.

Page 46 §1: Regents of star. The Star of Abundance is allotted to ‘the messenger of Ninlil’ in Mul-Apin (see Appendix 4 under Mul-Apin). The attribution to Ninlil and Şarpanitu is found in BPO2, page 57 in text IX line 7.

Page 49 §2: Greek myths of fish-like goddess. For Derceto see Condos 1997, pages 163-164. Condos 1997, page 252 also points to Pausanius’ description of Eurynome as ‘a wooden idol tied up with gold chains, like a woman down to the buttocks and below like a fish’ Pausanius 8:41:6 translated by Levi 1971, page 473. See also Van Berg 1973.

Page 50 §1: Winds and souls. The connection is seen in lexicon where the LIL2-sign refers to ‘wind, breeze & ghost’ (PSD: lil) the Akkadian equivalent of LIL2 is given as zīqīqu meaning ‘wind, breeze’ also ‘nothingness & phantom’ (CDA). Another Sumerian term sisig refers to ‘ghost (?), storm, breeze, wind’ (PSD).

Page 50 §2: Harpies associated with souls. Harrison 1980, pages 178-183. See also Livingstone 1986, page 152 where Anzu is associated with ghosts (text VAT 8917 lines 2 & 4); and page 147 where Anzu is equated with the horse that pulls the chariot of the dead god Enmešarra.

Page 73 §1: Boat of the dead. ETCSL Ningišzida’s Journey to the Netherworld

Page 73 §3: Boat carrying babies from the underworld. Scurlock 1995, page 1892. See also CAD makurru 2’ c where ‘the boat is detained in the harbour of death, the cargo-boat is detained in the harbour of distress’.

Page 75 §3: ‘If the Moon is surrounded by a halo… SAA8 report 41 for the King Star omen. SAA8 reports 273 & 376 for the Star Cluster omen.

Page 75 §4: Cattle-pen in West African cultures. Goody 1962, page 78, 226 & 228 for scattering seeds on the corpse and the ancestral representation; pages 391-2 for birth and marriage ceremonies held to the cattle-byre; page 234 for installing the ancestral shrine in the cattle-byre.

Page 78 §2: The New-Year festival. Black & Green 1992, pages 136-7 under New Year Ceremonies. There is a fuller description of the Akitu rites in Cohen 1993, pages 400-6; and further information on pages 306 ff & 327 ff.

Page 101 §4: Symbolic numbers of the sun & moon. Brown 2000, page 56 & 57, under section A, for Sun and Moon. see also Livingstone 1986 pages 31-3 and 44-48 for a fuller examination of the numbers associated with various deities.

Page 107 §5: ‘If the Field rises in month 1 but the southern star… BPO2 text XII, line 1 ff.

Page 107 §6: Many omens are invented. The editors of Šumma Izbu (the major collection of birth anomaly omens) come to very similar conclusions and map out the basic rules of omen creation in Leichty 1970, page 24. See also Brown 2000, page 130-9, especially the Conclusion on pages 138-9 for the creation of celestial omens.

FIRE STAR

Page 107 §1: Gibil as the burning torch. Glassner 2003, pages 159-60.

Page 107 §2: ETCSL A Hymn to Kusu, lines 34-39.

Page 108 §1: Fire Star in early star-lists. See Appendix 4 under Prayer to the Gods of the Night.

Page 129 §4: Ram-headed staff called ‘Mum-symbol’. Slanski 2003, page 129, line iv 5 – ‘the mum-symbol & the Goatfish, the Great Sanctuary of Ea’. As the Ram-headed staff is the commonest symbol of Enki it is thus very likely that it is called the ‘mum-symbol’.

Page 130 §3: Dumuzi as regent of the Hired Man. See Appendix 4 under Mul-Apin.

Page 130 §3: For a broad discussion of Dumuzi’s character see Jacobsen 1976, pages 25-7.

Page 133 §2: Earliest evidence for the appearance of the horse. Collon 1987, figs 935 & 936 on page 192; see also Frankfort 1939, fig 28 on page 74; see also PSD where the Akkadian name for the horse (sisû) first appears in Old Akkadian.

Page 149 3§: Location of Numušda. The location is uncertain as the Neo-Assyrian Astrolabe (Horowitz 1998, page 176) places Numušda somewhere in the region of Aquarius and Pisces – diametrically opposite to the location suggested by Mul-Apin!

Page 153 §4: Springtime rites to dispel ghosts in Mesopotamia. Some minor support for this idea occurring in Mesopotamia can be found in Cohen 1993, page 272 where the Sippar Month-name Qāti-Erşetim – (Demons of the Underworld) occurs for the last month of spring.

Page 170 §1: Many specific examples of the Roman association of Mercury with cockerels can be found with a simple web-search. I’ve not found the attribution in any of the standard works on Roman or Greek mythology.

Page 177 §4: Inter-related names for Saturn, the Scales and the Sun. Reiner 1995, page 141 where the Scales (Libra) is called ‘the Star or House of Šamaš’ – see note 674; see also Hunger & Pingree 1989, Tablet II i 39. As ‘Path of the Sun’ see SAA8 report 49, lines 4-6. Brown 2000, pages 68-70 for the names of Saturn; and pages 61 & 57. Summarised in Koch-Westenholz 1995, pages 122-5.

Page 180 §1: Scorpion in ritual ploughing scene may be calendrical in nature. See also Collon 1987, fig 615 dated to the late Early Dynastic period. See also Appendix 8 under Month 8 for the seeding festival.

Page 182 Name-box: For different English renditions of Šarur’s & Šargaz’s names see Livingstone 1986, page 55, lines 7-12; and ETCSL Ninurta’s Return to Nibru, lines 128-34. Šarur either ‘mows down’, ‘reaps’ or ‘gathers’ a multitude; Šargaz either ‘slays’ or ‘crushes’ a multitude. In my opinion all are equally valid.

Page 182 §3: ‘The Sting of the Scorpion is the great lord Pabilsag. SAA8 report 502.

SERPENT

Page 183 §1: Figure of death has a head of a serpent-dragon. Wiggermann 1997, page 35.

Page 186 §1: The Crook of the She-Goat. Hunger & Pingree 1999, page 275. See also Appendix 4 under Ziqpu-stars.

Page 186 §2: Why Gula is called the She-Goat. Reiner 1995, page 129 where Gula is described as ‘you are the one who created mankind’. See also CAD under tarbaşu for ‘the She-Goat is the Cattle-pen of Gula’. These references show that her symbolism is informed by the metaphor of ‘Cattle = Man’.

Page 190 §2: Location of constellation. Hunger & Pingree 1999, page 56, line V. See also Horowitz 1998, page 176 for the Neo-Assyrian Astrolabe CT 33-9 where the Sitting Gods are located in the Path of Anu and rise in Month 8.

Page 207 §1: Holding the rod & ring. Cohen 1993, page 444 but this statement should be applied to the Hitched Yoke. Nevertheless, Šupa is so closely associated with the Yoke and the celestial ropes that the material concerning the rod and ring is still highly relevant to his symbolism.

Page 207 §1: The rod & ring. Van Buren 1949, pages 449-50.

Page 207 §2: Enlil who decrees the destiny of the lands. See Appendix 4 under Mul-Apin.

Page 207 §2: Šupa, ruler of the supreme gods. Cohen 1993, page 444.

Page 207 §2: Reiner 1995, page 143 where Šupa is called ‘mountain of the Igigi-gods’, which again relates him to Enlil, the ‘Great Mountain’.

Page 220 §1: Concerning the locations of the Ewe, Hitched Yoke and Fox. Note 1 describes the Wagon as having three stars on its shaft. One of these stars is known as the Fox – according to Mul-Apin it is located ‘at the shaft of the Wagon’. The identification of the Ewe and Hitched Yoke with the other two stars of the shaft is a logical inference. I have argued that the Ewe is depicted on the Dendera Zodiac as the tiny sheep perched underneath the Bull’s Foreleg – this identifies it as the star closest to the Wagon-box. The Hitched Yoke is logically the bright star at the end of the shaft where the yoke and harness-work of the Wagon is necessarily located.

Page 238 §2: The majority of these images are drawn from Wallenfels 1993; the remainder are redrawn from Wallenfels 1994 as follows Taurus – plate 72, Virgo – plate 51 and the first image of Aquarius – plate 5.

Page 240 §1: For a general description of Entitlement Stones see Black & Green 1992, pages 113-4 under Kudurrus. For illustrations of these monuments see Hinke 1907 and Seidl 1989. For a more up-to-date examination of the inscriptions on these monuments see Slanski 2003.

Page 240 §3: A table of the symbols and their associated gods found on Entitlement Stones can be found in Rogers 1998b, page 13; for a fuller table of attributions see Iwaniszewski 2003, page 82 (available on the web).

Page 241 §2: See Appendix 4 under Mul-Apin for the star-lists and rising times of 34 stars; for setting and culmination dates of the Babylonian constellations see Hunger & Pingree 1989.

Page 242 §1: A photo of the Circular Zodiac can be found in Parker & Neugebauer 1969, plate 53 and a line illustration in Hinke 1907 fig 35. A photo of the Square Zodiac can be found in Parker & Neugebauer 1969, plate 60 and a line illustration in Hinke 1907 fig 34.

Page 244 §2: Figures of the Egyptian Orion depict him with a long staff, looking back over his shoulder while taking a wide stride. Images refs

Page 246 §3: Very few of the Dendera images are seen in earlier Egyptian astronomic art. Parker & Neugebauer 1969, reference lost!

Page 248 §1: The most accessible editions detailing the Arabic versions of the Greek constellations are As-Sufi 1954; and Wellesz 1965. See also Rogers 1998.

Page 262 top line: The historical and technological details are taken from standard works on the history and culture of the Ancient Near East. Foremost among these volumes are Roaf 1966, Van der Mieroop 2004, Oppenheim 1977, Jacobsen 1976, and Black & Green 1992. I have largely based my chronology on Black & Green 1992, page 22; and on Brown 2000, pages 245-64.

Page 263 for 5500-4000: Proposed creation of oldest constellations. This proposition is formulated in Appendix 2 on the Age of the Star-map.

Page 263 for 2390-2210: Establishment of the Four Regions – See Appendix 10, notes 1 & 2. Possible use of stars in rustic calendar – See the Scorpion, fig 118, and note 17. See also Brown 2000, page 246, section 1, which suggests that the use of stars in a rustic calendar is part of the archaic Sumerian tradition. Proposed reform of the constellations – See Appendix 2.

Page 280 §3: Esoteric analysis of planet & star names. See Appendix 4 under VR 46 where these esoteric readings are made in the latter part of the text starting from ‘Sagmegar (Jupiter) – the giver of signs’.

Page 288 §2: Use of the omen above to represent other celestial phenomena. Gossmann 1950, section 133 II 2a (page 49) I make the presumption that this is an alternative version of the omen quoted in note 15 above.

Page 288 §5: ‘If the Moon is surrounded by a halo and the King Star… SAA8 report 41.

Page 288 §5: ‘If the Moon is surrounded by a halo and the Star Cluster… SAA8 reports 273 & 376.

Page 300 §1: Roaf 1966, page 82 for Sumer and Akkad known at the end of the Early Dynastic period; page 108 for Amurru occurring in the last centuries of the 3rd Millennium and for Subartu being known in the Akkadian period.

Page 302: Basic information on the Four Winds can be found in Horowitz 1998, pages 195-8. The deity attributions can be found in Livingstone 1986, pages 74-6. The animal attributions are from GSL lines 295-8 on pages 203-5. The stars marking the Four Winds are found in Hunger & Pingree 1989, Tablet II i 68-71 on page 87.

APPENDIX 13 – Page 303. General note: I intend to expand and reorganise this section in a future edition.

Scales = Crab. See SAA8 report 39 lines 1-5 for an omen usually used for Saturn in the Scales being applied to Saturn in the Crab

Star Cluster = Frond of Erua. Upon rechecking I no longer advocate this proposition.

Star of Eridu = Kidney = Great One. See Kidney note 1

Field = Furrow. See Field

Bow = Furrow (+Frond). See Bow

Field behind which is the Star Cluster = Hired Man. See Hired Man

Yoke = Goatfish. See BPO3 page 195 omen 7 commentary.

Crook = Widow’s Oven. See BPO2 text VIII line 5 – given only in Akkadian.

Kidney = Goatfish. See BPO2 text III line 28b.

APPENDIX 14

Widow’s Oven – Tail of Sitting Dog. See GSL line 155, page 195.

Crook – Chariot. See Chariot.

Bison-man – Wild Boar. See Appendix 2.

Anzu-bird – Horse. See GSL line 159, page 195.

Lion – Bridle. See SAA8 report 81, and GSL line 136, page 193.

Claws of Scorpion – Scales. See Scorpion’s Claws.

Anunitum – Maggot or Worm. See GSL line 165, page 195.

Anunitum & Swallow – Tails. See the Tails.

Abundance – Front Harness. See Appendix 4 under Ziqpu-stars.

Dignity – Rear Harness. See Appendix 4 under Ziqpu-stars.

Standing Gods – Circle. See Appendix 4 under Ziqpu-stars.

Yoke – Šupa. See Appendix 4 under Ziqpu-stars.

Bull’s Jaw – Crown of Anu. See Mul-Apin in Appendix 4

Sitting Dog – Doublets & Triplets. See Appendix 4 under Ziqpu-stars.

APPENDIX 16 – Page 308

§1: For an alternative examination of the Exaltations. See also Rochberg-Halton 1988b, pages 53-7; and Koch-Westenholz 1995, pages 134-6. I have subsequently written a fuller account of the Babylonian Exaltations which is available on the Skyscript web-site.

‘THE QUEEN OF HEAVEN A New Interpretation of the Goddess in Ancient Near Eastern Art’ by Gavin White

________________________________________________________

Mul-Apin is a composite text that can be thought of as a general compendium dealing with many diverse aspects of celestial divination.The first sections of tablet 1 list all the mainstream Babylonian constellations along with the deities associated with them. Various other sections give the rising dates for the stars and provide further useful information that helps to locate the constellations in relation to each other and as such it is the single most important resource for reconstructing the overall plan of the Babylonian starmap.
Even though the earliest copy so far discovered was only written shortly after 700 BCE, the text was probably composed sometime between 1200 and 1000 BCE.
The following lists are derived from ‘Mul.Apin, An Astronomical Compendium in Cuneiform’ by Hermann Hunger and David Pingree, 1989. The locations of the Babylonian stars in terms of the Greek stars are my own attributions.

Mul-Apin divides the stars into northern, equatorial and southern paths:

33 Northern stars on the path of EnlilThe Plough, Enlil, the lead star of the stars of Enlil (Most of Draco)
The Wolf at the seed funnel of the Plough (Head & middle of Draco)
The Old Man, Enmesharra (Perseus)
The Crook, the Crouching god (Auriga)
The Great Twins, Lugalirra and Meslamtaea (Gemini)
The Little Twins, Alammush and Ninezengud (Canis Minor)
The Crab, the seat of Anu (Cancer)
The Lion, Latarak (Leo)
The stars that stands in the breast of the Lion, the King Star (The star Regulus in Leo)
The dusky stars that stand in the tail of the Lion, the Frond of Erua, Zarpanitu (Coma Berenices & the western part of Virgo)Shupa, Enlil, who decrees the fate of the land (Bootes)
The star before him, the Star of Abundance, the messenger of Ninlil (A star in the western part part of Bootes)
The star behind him, the Star of Dignity, the messenger of Tishpak (A star in the eastern part of Bootes)
The Wagon, Ninlil (The 7 principle stars of Ursa Major)
The star at the shaft of the Wagon, the Fox, Erra, the strong one among the gods (The star Zeta in Ursa Major)
The star at the front of the Wagon, the Ewe, Aya (Probably the star Epsilon in Ursa Major)
The Hitched Yoke, Anu, the great one of the heavens (the star Eta in Ursa Major)
The Wagon of Heaven, Damkianna (Ursa Minor)
The star on its rope, the Heir of the Sublime Temple, the first ranking son of Anu (The star Polaris in Ursa Minor)
The Standing Gods of the E-kur, the Sitting Gods of the E-kur (The western part of Ophiuchus; Corona Borealis)
The She-Goat, Gula (Lyra)
The star before the She-Goat, the Sitting Dog (Most of Hercules)
The bright star of the She-Goat, Lamma, the messenger of Baba (The star Vega in Lyra)
Two stars behind her, Ninsar and Erragal (The stars Beta & Gamma in Lyra)
The Panther, Nergal (Most of Cygnus & probably part of Cepheus)
The star to his right, the Swine, Damu (Probably Delphinus)
The star to his left, the Horse (front legs of Pegasus & Lacerta)
The star behind him, the Stag, messenger of the Star Cluster (Cassiopeia & part of Andromeda)
The dusky stars at the breast of the Stag, Harriru, god of the Rainbow (The spiral galaxy M31 in Andromeda)
The bright red star at the kidney of the Stag, the Destroyer (The star Gamma in Cassiopeia)

23 Equatorial stars on the Path of Anu
The Field, the seat of Ea, which leads the stars of Anu (The 4 stars of the Square of Pegasus)
The star at the Field, the Swallow (The head & neck of Pegasus, & the western fish of Pisces)
The star behind the Field, Anunitum (The northern fish of Pisces)
The star behind it, the Hired Man, Dumuzi (Aries)
The Star Cluster, the Seven Gods, the great gods (The Pleiades)
The Bull of Heaven, the Bull’s Jaw, the Crown of Anu (Taurus, or at least its head)
The True Shepherd of Anu, Papsukal, the messenger of Anu and Ishtar (Orion)
The Twins who are opposite the True Shepherd of Anu, Lulal and Latarak (Cetus & part of Eridanus)
The star behind him, the Rooster (Lepus)
The Arrow, the arrow of the great god Ninurta (The star Sirius & probably other stars in Canis Major)
The Bow, the Elamite Ishtar, the daughter of Anu (Puppis)
The Serpent, Ningishzida, lord of the Underworld (Hydra)
The Raven, the star of Adad (Corvus)
The Furrow, Shala with her ear of barley (The eastern part of Virgo)
The Scales, the Horn of the Scorpion (Libra)Zababa (The eastern part of Ophiuchus), the Eagle (Aquila) and the Dead Man (Sagitta)

15 Southern stars on the Path of Ea
The Fish, Ea, the lead star of the stars of Ea (Pisces Austrinus)
The Great One, Ea (Aquarius). The Star of Eridu, Ea (Vela)
The star to his right, Ninmah (Vela)
The Wild Boar, Ningirsu (Most of Centaurus)
The star to its side, the Harrow, the weapon of Mar-biti, within which one sees the Abyss (The western part of Centaurus)
The two stars that are behind him, Shullat and Hanish, Shamas and Adad (Two stars in Centaurus)
The star behind them, rises like Ea and sets like Ea, Numushda, Adad (Unknown, possibly part of the Milky Way)
The star to the left of the Scorpion, the Mad Dog, Kusu (Lupus)
The Scorpion, Ishhara, the governess of the lands (Scorpio)
The Breast of the Scorpion, Lisi and Nabu (The star Antares in Scorpio)
The two stars on the Stinger of the Scorpion, Sharur and Shargaz (The stars Lambda and Nu in Scorpio)
The star behind them, Pabilsag (Sagittarius)
The Cargo-Boat (Corona Australis)and the Goatfish (Capricorn)