Thursday, 31 July 2014

A revolutionary new study reveals that the
core tenet of classical genetics is patently false, and by implication: what we
do in this life -- our diet, our mindset, our chemical exposures -- can
directly impact the DNA and health of future generations.

In classical genetics,
Mendelian laws specify that the inheritance of traits passed from one
generation to the next can only occur through sexual reproduction as
information is passed down through the chromosomes of a species' germline cells
(egg and sperm), and never through somatic (bodily) cells. Genetic
change, according to this deeply entrenched view, can take hundreds, thousands
and even millions of generations to manifest.

The new study, however,
has uncovered a novel mechanism through which somatic-to-germline transmission
of genetic information is made possible. Mice grafted with human melanoma
tumor cells genetically manipulated to express genes for a fluorescent tracer
enzyme (EGFP-encoding plasmid) were found to release information-containing
molecules containing the EGFP tracer into the animals' blood; since EGFP is a
non-human and non-murine expressed tracer, there was little doubt that the
observed phenomenon was real. These EGFP trackable molecules included exosomes
(small nanoparticles produced by all eukaryotic cells (including plants and
animals), which contain RNA and DNA molecules), which were verified to deliver
RNAs to mature sperm cells (spermatozoa) and remain stored there. The
authors of the study pointed out that RNA of this kind has been found in mouse
models to behave as a "transgenerational determinant of inheritable
epigenetic variations and that spermatozoal RNA can carry and deliver
information that cause phenotypic variations in the progeny."

The researchers concluded
that their study's findings strongly suggest, "exosomes are the carriers
of a flow of information from somatic cells to gametes," and that their
"results indicate that somatic RNA is transferred to sperm cells, which
can therefore act as the final recipients of somatic cell-derived
information."

Breaking
Through Weismann's Genetic Barrier

These findings overturn
the so-called Weismann barrier, a principle proposed by the German evolutionary biologist August
Weismann (1834 – 1914), that states hereditary information can only move from
genes to body cells, and not the other way around, which has long been
considered a nail in the coffin of the Lamarkian concept that an organism can
pass on characteristics it has acquired during its lifetime to its offspring.

Over the past decade,
however, the seeming impenetrability of the Weismann barrier has increasingly
been called into question, due to a growing body of evidence that epigenetic
patterns of gene expression (e.g. histone modifications, gene silencing via
methylation) can be transferred across generations without requiring changes in
the primary DNA sequences of our genomes; as well as the discovery that certain
viruses contain the enzyme reverse transcriptase, which is capable of
inscribing RNA-based information directly into our DNA, including germline
cells, as is the case for endogenous retroviruses, which are believed
responsible for about 5% of the nucleotide sequences in our genome.
Nonetheless, as the authors of the new study point out, until their study,
"no instance of transmission of DNA- or RNA-mediated information from
somatic to germ cells has been reported as yet."

The researchers further
expanded on the implications of their findings:

"Work from our and
other laboratories indicates that spermatozoa act as vectors not only of their
own genome, but also of foreign genetic information, based on their spontaneous
ability to take up exogenous DNA and RNA molecules that are then delivered to
oocytes at fertilization with the ensuing generation of phenotypically modified
animals [35]–[37]. In cases in which this has been thoroughly
investigated, the sperm-delivered sequences have been seen to remain
extrachromosomal and to be sexually transmitted to the next generation in a
non-Mendelian fashion [38]. The modes of genetic information delivery in this
process are closely reminiscent of those operating in RNA-mediated paramutation
inheritance, whereby RNA is the determinant of inheritable epigenetic
variations [16], [17]. In conclusion, this work reveals that a flow of
information can be transferred from the soma to the germline, escaping the
principle of the Weismann barrier [39] which postulates that somatically acquired genetic
variations cannot be transferred to the germline."

The implications of
research on exosome-mediated information transfer are wide ranging. First, if
your somatic cells, which are continually affected by your nutritional,
environmental, lifestyle and even mind-body processes, can transfer genetic
information through exosomes to the DNA within your germline cells, then your
moment-to-moment decisions, behaviors, experiences, toxin and toxicant
exposures, could theoretically affect the biological 'destinies' of your
offspring, and their offspring, stretching on into the distant future.

Exosome research also opens
up promising possibilities in the realm of nutrigenomics and 'food as
medicine.' A
recent study found common plant foods, e.g. ginger,
grapefruit, grapes, produce exosomes that, following digestion, enter human
blood undegraded and subsequently down-regulate inflammatory pathways in the
human body in a manner confirming some of their traditional folkloric medicinal
uses. If the somatic cells within our body are capable through
extrachromosomal processes of modulating fundamental genetic processes within
the germline cells, or, furthermore, if foods that we eat are also capable of
acting as vectors of gene-regulatory information, truly the old reductionist,
mechanistic, unilinear models of genetics must be abandoned in favor of a view
that accounts for the vital importance of all our decisions, nutritional
factors, environmental exposures, etc., in determining the course, not only of
our bodily health, but the health of countless future generations as well.

Hereditary
trauma: Inheritance of traumas and how they may be mediated

Extreme and traumatic events can change a person -- and often, years later, even
affect their children. Researchers of the University of Zurich and ETH Zurich
have now unmasked a piece in the puzzle of how the inheritance of traumas may
be mediated.

The phenomenon has long
been known in psychology: traumatic experiences can induce behavioural
disorders that are passed down from one generation to the next. It is only
recently that scientists have begun to understand the physiological processes
underlying hereditary trauma. "There are diseases such as bipolar
disorder, that run in families but can't be traced back to a particular
gene," explains Isabelle Mansuy, professor at ETH Zurich and the
University of Zurich. With her research group at the Brain Research Institute
of the University of Zurich, she has been studying the molecular processes
involved in non-genetic inheritance of behavioural symptoms induced by
traumatic experiences in early life.

Mansuy and her team have
succeeded in identifying a key component of these processes: short RNA
molecules. These RNAs are synthetized from genetic information (DNA) by enzymes
that read specific sections of the DNA (genes) and use them as template to
produce corresponding RNAs. Other enzymes then trim these RNAs into mature
forms. Cells naturally contain a large number of different short RNA molecules
called microRNAs. They have regulatory functions, such as controlling how many
copies of a particular protein are made.

Small RNAs
with a huge impact

The researchers studied
the number and kind of microRNAs expressed by adult mice exposed to traumatic conditions
in early life and compared them with non-traumatized mice. They discovered that
traumatic stress alters the amount of several microRNAs in the blood, brain and
sperm -- while some microRNAs were produced in excess, others were lower than
in the corresponding tissues or cells of control animals. These alterations
resulted in misregulation of cellular processes normally controlled by these
microRNAs.

After traumatic
experiences, the mice behaved markedly differently: they partly lost their
natural aversion to open spaces and bright light and had depressive-like
behaviours. These behavioural symptoms were also transferred to the next
generation via sperm, even though the offspring were not exposed to any
traumatic stress themselves.

Even passed on to the third generation

The metabolism of the
offspring of stressed mice was also impaired: their insulin and blood-sugar
levels were lower than in the offspring of non-traumatized parents. "We
were able to demonstrate for the first time that traumatic experiences affect
metabolism in the long-term and that these changes are hereditary," says
Mansuy. The effects on metabolism and behaviour even persisted in the third
generation.

"With the imbalance
in microRNAs in sperm, we have discovered a key factor through which trauma can
be passed on," explains Mansuy. However, certain questions remain open,
such as how the dysregulation in short RNAs comes about. "Most likely, it
is part of a chain of events that begins with the body producing too much
stress hormones."

Importantly, acquired
traits other than those induced by trauma could also be inherited through
similar mechanisms, the researcher suspects. "The environment leaves
traces on the brain, on organs and also on gametes. Through gametes, these
traces can be passed to the next generation."

Mansuy and her team are
currently studying the role of short RNAs in trauma inheritance in humans. As
they were also able to demonstrate the microRNAs imbalance in the blood of
traumatized mice and their offspring, the scientists hope that their results
may be useful to develop a blood test for diagnostics.

Story Source:

The above story is based
on materials provided by ETH Zurich. Note: Materials may be edited for content and
length.

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Wednesday, 30 July 2014

With precious metal
prices constantly on the rise, I've been exploring the possibility of making some of my own gold.
Making gold is not as difficult as you would imagine, all you need is one
alchemist with specific esoteric knowledge or, more realistically, a nuclear
reactor capable of nuclear transmutation.

Transmutation of the elements has been explored by men and women a lot longer
that you think, while modern methods of transmutation have become simpler due
to technological innovations - innovations that are often misleading as to what
their true capabilities are.

Video Description:In March of 1924 Man Discovered the Secret of Alchemy. Since 1954, 31
countries have built 435 nuclear power plants. I'd say all of them were
designed to perform this operation. Generating electricity may not be the
primary use, aswe have been told. They have had the ability to
commercially produce gold for 58 years. 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. There
really is no telling how much they have stockpiled... Mercury's current market
price = $1.25 oz. / Gold is $1,655 oz.

In March 1924, at the Tokyo Imperial University, Professor Hantaro Nagaoka
directed 150,000 volts of electricity at a mercury isotope under a dialectic
layer of paraffin oil for four hours in an early experiment with nuclear
energy. The purpose was to strike out a hydrogen proton from the nucleus of the
mercury and produce a new element, gold. Mercury has 80 protons. Gold,
meanwhile, has 79 protons — you see where I’m going with this. The
experiment was a success. Professor Hantaro Nagaoka solved the mystery that
eluded scientists for centuries, the mystery of the Philosopher’s Stone.

The Philosopher’s Stone is the idea that you could have a magical material that
could turn lead, or some very inexpensive metal, into gold. For thousands of
years, kings sought out this mythical device, one that could create gold out of
common metals. Scientists and alchemists for centuries have been trying to
invent one. Even Sir Isaac Newton obsessed over the mystery of the
Philosopher’s Stone in the 17th century. However, the English feared the
potential devaluation of gold and made the practice of alchemy punishable by
death.

Image: http://www.crystalinks.com/philosopherstone.gif

Fast
forward now a few centuries to present day.

If we wish to manufacture gold, the most helpful metal to start with is
mercury. Gold is element 79 and mercury is element 80, which means that there
is only a slight difference between their atomic structures. The mercury atom
has one more proton in its nucleus and the corresponding electron in the outer
(known as F shell) orbit.

As the
diagram shows, all other shells (from atom A to E) have the same number of
electrons in both mercury and gold. So, theoretically, if we can expel one
proton from the nucleus of an atom of mercury, we have transmuted it into an atom
of gold. The process is difficult since an atom of mercury has eighty
electrons; eighty orbits have to be broken through as well as the electric
field round the nucleus. The first experiment was, however, carried out years
ago at the Physical-Technical State Institute of Berlin. The bombarding
particles were given a high speed by means of a field of 30,000 volts, and a
small, but observable quantity of gold was produced from quicksilver.
Unfortunately, such laboratory transmutation can never be reproduced on a
commercial scale.

It is tempting to laugh off medieval alchemists as greedy eccentrics, who
sought methods for forming gold out of cheaper metals. But one ought to give
them credit for what they did in the process of searching. These alchemists discovered
strong acids like hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulfuric acid which are
far more useful today then gold could possibly be. The alchemists should have
been acclaimed for these revolutionary discoveries. Instead they were sneered
at for their failure to make gold out of plentiful metals like mercury.

Before Chemistry was a science, there was Alchemy. One of the supreme quests of
alchemy is to transmute lead into gold. Lead (atomic number 82) and gold
(atomic number 79) are defined as elements by the number of protons they
possess. Changing the element requires changing the atomic (proton) number. The
number of protons cannot be altered by any chemical means. However, physics may
be used to add or remove protons and thereby change one element into another.
Because lead is stable, forcing it to release three protons requires a vast
input of energy, such that the cost of transmuting it greatly surpasses the
value of the resulting gold.

How to make Gold from Mercury

First, get some mercury. The kind we want is
Hg-196, a naturally occurring isotope with 80 protons and 116 neutrons in
its nucleus. The 80 protons are what make it mercury. Gold, meanwhile, has
79 protons — you see where I’m going with this. Finding sufficient
Hg-196 could take some doing, though, as only 0.15 percent of mercury is
in this form.

Slam a slow neutron into it. Initially I was
unsure how one went about this. The journals said the desired type of
neutron had an energy level in the thermal range. This to me suggested you
could just heat up a can of neutrons on the stove and drop in some
mercury. However, I suspected subtleties were being overlooked. I set this
matter aside for further study.

The slow neutron is captured by the nucleus of
the Hg-196. This turns it into Hg-197, with 80 protons and 117 neutrons.
Hg-197 is unstable. In 64.14 hours, give or take, electron capture occurs.
This means the Hg-197 grabs an electron from a low-hanging shell, combines
it with a proton to make a neutron, and kicks out a neutrino.

Discard the neutrino. We have no need of it.

The Hg-197 has now turned into something with
79 protons and 118 neutrons. Do you know what this? I’ll tell you. It’s
Au-197, the only stable isotope of gold.

Repeat five zillion times, until you have
enough gold to make an ingot. Success! However, if you didn’t do so
earlier, you must now separate the stable gold deriving from Hg-196 from
the unwanted crud deriving from the rest of the mercury, which I remind
you constitutes 99.85 percent of what’s out there and a good chunk of
which I’ll bet is now radioactive. So it could be a long afternoon.

What about Lead?

Transmutation of lead into gold isn't just theoretically possible - it has been achieved as well.
There are reports that Glenn Seaborg, 1951 Nobel Laureate in Chemistry,
succeeded in transmuting a minute quantity of lead (possibly en route from
bismuth, in 1980) into gold. There is an earlier report (1972) in which Soviet
physicists at a nuclear research facility near Lake Baikal in Siberia
accidentally discovered a reaction for turning lead into gold when they found
the lead shielding of an experimental reactor had changed to gold.

Today particle accelerators routinely transmute elements. A charged particle is
accelerated using electrical and/or magnetic fields. In a linear accelerator,
the charged particles drift through a series of charged tubes separated by
gaps. Every time the particle emerges between gaps, it is accelerated by the potential
difference between adjacent segments. In a circular accelerator, magnetic
fields accelerate particles moving in circular paths. In either case, the
accelerated particle impacts a target material, potentially knocking free
protons or neutrons and making a new element or isotope. Nuclear reactors also
may used for creating elements, although the conditions are less controlled.

In nature, new elements are created by adding protons and neutrons to hydrogen
atoms within the nuclear reactor of a star, producing increasingly heavier
elements, up to iron (atomic number 26). This process is called
nucleosynthesis. Elements heavier than iron are formed in the stellar explosion
of a supernova. In a supernova gold may be made into lead, but not the other
way around.

While it may never be commonplace to transmute lead into gold, it is practical
to obtain gold from lead ores. The minerals galena (lead sulfide, PbS),
cerussite (lead carbonate, PbCO3), and anglesite (lead sulfate, PbSO4) often
contain zinc, gold, silver, and other metals. Once the ore has been pulverized,
chemical techniques are sufficient to separate the gold from the lead. The
result is almost alchemy...almost.

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