1. In spoken English we usually say I'm/you've/didn't etc. (short forms) rather than I am/you have/did not etc. We also use short forms in informal written English (for example, in letters to friends).

When we write short forms, we use an apostrophe (') for the missing letter(s):

I'm = I am you've = you have didn't = did not

5.2 List of short forms of auxiliary verbs

'm = am -> I'm

's = is or has -> he's, she's, it's

're= are -> you're, we're, they're

've = have -> I've, you've, we've, they've

'll = will -> I'll, he'll, she'll, you'll, we'll, they'll

'd = would or had -> I'd, he'd, she'd, you'd, we'd, they'd

's can be is or has:

* She's ill. (= She is ill.)

* She's gone away. (= She has gone away.)

but let's = let us:

* Let's go now. (= Let us go)

'd can be would or had:

* I'd see a doctor if I were you. (= I would see)

* I'd never seen her before. (= I had never seen)

We use some of these short forms (especially 's) after question words (who/what etc.) and after that/there/here:

Before the endings ~ing/~ed/~er/-est, we double the consonant at the end. So p -> pp, n -> nn etc. For example:

stop p -> pp stopping stopped

plan n -> nn planning planned

rub b -> bb rubbing rubbed

big g -> gg bigger biggest

wet t -> tt wetter wettest

thin n -> nn thinner thinnest

If the word has more than one syllable (prefer, begin etc.), we double the consonant at the end only if the final syllable is stressed:

preFER/preferring preferred

perMIT/permitting/permitted

reGRET/regretting/regretted

beGIN/beginning

If the final syllable is not stressed, we do not double the final consonant:

VISit/visiting/visited

deVELop/developing/developed

HAPpen/happening/happened

reMEMber/remembering/remembered

In British English, verbs ending in -1 have -]I- before ~ing and ~ed whether the final syllable is stressed or not:

travel/travelling/travelled

cancel/cancelling/cancelled

For American spelling, see Appendix 7.

Note that:

we do not double the final consonant if the word ends in two consonants (~rt, ~1p, ~ng etc.): start/starting/started, help/helping/helped, long/longer/longest

we do not double the final consonant if there are two vowel letters before it (~oil, ~eed etc.): boil/boiling/boiled, need/needing/needed, explain/explaining/explained, cheap/cheaper/cheapest, loud/louder/loudest, quiet/quieter/quietest

we do not double y or w at the end of words. (At the end of words y and w are not consonants.)

stay/staying/stayed, grow/growing, new/newer/newest

APPENDIX 7

American English

There are a few grammatical differences between British English and American English:

UNIT 7A-B and 13A

BRITISH

The present perfect is used for an action in the past with a result now:

* I've lost my key. Have you seen it?

* Sally isn't here. She's gone out.

The present perfect is used with just, already and yet:

* A: What time is he leaving?

B: He has already left.

* Have you finished your work yet?

AMERICAN

The present perfect OR past simple can be used:

* I've lost my key. Have you seen it? or I lost my key. Did you see it?

* Sally isn't here. She's gone out. She went out.

The present perfect OR past simple can be used:

* I'm not hungry. I've just had lunch. I've just had lunch.

* A: What time is he leaving?

B: He has already left. He already left.

* Have you finished your work yet? or Did you finish your work yet?

UNIT 17B

BRITISH: have a bath/have a shower

AMERICAN: take a bath/take a shower

UNIT 22D

BRITISH

Will or shall can be used with I/we:

* I will/shall be late this evening. The questions shall I ...? and shall we ...? are used to ask for advice etc.:

* Which way shall we go?

AMERICAN

Shall is unusual:

* I will be late this evening. Should I ...? and should we ...? are used to ask for advice etc.:

* Which way should we go?

UNIT 32B

BRITISH

You can use needn't (do) or don't need to (do):

* We needn't hurry. or We don't need to hurry.

AMERICAN

Needn't is unusual. The usual form is don't need to:

* We don't need to hurry.

UNIT 34 A-B

BRITISH

After demand, insist etc. you can use should:

* I demanded that he should apologize.

* We insisted that something should be done about the problem.

AMERICAN:

The subjunctive is normally used. Should is unusual after demand, insist etc.:

* I demanded that he apologize.

* We insisted that something be done about the problem.

Many verbs ending in ~ise in British English (apologise/organise/specialise etc.) are spelt with ~ize (apologize/organize/specialize etc.) in American English.

@p283

APPENDIX 7

UNIT 73B

BRITISH

British speakers say 'to/in hospital' (without 'the'):

* Three people were injured and taken to hospital.

AMERICAN

American speakers say 'to/in the hospital':

* Three people were injured and taken to the hospital.

UNIT 78C

BRITISH

Nouns like government/team/family etc. can have a singular or plural verb:

* The team is/are playing well.

AMERICAN

These nouns normally take a singular verb in American English:

* The team is playing well.

UNIT 120B

BRITISH: at the weekend/at weekends:

* Will you be here at the weekend?

AMERICAN: on the weekend/on weekends:

* Will you be here on the weekend?

UNIT 123A

BRITISH: in a street:

* Do you live in this street?

AMERICAN: on a street:

* Do you live on this street?

UNIT 130C

BRITISH: different from or different to:

* It was different from (or to) what I'd expected.

AMERICAN: different from or different than:

* It was different from (or than) what I'd expected.

UNIT 131B

BRITISH: write to somebody:

* Please write to me soon.

AMERICAN: write (to) somebody (with or without 'to,):

* Please write (to) me soon.

APPENDIX 1.3

BRITISH

The verbs in this section (burn, spoil etc.) can be regular or irregular (burned or burnt, spoiled or spoilt etc.)

AMERICAN: The verbs in this section are normally regular (burned, spoiled etc.)

2. When I got home, Bill --- (lie) on the sofa. The television was on but he --- (not/watch) it. He --- (fall) asleep and --- (snore) loudly. I --- (turn) the television off --- (wake) up.

3. Last night I --- (just/go) to bed and --- (read) a book when suddenly I --- (hear) a noise. I --- (get) up to see what it was but I --- (not/see) anything, so I --- (go) back to bed.

4. Mary had to go to New York last week, but she almost --- (miss) the plane. She --- (stand) in the queue at the check-in desk when she suddenly --- (realise) that she --- (leave) her passport at home. Fortunately, she doesn't live very far from the airport, so she --- (have) time to take a taxi home to get it. She --- (get) back to the airport Just in time for her flight.

5. I --- (meet) George and Linda yesterday as I --- (walk) through the park. They --- (be) to the Sports Centre where they .I --- (play) tennis. They --- (go) to a cafe for a drink and --- (invite) me to join them but I --- (arrange) to meet a friend and --- (not/have) time.

6. Make sentences from the words in brackets. Put the verb in the correct form, present perfect (I have done), present perfect continuous (I have been doing), Past perfect J had done) or past perfect continuous (I had been doing).

1. Ann is sitting on the ground. She's out of breath. (she/run) _She has been running._