Stephen Barrett, M.D.

Applied kinesiology (AK) is a pseudoscientific system of muscle-testing
and therapy. It was initiated in 1964 by George J. Goodheart,
Jr., D.C., and has become quite elaborate. Its basic notion is
that every organ dysfunction is accompanied by a specific muscle
weakness, which enables diseases to be diagnosed through muscle-testing
procedures. Most practitioners are chiropractors, but naturopaths,
medical doctors, dentists, bogus nutritionists, physical therapists,
massage therapists, nurse practitioners, and multilevel distributors
(most notably for Nature's Sunshine) are also involved. In 1991,
37% of 4,835 full-time American chiropractors who responded to
a survey by the National Board of Chiropractic Examiners (NBCE)
said they used AK in their practice [1]. Subsequent NBCE surveys
found percentages of 31% in Canada (1992) [2], 60% in Australia
(1993) [3], 72% in New Zealand (1993) [3], and 43% in the United
States (1998) [4]. The prevalence among other types of practitioners
is unknown. Note: Applied kinesiology
should be distinguished from kinesiology (biomechanics), which
is the scientific study of movement.

Bizarre Claims

AK proponents claim that nutritional deficiencies, allergies,
and other adverse reactions to foods or nutrients can be detected
by having the patient chew or suck on them or by placing them
on the tongue so that the patient salivates. Some practitioners
advise that the test material merely be held in the patient's
hand or placed on another part of the body. A few even perform
"surrogate testing" in which the arm strength of a parent
is tested to determine problems in a child held by the parent.
According to a 1987 book for the general public written with help
from two leading chiropractic AK practitioners:

The practicing AK is a graduate chiropractor who can explain
to you how your glands and organs appear to be functioning with
specific muscle tests. He can suggest nutrition to help improve
various conditions, and he can demonstrate with your muscles
that you probably need particular nutrients. He can correct problems
in your spine and in joints, and can stretch or compress muscles
to improve your structural condition. He may massage certain
junctures of nerve, lymph, blood, and acupuncture meridians to
stimulate glandular or systemic activity. He can advise you on
how to stay healthy and he will pay particular attention to your
posture and your feet. He can offer an excellent second opinion
if you are under a physician's care, are seeing a chiropractor
who is not an applied kinesiologist, or if you have been in an
accident [5].

Many muscle-testing proponents assert that nutrients tested
in these various ways will have an immediate effect: "good"
substances will make specific muscles stronger, whereas "bad"
substances will cause weaknesses that "indicate trouble with
the organ or other tissue on the same nerve, vascular, nutrition,
etc., grouping." A leading AK text, for example, states:

If a patient is diagnosed as having a liver disturbance and
the associated pectoralis major [chest muscle] tests weak, have
the patient chew a substance that may help the liver, such as
vitamin A. If . . . the vitamin A is appropriate treatment, the
muscle will test strong [6].

Finding a "weak" muscle supposedly enables the practitioner
to pinpoint illness in the corresponding internal organs in the
body. For example, a weak muscle in the chest might indicate a
liver problem, and a weak muscle near the groin might indicate
"adrenal insufficiency." If a muscle tests "weaker"
after a substance is placed in the patient's mouth, it supposedly
signifies disease in the organ associated with that muscle. If
the muscle tests "stronger," the substance supposedly
can remedy problems in the corresponding body parts. Testing is
also claimed to indicate which nutrients are deficient. If a weak
muscle becomes stronger after a nutrient (or a food high in the
nutrient) is chewed, that supposedly indicates "a deficiency
normally associated with that muscle." Some practitioners
contend that muscle-testing can also help diagnose allergies,and
other adverse reactions to foods. According to this theory, when
a muscle tests "weak," the provocative substance is
bad for the patient. AK "treatment" may include special
diets, food supplements, acupressure (finger pressure on various
parts of the body), and spinal manipulation [7].

Goodheart states that AK techniques can also be used to evaluate
nerve, vascular, and lymphatic systems; the body's nutritional
state; the flow of "energy" along "acupuncture
meridians"; and "cerebro spinal fluid function."
The 70-page chapter on "meridian therapy" in a leading
AK textbook advises that subluxations influence the status of
meridian system and vice versa [8].

The leading publisher/distributor of AK educational materials
for chiropractors and their patients appears to be Systems DC,
of Pueblo, Colorado. Its pamphlet on infections and child health
states:

When an infection develops, have your child examined by your
doctor using applied kinesiology. He can evaluate the energy
patterns and usually find the reason that the infection developed
in the first place. By correcting the energy patterns within
the body and paying specific attention to nutritional supplements
and dietary management, the infection which your child (using
natural health care) does develop will be adequately taken care
of in most cases [9].

Research Findings

Although the claims of applied kinesiology are so far removed
from scientific reality that testing them might seem a waste of
time, competent researchers have subjected the muscle-testing
procedures to several well-designed controlled tests and demonstrated
what should be obvious to rational persons. Some have found no
difference in muscle response from one substance to another, while
others have found no difference between the results with test
substances and with placebos. One study, for example, found that
three practitioners testing eleven subjects made significantly
different assessments; their diagnoses of nutritional deficiencies
did not correspond to the nutrient levels obtain by blood serum
analysis; and that the responses to nutrient substances did not
significantly differ from responses to placebos [10]. Another
study found no effect from administering the nutrients "expected"
to strengthen a muscle diagnosed as "weak" by AK practitioners."
[11] Other researchers who conducted an elaborate double-blind
trial concluded that "muscle response appeared to be a random
phenomenon." [12] Yet another study showed that suggestion
can influence the outcome of muscle-testing. During part of this
experiment, college students were told that chewing M&M candies
would give them instant energy that would probably make them test
stronger. Five out of nine did so [13].

Some people who undergo AK muscle-testing report that although
they resisted as hard as they could, the practitioner was still
able to pull down their arm. Differences from one test to another
may be due to suggestibility; variations in the amount of force,
leverage, or follow-through involved; and/or muscle fatigue. Distraction
can also play a role. (Touching another part of the body just
before pulling down the arm may cause the patient to focus less
on resisting.) But trickery (deliberate or unconscious) may also
be a factor. A sudden slight upward movement can cause a "set"
muscle to relax so that it can be immediately pulled downward.
I have found that when this is done quickly, the person being
tested is unlikely to detect the upward motion. Try this on a
friend.

Questionable "Standards"

The International College
of Applied Kinesiology (ICAK), founded in the mid-1970s, has
set "standards" based on the work of Goodheart and his
followers who allege they have subjected AK to "extensive
scientific study." Certification by its board (which is not
recognized by chiropractic's official accrediting body) requires
a minimum of 300 hours of study under an ICAK diplomate, 5,000
hours of practical experience, authorship of two research papers,
and passage of written and practical examinations. According to
ICAK's 1992 status statement:

Applied kinesiology procedures are not intended to be used
as a single method of diagnosis. Applied kinesiology examination
should enhance standard diagnosis, not replace it. . . .

There are both lay persons and professionals who use a form
of manual muscle testing without the necessary expertise to perform
specific and accurate tests. Some fail to coordinate the muscle
testing findings with other standard diagnostic procedures. These
may be sources of error that could lead to misinterpretation
of the condition present, and thus improper treatment, or failure
to treat the appropriate condition [14].

In a recent letter to me, the
ICAK-USA executive board added that, "While there are numerous
methods which employ manual muscle testing procedures, most are
not in keeping with the standards of the ICAK . . . . Specifically
. . . testing of substances by any method other than the stimulation
of gustatory receptors on the tongue or olfactory receptors in
the nose is specifically outside of the realm of applied kinesiology."
[15] It appears to me, however, that the nutrition-related claims
and practices of those affiliated with ICAK are no less bizarre
than those of other muscle-testers who do not follow ICAK "standards."
Not surprisingly, a review of 20 research papers published by
ICAK concluded that because "none of the papers included
adequate statistical analyses, no valid conclusions could be drawn
concerning their report of findings." [16]

AK Offshoots

Muscle testing and "meridian" theories are involved
in many other treatment systems used mainly by chiropractors:

Neural Organization Technique (NOT)
includes the notion that the skull is an "extension of the
spine." [17] It deserves mention because it is often directed
at handicapped children. NOT's proponents claim that "blocked
neural pathways" caused by misaligned skull bones can cause
learning disorders, cerebral palsy, schizophrenia, Down's syndrome,
colorblindness, bedwetting, nightmares, and various other problems.
Its practitioners claim that "adjusting" these bones
by applying pressure to various structures of the head can cure
these problems. This claim is not only unsubstantiated but clashes
with the fact that the bones of the skull are tightly fused by
age two. NOT's originator, Carl A. Ferreri, D.C., of New York
City, says he has trained hundreds of chiropractors in the use
of his techniques. NOT came to public attention in 1988 when chiropractors
subjected children to it in a "research" program sponsored
by school officials in Del Norte County, California. For five
months, dozens of children from age four to sixteen, with epilepsy,
Down's syndrome, cerebral palsy, dyslexia, and various other learning
disorders, were "treated" by having their skull compressed
with viselike hand pressure. The children were also forced to
endure painful thumb pressure against the roof of the mouth and
finger pressure against their eyes. According to news reports,
the children struggled, cried, and screamed as they were forcibly
restrained. One reportedly experienced his first seizure when
his eye sockets were "adjusted." Some of the children
became violent, explosive, rebellious, uncontrollable, and lacking
in self-motivation and drive [18,19]. In 1991, a jury ordered
Ferreri to pay $565,000 in damages to seven children and their
parents who had filed suit for physical and emotional pain related
to the treatment. Two other chiropractors involved in the case
settled out of court for a total of $207,000.

Contact
Reflex Analysis (CRA) proponents claim that over a
thousand health problems can be diagnosed with a muscle test during
which the chiropractor's finger or hand is placed on one of 75
"reflex points" on the patient's body. If the patient's
arm can be pulled downward, a condition corresponding to the "reflex"
is considered present, and dietary supplements (typically made
from freeze-dried vegetables or animal organs) are prescribed.
CRA's chief proponent,. Dick A. Versendaal, D.C., teaches that
80% of disease is due to allergy; the two main causes of disease
are gallbladder disease and staphylococcus infections; and obesity
is commonly caused by parasites.

Neuro Emotional Technique (NET)
focuses on "releasing patients' emotional blocks stored in
the body's memory." Proponents claim that everyone has such
blocks and that the body "replays" these old memories,
which can adversely affect health [20]. According to a recent
article, when chronic patients do not seem to get better over
a course of treatment, and where structure, nutrition and "toxicity"
have been addressed, NET practitioners look for a "Neuro
Emotional Complex (NEC) " that they feel is preventing healing.
The practitioner then use muscle testing to "isolate a troublesome
event," then ask the patient to hold in mind a "snapshot"
of the emotional state while the chiropractor adjusts the patient's
spine and prescribes supplement products and homeopathic remedies.
NET's developer, Scott Walker, D.C., of Encinitas, California,
states that during the ten years he has been teaching the technique,
2,700 health care practitioners (mostly chiropractors but some
physicians, psychologists and dentists) have leaned it, and most
use it regularly in their practice. According to Walker, "the
reason homeopathy works so well is that it allows the body to
remember what toxins it needs to get rid of in order to reestablish
homeostasis." He also says that although psychotherapy is
valuable, an "emotional memory locked in the body" can't
be resolved through therapy alone [20]. The ONE (Our NET Effect)
Foundation was incorporated in 1993 "to help NET practitioners
scientifically validate their technique, promote their practices,
and bring NET to the world." [21]

Nambudripad's Allergy Elimination
Technique (NAET) is based on the bizarre notion that
allergies are caused by "energy blockage" that can be
diagnosed with muscle-testing and permanently cured with acupressure
and/or acupuncture treatments. Its developer, Dr. Devi S. Nambudripad,
is described on her Web site as an acupuncturist, chiropractor,
kinesiologist, and registered nurse who practices in California.

Whole
System HealthScanis said to be a system that
"provides access to stored information in the body's computer."
Developed in 1992, by Don Anderson, D.C., and Greg Wastl, D.C.,
it "uses the electrical pathways of the body, including the
nervous and meridian systems, to obtain information about the
organs, glands, muscles, bones, and other body tissues."
According to its developers:

Unresolved issues -- structural, physiological and emotional
traumas that the body has accumulated -- can pile up like layers
in our body. Using the Whole System HealthScan, we identify which
layer needs to be addressed first. . . . As the problems of that
layer are resolved, the body presents the next layer to be addressed.
By honoring the body's wisdom and recognizing its innate ability
to communicate what is most important in the healing process,
we are able to identify the appropriate sequence and protocol
for each layer of healing. Nutritional supplements and herbal
tinctures specifically formulated for the Whole System HealthScan
are used to assist the body during periods of detoxification,
cleansing and rebuilding. If indicated, chiropractic adjustments,
electro-emotional adjustments and lifestyle changes are utilized
to assist the body through the healing process [22].

The developers further claim that the practitioner "will
be able to check for structural, physiological, and emotional
traumas on each visit, what to do to assist the body to correct
it, and do this all in LESS THAN 5 MINUTES." [23] Its recommended
products include Whole System EEP, a homeopathic pill that
"helps balance the emotional connection between the brain
and the various organs."

Body Restoration Technique (BRT) is said to "use the knowledge
of the acupuncture meridians (energy pathways) and muscle response
testing to assist in neutralizing the adverse effects of toxins
in the body. It also helps to balance hormones and restore glands."
[24] If the patient's arm tests "weak" when the patient
holds a bottle of the test substance, "restoration"
is done by administering acupressure and massage while the bottle
is held near allegedly relevant body part(s).

Thought
Field Therapy and several other varieties of "emotional
acupressure" are said to be rooted in ancient Chinese medicine
and applied kinesiology. Their advocates claim that negative emotions
are caused by a disruption in the body's "energy system"
and that correcting "energetic disturbances" can often
correct emotional problems. The treatment is performed by tapping
on "acupuncture points" while the patient thinks about
a problem. These practices are claimed to be effective against
a long list of emotional and physical problems.

The
Dawson Program, also called vibrational kinesiology,
was developed over 28 years by Cameron Dawson, an Australian businessman.
According to Dawson's Web site:

The Dawson Program uses the Kinesiological technique of muscle
testing to trace and identify the root cause of each imbalance
affecting the body's energy system and impeding the body from
self-healing. This results in conditions such as Dyslexia, learning
difficulties, chronic fatigue, depression, stress, Eczema, Asthma,
Psoriasis and behavioural problems.

Correction is effected quickly and painlessly by applying
energy in the form of sound. Each aspect of the body's energy
system has a specific frequency, or rate of energy vibration.

By applying the right frequency under the direction of the
subconscious, the imbalances are removed, thereby correcting
structural misalignments immediately and removing the impediments
from the body's self-healing, so the body can overcome 'medical
conditions'.

Dyslexia, for example, can be corrected in less than 4 minutes!

Kinesiology.net estimates
that there are more than 50 types of AK-related systems and links
to several more.

The Bottom Line

The concepts of applied kinesiology do not conform to scientific
facts about the causes or treatment of disease. Controlled studies
have found no difference between the results with test substances
and with placebos. Differences from one test to another may be
due to suggestibility, distraction, variations in the amount of
force or leverage involved, and/or muscle fatigue. If you encounter
a practitioner who relies on AK muscle-testing for diagnosis,
head for the nearest exit.

References

Christenson MG, Morgan DRD. Job Analysis of Chiropractic:
A Report, Survey Analysis, and Summary of the Practice of Chiropractic
within the United States. Greeley, CO: National Board of Chiropractic
Examiners, 1993.

Christenson MG, Morgan DRD. Job Analysis of Chiropractic
in Canada: A Report, Survey Analysis, and Summary of the Practice
of Chiropractic within Canada. Greeley, CO: National Board of
Chiropractic Examiners, 1993.

Christenson MG, Morgan DRD. Job Analysis of Chiropractic
in Australia and New Zealand: A Report, Survey Analysis, and
Summary of the Practice of Chiropractic within Australia and
New Zealand. Greeley, CO: National Board of Chiropractic Examiners,
1994.

Christenson MG and others. Job Analysis of Chiropractic:
A Project Report, Survey Analysis, and Summary of the Practice
of Chiropractic within the United States. Greeley, CO: National
Board of Chiropractic Examiners, 2000.