Beginning in December 2010, unprecedented mass demonstrations against poverty, corruption, and political repression broke out in several Arab countries, challenging the authority of some of the most entrenched regimes in the Middle East and North Africa. Such was the case in Egypt, where in 2011 a popular uprising forced one of the region’s longest-serving and most influential leaders, Pres. Ḥosnī Mubārak, from power.

The first demonstrations occurred in Tunisia in December 2010, triggered by the self-immolation of a young man frustrated by Tunisia’s high unemployment rate and rampant police corruption. Rallies calling for Pres. Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali to step down spread throughout the country, with police often resorting to violence to control the crowds. As clashes between police and protesters escalated, Ben Ali announced a series of economic and political reforms in an unsuccessful attempt to end the unrest. Demonstrations continued, forcing Ben Ali to flee the country. The apparent success of the popular uprising in Tunisia, by then dubbed the Jasmine Revolution, inspired similar movements in other countries, including Egypt, Yemen, and Libya. (See alsoLibya Revolt of 2011.)

In Egypt, demonstrations organized by youth groups, largely independent of Egypt’s established opposition parties, took hold in the capital and in cities around the country. Protesters called for Mubārak to step down immediately, clearing the way for free elections and democracy. As the demonstrations gathered strength, the Mubārak regime resorted to increasingly violent tactics against protesters, resulting in hundreds of injuries and deaths. Mubārak’s attempts to placate the protesters with concessions, including a pledge to step down at the end of his term in 2011 and naming Omar Suleiman as vice president—the first person to serve as such in Mubārak’s nearly three-decade presidency—did little to quell the unrest. After almost three weeks of mass protests in Egypt, Mubārak stepped down as president, leaving the Egyptian military in control of the country.

Although protesters in Egypt focused most of their anger on domestic issues such as poverty and government oppression, many observers noted that political change in Egypt could impact the country’s foreign affairs, affecting long-standing policies. Central elements of Egypt’s foreign policy under Mubārak and his predecessor as president, Anwar el-Sādāt, such as Egypt’s political-military alignment with the United States and the 1979 Egypt-Israel peace treaty, embraced by Egypt’s leaders but unpopular with the Egyptian public, could be weakened or rejected under a new regime.

In this special feature, Britannica provides background and context for the events unfolding in Egypt—shedding light on the political, economic, and social tensions that simmered for decades and erupted early in 2011.

Timelines of events

Key events in Egypt: 1952 to January 25, 2011

1952

Angered by the continuing domination of Egyptian affairs by former colonial ruler Great Britain and by economic inequalities in Egypt, a group of junior Egyptian military officers calling themselves the Free Officers stages a coup, forcing King Farouk into exile. Following the coup, Egypt is governed by the Revolutionary Command Council, a newly formed executive body led by a figurehead president, Gen. Muḥammad Naguib. The RCC institutes popular reforms including a land reform law that redistributes land held by Egypt’s elite.

1954

Gamal Abdel Nasser, a leader of the Free Officers, prevails in a power struggle with Naguib and becomes head of Egypt’s military government.

1955

Egypt, eager to modernize its military, purchases Soviet weaponry through Czechoslovakia. The arms deal undermines efforts by Britain and the United States to limit Soviet influence in the Middle East.

1956

The United States, Britain, and the World Bank withdraw support for the construction of the Aswan High Dam, the centerpiece of Nasser’s economic development program. In response, Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal, previously controlled by British and French interests. Britain, France, and Israel launch an invasion to reestablish control over the canal zone but are forced by the United States and the Soviet Union to withdraw. Following nationalization of the Suez Canal, a number of foreign-owned companies in Egypt are nationalized.

1958

The Soviet Union agrees to provide funding and technical assistance for the construction of the Aswan High Dam, ushering in a period of close Egyptian-Soviet cooperation.

1961

A set of decrees issued by Nasser initiates a wave of nationalizations in Egypt that brings most of Egypt’s manufacturing, banking, and service companies into the public sector, causing a massive expansion of the state bureaucracy.

1962

Nasser guarantees all Egyptian university graduates jobs in government service. The ensuing boom in university enrollment means that most graduates are placed in low-paying bureaucratic positions with little chance of advancement, a long-standing source of economic frustration in Egypt.

1967

The June War begins when Israel reacts to an apparent Arab mobilization with preemptive air strikes against Syria, Jordan, and Egypt. Israel quickly wins a decisive victory in the subsequent ground fighting, gaining control of the Sinai Peninsula along with the West Bank and the Golan Heights. The defeat, a national humiliation for Egypt, damages the credibility of the Nasser regime and increases Egypt’s dependence on Soviet military aid.

1970

Nasser dies of a heart attack and is succeeded as president by another member of the Free Officers, Anwar el-Sādāt.

1973

Egypt begins the October War by launching an attack across the Suez Canal in an attempt to establish leverage with Israel by demonstrating military force. The Egyptian attack is coordinated with a Syrian attack on the Golan Heights. The conflict draws in the Soviet Union and the United States, resupplying Egypt and Israel, respectively. The initial Egyptian offensive is a surprising success, but Israel stages a counterattack, and regains the upper hand. Fighting ends with a cease-fire brokered by the United States and the Soviet Union.

1974

Sādāt’s program of economic liberalization, meant to attract foreign investment, is officially announced. Known as infitāḥ (Arabic: “opening”), the effort is hampered by Egypt’s complicated bureaucracy, which makes doing business in Egypt difficult.

1977

A reduction in state subsidies for some basic food products sparks demonstrations throughout Egypt, and Sādāt is forced to reinstate subsidies. Seeing the ongoing Egypt-Israel confrontation as a major contributor to Egypt’s economic difficulties, Sādāt begins to pursue peace with Israel, traveling to Jerusalem to address the Knesset in November.

1978

Israel and Egypt sign the Camp David Accords, leading to a peace treaty between the two countries the following year. Peace with Israel reshapes Egyptian foreign policy, strengthening Egypt’s ties to the United States while isolating Egypt from other Arab countries. Following the agreement, Israel withdraws from the Sinai Peninsula, and Egypt receives increased amounts of economic and military aid from the United States.

1981

While reviewing a military parade, Sādāt is assassinated by attackers with links to an Islamic militant group. Ḥosnī Mubārak, the vice president, succeeds Sādāt. Upon becoming president, Mubārak renews Egypt’s state of emergency, instituted in 1967 and lifted by Sādāt in 1980, restricting political expression while expanding police powers and media censorship. The state of emergency remains in effect for the rest of Mubārak’s presidency.

1992

Egyptian security forces clash with Islamic militants in Egypt. An Islamic insurgency in Egypt continues through much of the 1990s.

1997

Seeking to destabilize the regime by targeting the tourism industry, a major source of revenue, militants kill dozens of tourists in Luxor.

After being elected president in single-candidate referendums in 1987, 1993, and 1999, Mubārak faces challengers in a presidential election for the first time. However, the most popular opposition group in Egypt, the banned Muslim Brotherhood, is barred from entering a candidate. Mubārak wins an overwhelming victory. The runner-up, Ayman Nour, is imprisoned on charges of fraud.

2010

After independent candidates associated with the banned Muslim Brotherhood performed well in legislative elections in 2005, becoming the largest opposition contingent in the People’s Assembly, the ruling National Democratic Party (NDP) wins overwhelmingly in 2010 elections, virtually eliminating the opposition from the People’s Assembly. Opposition parties called for the results of the election to be annulled, claiming widespread vote rigging.

2011

Antigovernment protests erupt in Egypt after a popular uprising in Tunisia forces the Tunisian president, Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali, from power.

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