Islam in Australia is a minorityreligious affiliation. According to the 2011 census, 476,291 people, or 2.2% of the total Australian population, were Muslims.[1] This made Islam the fourth largest religious grouping, after all forms of Christianity (61.1%), irreligion (22.9%), and Buddhism (2.5%). Demographers attribute Muslim community growth trends during the most recent census period to relatively high birth rates, and recent immigration patterns.[2][3] Adherents of Islam represent the majority of the population in Cocos (Keeling) Islands. The vast majority of Muslims in Australia belong to Sunni denomination, with sizeable Shia and Sufi minorities.[4]

Among the early Muslims were the "Afghan" camel drivers who migrated to and settled in Australia during the mid to late 19th century. Between 1860 and the 1890s a number of Central Asians came to Australia to work as camel drivers. Camels were first imported into Australia in 1840, initially for exploring the arid interior (see Australian camel), and later for the camel trains that were uniquely suited to the demands of Australia's vast deserts. The first camel drivers arrived in Melbourne, Victoria, in June 1860, when eight Muslims and Hindus arrived with the camels for the Burke and Wills expedition. The next arrival of camel drivers was in 1866 when 31 men from Rajasthan and Baluchistan arrived in South Australia with camels for Thomas Elder. Although they came from several countries, they were usually known in Australia as 'Afghans' and they brought with them the first formal establishment of Islam in Australia.[6]

During the 1870s, Muslim Malay divers were recruited through an agreement with the Dutch to work on Western Australian and Northern Territory pearling grounds. By 1875, there were 1800 Malay divers working in Western Australia. Most returned to their home countries.

One of the earliest recorded Islamic festivals celebrated in Australia occurred on 23 July 1884 when 70 Muslims assembled for Eid prayers at Albert Park in Melbourne. “During the whole service the worshippers wore a remarkably reverential aspect.”[9]

In the early 20th century, immigration of Muslims to Australia was restricted to those of European descent, as non-Europeans were denied entry to Australia under the provisions of the White Australia policy. In the 1920s and 1930s Albanian Muslims, whose European heritage made them compatible with the White Australia Policy, immigrated to the country. Albanian Muslims built the first mosque in Shepparton, Victoria in 1960 and the first mosque in Melbourne in 1963.

Modern-day replica of an ice cream van owned by one of the terrorists involved in the Battle of Broken Hill in 1915.

The perceived need for population growth and economic development in Australia led to the broadening of Australia’s immigration policy in the post-World War II period. This allowed for the acceptance of a number of displaced Muslims who began to arrive from Europe mainly from the Balkans, especially from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Between 1967 and 1971, approximately 10,000 Turkish citizens settled in Australia under an agreement between Australia and Turkey.

Also, from the 1970s onwards, there was a significant shift in the government’s attitude towards immigration. Instead of trying to make newer foreign nationals assimilate and forgo their heritage, the government became more accommodating and tolerant of differences by adopting a policy of multiculturalism.

The Chullora Greenacre Mosque

Larger-scale Muslim migration began in 1975 with the migration of Lebanese Muslims, which rapidly increased during the Lebanese Civil War from 22,311 or 0.17% of the Australian population in 1971, to 45,200 or 0.33% in 1976.[citation needed] Lebanese Muslims are still the largest and highest-profile Muslim group in Australia, although Lebanese Christians form a majority of Lebanese Australians, outnumbering their Muslim counterparts at a 6 to 4 ratio.

A number of Australian Arabs experienced anti-Arab backlash during the First Gulf War. Newspapers received numerous letters calling for Arab Australians to "prove their loyalty" or "go home", and some Arab Australian Muslim women wearing hijab head coverings were reportedly harassed in public. The Australian government's Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission included accounts of racial harassment experienced by some Australian Arabs in their 1991 report on racism in Australia.[5]:11–13

On a few occasions in the 2000s and 2010s tensions have flared between Australian Muslims and the general population. The Sydney gang rapes was a much reported set of incidents in 2000; a group of Lebanese men sexually assaulted non-Muslim women. In 2005, racial tensions between Muslims and non-Muslims in the Cronulla area of Sydney led to violent rioting; the incident resulted in mass arrests and criminal prosecution. In 2012, Muslims protesting in central Sydney against Innocence of Muslims, an anti-Islam film trailer, resulted in rioting.[13]

In the aftermath of the Sydney hostage crisis on 15–16 December 2014, where an Islamist took seventeen hostages in a cafe ending in the deaths of the gunman and two hostages, there was an increase in anti-Muslim sentiment, including a threat made against a mosque in Sydney.[14] However, the Muslim community received wide support from the Australian public.[15][16]

Since the 2001 World Trade Center attacks in New York, and the 2005 Bali bombings, Islam and its place in Australian society has been the subject of much public debate.[17] A number of issues have been highlighted in the general media concerning Muslims and the Islamic community.

Social disadvantage – Australian Muslims have historically been disadvantaged socially and economically, to some extent, owing to their status as a non-British, minority racial and ethnic group. After the White Australia immigration laws were replaced with multicultural policies the social disadvantage of Muslims was thought to have been decreased. Some sources, however, note that Muslims now face some disadvantages on account of their religion.[5]:15–16 At times there has been opposition to the construction of new mosques in Australia. A 2014 report from the Islamic Sciences and Research Academy, University of Western Sydney, on mosques in New South Wales found that 44 percent of mosques in the state had "experienced resistance from the local community when the mosque was initially proposed". In around 20 percent of these cases opposition was from a small number of people.[18]

Cultural resistance – According to Michael Humphrey, a Professor of sociology at the University of Sydney, much of Islamic culture and organisation in Australia has been borne of the social marginalisation experiences of Muslim working class migrants. This "immigrant Islam" is often viewed by the host society as a force of "cultural resistance" toward the multicultural and secular nature of the general Australian culture. Muslim practices of praying, fasting and veiling appear as challenging the conformity within public spaces and the values of gender equality in social relationships and individual rights. The immigrant Muslims are often required to "negotiate their Muslimness" in the course of their encounters with Australian society, the governmental and other social institutions and bureaucracies.[19]

Perceptions of prejudice – A 2004 report from the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission pointed to many Muslim Australians who felt the Australian media was unfairly critical of, and often vilified their community due to generalisations of terrorism and the emphasis on crime. The use of ethnic or religious labels in news reports about crime was thought to stir up racial tensions.[20] According to some scholars, a particular trend of anti-Muslim prejudice has taken place in Australia since the late 1980s.[21]

Islamic bookshops – Concerns have been raised regarding the material distributed by some Islamic bookshops. For example the Islamic Information Bookshop in Melbourne was stocking literature "calling for violence against non-Muslims",[22] the Al Risalah Bookshop[23] was said to be "encouraging young Australians to fight in Syria",[24] and the Al-Furqan Bookshop was said to be polarising members with extreme views.[25] In Brisbane, the iQraa Bookstore was said to promote extremism,[26][27] and in Sydney, the Bukhari House Islamic Bookstore was selling books promoting female genital mutilation.[28]

Female circumcision – It has been reported that female circumcision has been carried out in NSW, Victoria and Western Australia, with a Sydney sheikh arrested in relation to alleged genital mutilation.[29][30] There are 120,000 migrant women living in Australia who have had female genital mutilation.[31] A Sydney Imam has said, "Female circumcision in its legitimate form is a personal and human right of a woman [while] genital mutilation is a horrible crime."[32]

Learning from one another – To assist in teaching Australian children about Islam, in 2010 the National Centre of Excellence for Islamic Studies at the University of Melbourne published a booklet, Learning from One Another: Bringing Muslim perspectives into Australian schools.[33] This document has been criticised as giving, "a misleading and one-sided interpretation".[34][35]

Broader Muslim community – There are developed trade and educational links between Australia and several Muslim countries, particularly Middle Eastern ones. Muslim students from countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan, are among the thousands of international students studying in Australian universities.[quantify][citation needed]

Saudi funding – With estimates up to $100 million dollars of Saudi Arabian funding into Australian Islamic institutions,[36] this has generated tensions between some Australian Muslim organisations and has raised concerns within the wider Australian community.[37][38][39]

Australian Muslims have established a number of distinctly Islamic institutions.

Halal certification – A 1974 delegation from Saudi Arabia recommended that AFIC should become the sole authority in Australia to certify that meat had been killed in accordance with Islamic rites.[40] There are now close to two dozen Halal certification authorities in Australia. Halal meat and meat product exports to the Middle East and Southeast Asia have greatly increased from the 1970s onwards; this expansion was due in part to efforts of the Australian Federation of Islamic Councils.[5]:151 Halal certification has been criticised by anti-Islam lobby groups who argue that the practice results in added costs, a requirement to officially certify intrinsically-halal foods and with consumers required to subsidise a particular religious belief.[41]

Sharia-compliant finance – A number of financial institutions have developed sharia-compliant finance products,[42] with university courses leading to Islamic financial qualifications also being established.[43] Other Australian Islamic organisations have been set up to manage sharia-compliant investments, superannuation[44] and zakat management.[45] There has been criticism saying these developments generate parallel legal and administrative systems, however this criticism has been dismissed.[46]

Marriage and divorce – The AFIC has advocated Australian Muslims being able to marry and divorce under the principles of sharia law, saying that Australian Muslims should enjoy "legal pluralism".[47][48]

A number of concerns and contemporary issues face the local Australian Muslim community including rates of unemployment, the rights of women, concerns over Islamism and/or Islamic radicalism among others.

Unemployment – As of 2007[update], average wages of Muslims were much lower than those of the national average, with just 5% of Muslims earning over $1000 a week compared to the average of 11%, and unemployment rates amongst Muslims born overseas were higher than Muslims born in Australia.[17]

Women's rights – As part of the broader issue of women's rights under Islam (particularly in light of the misogynistic statements by Islamic leaders) the perceived gender inequality in Islam has often been the focal point of criticism in Australia via comparisons to the situation of women in Islamic nations. Muslim women can face hurdles both from within the Muslim community and from the wider community.[17][49]

Religious edicts known as fatwas based on Islamic jurisprudence provide "guidance to Muslim Australians in the personal, individual and private spheres of life"[57] and are issued by various Australian Islamic authorities.[58][59]

An Algerian man, known as "Ahmed Y," arrived in Australia in the late 1980s. Ahmed established a small militant group in Australia in 2001 and supported the idea of establishing an Islamic State in Australia and the use of violence against Australians.[61]:14

Hizb ut-Tahrir has called for a, "Muslim army in Australia" to impose Sharia law in Australia and has said that, "Australia's democratic government has to go".[64] It was reported that Man Haron Monis the gunman who took hostages in a siege at the Lindt Chocolate Café in Sydney, was radicalised by members of Hizb ut-Tahrir.[65] However, the organisation opposes violence, and has not been linked with terrorism. A 2015 article on The Conversation website stated that Hizb ut-Tahrir "does not have any real influence on Australia’s Islamic community".[66]

The Lashkar-e-Taiba, a proscribed terrorist organisation operating in India and Pakistan, set up a terror cell in Australia.[67][68] French convert to Islam, Willie Brigitte, accused of planning an attack in Australia, was trained by Lashkar-e-taiba.[69]

A short-lived terror cell, known as Mantiqi 4, existed in Australia for several years. The group was sponsored by Jemaah Islamiah (JI), a terrorist group known for their attacks in Indonesia, and was established by Abdul Rahim Ayub, a member of Jemaah Islamiah.[70][71]:111 Ayub resided in Perth during the late 1990s all while being an active JI member, travelling and attending the group's leadership conferences in Indonesia.[72] In contrast to the Jemaah Islamiah's other cells in Southeast Asia, the Mantiqi 4 cell was less of a focus for the organisation.[73]:38 The activities of the Australian branch of JI included fundraising among the local Indonesian community in Australia. Jemaah Islamiah leadership also expressed intent on identifying targets in Australia to be attacked by Al Qaeda.[73]:128

A group referred to as the "Syrian syndicate" has been investigated for sending Australian Muslims to fight in the Syrian Civil War. Australian counterterrorism police have investigated Wassim Fayad in connection to an attempt to ram an ATM during the 2011 Auburn riots. It is suspected that the funds were to be used in connection to local efforts of involvement in the Syrian conflict.[78]

A number of incidents relating to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (IS/ISIL/ISIS) terrorist group have involved Australians and garnered the attention of the Australian public. ISIL is militant Sunni group which has been proscribed by Australian authorities as a terrorist organisation.[80] Notable events include the release of an ISIL recruitment video encouraging Australians to join the group,[81] The Australian Government has said it believed, "150 Australians have been or are currently overseas fighting with extremists in Iraq and Syria,"[82] and the release of pictures of an Australian and his son, holding a decapitated head.[83] The incident elicited public outrage in Australia.[84] The Attorney-General Senator George Brandis has expressed concern that those fighting jihad, then returning from the Middle East, represent, "the most significant risk to Australia’s security that we have faced in many years."[85]ASIO is concerned that Australians fighting jihad may return home to plan terror attacks.[86][87] In October 2014, ISIL published an online video in which a teenage Australian Jihadi, Abdullah Elmir, threatened the United States and Australia, naming US president Barack Obama and Australian prime minister Tony Abbott as targets.[88][89] Following the death of a previous ISIS recruiter another Australian has been promoted as the "chief Islamic State recruiter".[90]

A number of Australian Islamists have been arrested on charges of conducting terrorist activity. One Australian citizen, arrested in Lebanon, had links with a Lebanese Islamist group Fatah al-Islam and reportedly commanded 300 militiamen.[92] Another, arrested for terrorist activity, was a Lebanese-Australian cleric, with links to al-Qaeda.[93] Another, Musa Cerantonio, said to be an, "Australian religious extremist", boasted he had travelled to the Middle East to join jihadists, but was arrested in the Philippines.[94] It is reported that Professor Peter R. Neumann Director of the International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence at King's College London has identified Cerantonio (now living in Melbourne), "as one of the two most important new spiritual authorities guiding foreigners to join the Islamic State".[95]

A number of forums and meetings have been held about the problem of extremist groups or ideology within the Australian Islamic community.[96][97] A meeting of 60 sheikhs and leaders of community groups released a statement denouncing the federal government's proposed anti-terrorism laws as unjust, unjustified and hypocritical. A further meeting of 50 Muslim leaders endied with in-fighting and frustration.[98] Sydney's Muslim leaders, including Keysar Trad, have condemned the actions of the suicide bombers and denounced ISIS.[99]

Glenn Mohammed a Muslim lawyer has written, "Muslims need to be able to discuss these issues openly and denounce barbaric behaviour. Instead, we choose to remain silent and then criticise a government that tries to make Australia safer."[100] Psychiatrist Tanveer Ahmed has examined underlying causes and has identified the significance of issues relating to 'family' and to 'denial'. He has said, "Muslim youths have unique difficulties in coming to terms with their identity, especially when they have conflicting value systems at home compared with school or work".[101]

Academic Rodger Shanahan has said that it is Muslim community leaders who have the greatest responsibility for defeating the ideological component that is fueling the threat to Australian nationals.[102] Professor Peter Leahy, Director of National Security Institute at the University of Canberra and former Chief of Army said in August 2014, Australia should prepare for a 100-year war against radical Islam. Leahy said the threat was likely to worsen as radicals returned from overseas. Michael Krause, a former senior Australian Army officer responsible for planning the coalition campaign in Afghanistan, said he agreed “absolutely” with Leahy.[103] Peter Jennings, Executive Director of the Australian Strategic Policy Institute has said Australian Muslim leaders need to recognise that there are a "disturbing number of radicalised ideologues" who do not believe Islam is peaceful. He says, "some dramatic self-healing is needed".[104]

Islamic preachers and clerics in Australia have been covered in the Australian press on account of the messages they've delivered publicly to the Muslim community or have otherwise shared with others in public settings. In some instances, various ideas and viewpoints espoused by these preachers have been subject of public or internal debate.[105] Statements viewed as misogynistic and radically paternalistic have come under criticism.[106] Islamic organisations in Australia have condemned the actions of gunmen who massacred 12 staff at a Paris satirical magazine.[107]

Australian Islamic Community – In a show of disgust 14 Muslim groups released a statement through the Australian Islamic Community attacking the violence in the protest against the film on Muhammad and pleading for it to end. In the statement they added; '"insults do not provide individuals with the right to react violently against others and retaliate in a manner as was demonstrated by a few".[108]

Samir Abu Hamza – in January 2008, cleric Samir Abu Hamza, leader of the Islamic Information and Services Network of Australasia, told his male followers they can beat and rape their wives if they're disobedient.[109] These comments were condemned by both the Muslim community and the public at large;[110] Prime Minister Kevin Rudd demanded an apology for the comments, saying "Australia will not tolerate these sorts of remarks. They don't belong in modern Australia, and he should stand up, repudiate them and apologise".[111]

Waleed Alkhazrajy –South Australian Islamic leaders have condemned the perpetrator of the Martin Place siege. President of the Islamic Society of South Australia Waleed Alkhazrajy said his community was devastated by the incident and was praying for the victims.“We are sad for the loss of life. We are sad being part of this nation for the taking of these people as hostages,” he said.“We feel for each other, this pain. We are one body, we are one Australian body."[112]

Taj El-Din Hilaly – Egyptian-born Islamic cleric Taj El-Din Hilaly, named Grand Mufti of Australia by the Australian Federation of Islamic Councils (AFIC), is one of Australia's most notable Islamic clerics. Hilaly has been covered in the Australian press on a number of occasions for making statements that were perceived as offensive to the Australian public. In 1988, Hilaly stated that "Judaism controls the world by...secret movements as the destructive doctrines and groups," and that "Jews try to control the world through sex, then sexual perversion, then the promotion of espionage, treason, and economic hoarding."[113][114] In 2006, Hilaly compared women who do not wear the Islamic veil to "uncovered meat", implying that they were responsible for gang rapes perpetrated by Muslims; "if the meat was covered, the cats wouldn't roam around it".[115][116][117] Angry responses to the comments were made by Muslim women as well as non-Muslim figures.[118]

Sharif Hussain – Sheikh Sharif Hussain the former head Imam at the Park Holme mosque in Marion, in Adelaide's south, until his departure in 2009. Sharif was investigated by South Australian police following the release of a video containing sermons of his where he made derogatory statements concerning Jews, Hindus and Buddhists. His statements were criticised by the South Australia Islamic Society.[119][120] South Australia police ended their investigation on Sharif, deciding not to charge him for hate crimes. This decision was criticised by SA senator Cory Bernardi who called for a revision of existing hate speech laws, as well as the spokesmen for the Australian Buddhist Councils Federation and a Hindu council.[121]

Feiz Mohammed – Australian-born and Saudi-educated Sheik Feiz Mohammed, former preacher at the Global Islamic Youth Centre in Liverpool, Sydney, has been covered in the press for his public statements on rape; Feiz blamed rape on women for dressing immodestly. His comments were received with criticism by the Australian public.[122][123] In March 2011, Imam Sheikh Taj El-Din Hilaly denounced Feiz Mohammad following Feiz's website posting an Al-Qaeda video.[124] He called Feiz Mohammad dangerous, and insisted that he be banned from delivering sermons to young Muslims.[124] He said his preaching "can lead young people to move away from their family and community [and] to distance and isolate themselves."[125] He added, "If religion had something like the Australian Medical Association, or a trade authority, they would not allow him to be preaching, they wouldn't give him a licence ... I haven't seen a change in him."[126]

Ismail al-Wahwah – The leader of Hizb ut-Tahrir Australia, Sheikh Ismail al-Wahwah,[129] in his article entitled, "Commentary on Charlie Hebdo and the physical law of compression", said the killing of Charlie Hebdo staff by Islamic terrorists is a “cure”.[53] During a public rally in Australia he said, "where Jews thrive corruption abounds".[130]

During the 1980s the Australian Muslim population increased from 76,792 or 0.53% of the Australian population in 1981, to 109,523 or 0.70% in 1986.[citation needed] In the 2011 Census, the Muslim population was 479,300 or 2.25%, an increase of 438% on the 1981 number.

The general increase of the Muslim population in this decade was from 147,487 or 0.88% of the Australian population in 1991, to 200,885 or 1.12% in 1996.[citation needed]

In 2005 the overall Muslim population in Australia had grown from 281,600 or 1.50% of the general Australian population in 2001, to 340,400 or 1.71% in 2006. The growth of Muslim population at this time was recorded as 3.88% compared to 1.13% for the general Australian population.[citation needed]

The following is a breakdown of the country of birth of Muslims in Australia from 2001:[131]

There were 281,578 Muslims recorded in this survey; in the 2006 census the population had grown to 340,392.[132] 48% of Australian-born Muslims claimed Lebanese or Turkish ancestry.[131]

The distribution by state of the nation's Islamic followers has New South Wales with 50% of the total number of Muslims, followed by Victoria (33%), Western Australia (7%), Queensland (5%), South Australia (3%), ACT (1%) and both Northern Territory and Tasmania sharing 0.3%.[citation needed]

The majority of people who reported Islam as their religion in the 2006 Census were born overseas: 58% (198,400).[132] Of all persons affiliating with Islam in 2006 almost 9% were born in Lebanon and 7% were born in Turkey.[133]

Perth also has a Muslim community focussed in and around the suburb of Thornlie, where there is a Mosque. Perth's Australian Islamic School has around 2,000 students on three campuses.

Mirrabooka and neighbouring Girrawheen contain predominantly Bosniak communities. The oldest mosque in Perth is the Perth Mosque on William Street in Northbridge. It has undergone many renovations although the original section still remains. Other mosques in Perth are located in Rivervale, Mirrabooka, Beechboro and Hepburn.

According to Australia's 2011 census, 1,140 people identify as Aboriginal Muslims, almost double the number of Aboriginal Muslims recorded in the 2001 census.[135] Many are converts and some are descendants of Afghan cameleers or, as in the Arnhem Land people, have Macassan ancestry as a result of the historical Makassan contact with Australia.[136][137] In north east Arnhem Land, there is some Islamic influence on the songs, paintings, dances, prayers with certains hymns to "Allah" and funeral rituals like facing west during prayers, roughly the direction of Mecca, and ritual prostration reminiscent of the Muslim sujud.[135] As a result of Malay indentured laborers, plenty of families in Northern Australia have names like Doolah, Hassan and Khan.[135] The boxer Anthony Mundine is a member of this community.[138] Many indigenous converts are attracted to Islam because they see a compatibility between Aboriginal and Islamic beliefs,[139] while others see it as a fresh start and an aid against common social ills afflicting indigenous Australians, such as alcohol and drug abuse.[135]

Lebanese Muslims form the core of Australia's Muslim Arab population, particularly in Sydney where most Arabs in Australia live. Approximately 3.4% of Sydney's population are Muslim. Adherents of the Sunni denomination of Islam are concentrated in the suburb of Lakemba and surrounding areas such as Punchbowl, Wiley Park, Bankstown and Auburn.

Although the first Somali community in Victoria was established in 1988, most Somalis began to settle in the country in the early 1990s following the civil war in Somalia.[140] Somalis are active in the wider Australian Muslim community, and have also contributed significantly to local business.[141]

Turkish Muslims are a significant segment of the Australian Muslim community. Some statistical reports forecast the Turkish Muslim population in Australia surpassing the Lebanese Muslim population in the 2020s and 2030s. The majority of Turkish Muslims in Sydney are from Auburn, Eastlakes and Prestons. Despite still having a large Turkish population in Auburn and Eastlakes, many Turks moved out of these areas and moved to Prestons to be close to the new and growing Turkish private school, Sule College which is run by people closely affiliated with the worldwide Feza Foundation.

There are approximately 20,000 Alawites from Turkish, Syrian and Lebanese backgrounds.[145] They have at least one school called Al Sadiq College, with campuses in the Sydney suburbs of Yagoona and Greenacre.[146]

There are communities of Sufis,[147] most notably the Ahbash, who operate under the name Islamic Charitable Projects Association.[148] They run Al Amanah College, as well as a mosque and a community radio station in suburban Sydney.[149] There have been tensions between the Al-Ahbash and the other Muslim communities.[150][151]

Veiled Ambition is a documentary created by Rebel Films for the SBS independent network following a Lebanese-Australian woman named Frida as she opens a shop selling fashionable clothing for Muslim women on Melbourne's Sydney Road. The documentary follows Frida as she develops her business in Melbourne while juggling a husband and home in Sydney and a pregnancy.[155]Veiled Ambition won the Palace Films Award for Short Film Promoting Human Rights at the 2006 Melbourne International Film Festival.[156]

^Kilani, Ahmed (19 September 2011). "Australian Imams appoint a new Mufti". muslimvillage.com. MuslimVillage Incorporated. Retrieved 29 January 2015. Imams and Sheikhs from around Australia held a meeting last night in which they appointed Dr Ibrahim Abu Muhammad as the new Grand Mufti of Australia.

^Janak Rogers (24 June 2014). "When Islam came to Australia". BBC News Magazine. Retrieved 25 June 2014. This sense of the compatibility of Aboriginal and Islamic beliefs is not uncommon, says Peta Stephenson, a sociologist at Victoria University. Shared practices include male circumcision, arranged or promised marriages and polygamy, and similar cultural attitudes like respect for land and resources, and respecting one's elders. "Many Aboriginal people I spoke with explained these cultural synergies often by quoting the well-known phrase from the Koran that 124,000 prophets had been sent to the Earth," says Stephenson. "They argued that some of these prophets must have visited Aboriginal communities and shared their knowledge."

Woodlock, Rachel and John Arnold (eds). Isolation, Integration and Identity: The Muslim Experience in Australia. Special Issue of The La Trobe Journal. Melbourne, Victoria: State Library of Victoria Foundation, 2012.