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major reference

...the nature and properties of what exists in the natural, or sensible, world, and second, to explore the characteristics of “Being as such” and to inquire into the character of “the
substance that is free from movement,” or the most real of all things, the intelligible reality on which everything in the world of nature was thought to be causally dependent. The first...

...nothing was in process. Event and process, in fact, are expressions that belong to derivative categories in the general Aristotelian scheme; like all other categories, they depend on the category of
substance. If the latter is removed, as these metaphysicians propose to remove it, it is hard to know what is left.

philosophical schools and doctrines

Christian philosophy

...in the later 20th century. Philosophical questions concerning this topic were debated in the 3rd to 5th centuries, as noted above, in terms of the key notion of ousia/substantia. The concept of
substance, however, although confidently used throughout the medieval period, was widely questioned by modern thinkers and found little place in distinctively 20th-century streams of philosophy....

idealism

...all of reality into a solipsistic specious present—the momentary sense experience of one isolated percipient. At the other extreme, followers of Spinoza adopted his definition of ultimate
substance as that which can exist and can be conceived only by itself. According to the first principle of his system of pantheistic idealism, God (or Nature or Substance) is the ultimate reality...

Indian philosophy

...as well as the dissimilarities among these categories: the categories of “universal” and “particularity” and the concepts of being and existence. Chapter 2 classifies
substances into nine kinds: earth, water, fire, air, ether, space, time, self, and mind. There next follows a discussion of the question of whether sound is eternal or noneternal. Chapter 3 is an...

...standpoint allows for both particulars and universals, both change and permanence. There are ultimate differences as well as a hierarchy of universals, the highest universal being existence. Substance is defined as the substrate of qualities and in terms of what alone can be an inherent cause. A quality may be defined as what is neither
substance nor action and yet is the substratum of...

Islamic philosophy

...with the relation between corporeal things, which are changeable, in constant flux, infinite, and as such unknowable, on the one hand, and the permanent world of forms (spiritual or secondary
substances), which are not subject to flux yet to which human beings have no access except through things of the senses. He insisted that a purely human knowledge of all things is possible, through...

...and the heavenly body–soul complex are not moved externally by the Intelligences. Their movement is an extension of the process of self-perfection. Having reached the highest rank of order of
substance in the corporeal world, they are now prepared, and still moved by their innate desire, to flow upward and transform themselves into pure intelligence.

philosophy of mind

Substances are the basic things—the basic “stuff”—out of which the world is composed. Earth, air, fire, and water were candidate
substances in ancient times; energy, the chemical elements, and subatomic particles are more contemporary examples. Historically, many philosophers have thought that the mind involves a special
substance that is different in some fundamental...

positivism

...be left over if all of the perceptible qualities were stripped (in thought) away from an observable object?” Mach and Avenarius answered, “Precisely nothing.” Thus, the concept of
substance was declared not only superfluous but meaningless as well.

Stoicism

...Platonic forms—the abstract entities in which things of the same genus “participate”—as being unreal; true knowledge as always accompanied by assent; the fundamental
substance of all existing things as being a divine fire, the universal principles of which are (1) passive (matter) and (2) active (reason inherent in matter); belief in a world conflagration and...

philosophy of

Aristotle

The key concepts in Aristotelianism are
substance, form and matter, potentiality and actuality, and cause. Whatever happens involves some
substance or
substances; unless there were
substances, in the sense of concrete existents, nothing could be real whatsoever. Substances, however, are not, as the name might suggest, mere parcels of matter; they are intelligible structures, or forms, embodied...

Hume

From the time of Plato, one of the most basic notions in philosophy has been “
substance”—that whose existence does not depend upon anything else. For Locke, the
substance of an object is the hidden “substratum” in which the object’s properties inhere and on which they depend for their existence. One of the reasons for Hume’s importance in the history of philosophy...

Locke

...both theoretical and practical, implanted in the mind by nature) and the innate ideas claimed as the terms of the principles. But Locke’s empiricism had difficulty with certain key concepts, such as
substance, “which we neither have nor can have by sensation or reflection,” and cause, about which he largely anticipated David Hume’s difficulties in the 18th century. Locke seems to...

Spinoza

...to explain the relation between God and the world or the causal interaction of mind and body or to account for events occasioned by free will. Spinoza also showed that Descartes’s definition of
substance, which Spinoza accepted, implied that there cannot be more than one
substance in the world. Spinoza’s monism is therefore the logical outcome of Cartesianism (
see below The period of the...

...definitions are followed by a series of axioms, one of which supposedly guarantees that the results of Spinoza’s logical demonstrations will be true about reality. Spinoza quickly establishes that
substance must be existent, self-caused, and unlimited. From this he proves that there cannot be two
substances with the same attribute, since each would limit the other. This leads to the monumental...

...events. Spinoza accepted the mechanistic physics of Descartes as the right way of understanding the world in terms of extension. Individual physical or mental entities are “modes” of
substance: physical entities are modes of
substance understood in terms of the attribute of extension; mental entities are modes of
substance understood in terms of the attribute of thought. Because...

...by a priori thinking. They differed from him, however, in their starting points. What was most undeniable to Spinoza was not the existence of his self but that of the universe, called by him “
substance.” From the idea of
substance, and with the aid of a few definitions and axioms, he derived his entire system, which he set forth in his
Ethics in a formal fashion...