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Security sector reform develops effective and accountable security institutions based on international norms of transparency, accountability, and the rule of law. Stimson experts provide recommendations to strengthen critical security institutions to help ensure the security of a state and its population.

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Akriti Vasudeva is a Research Associate with the South Asia program at the Stimson Center. She is Editor of South Asian Voices, an online magazine featuring strategic analysis and commentary from rising South Asian analysts and scholars.

A

Anti-ballistic
missile (ABM) system - Generally comprised of radars, sensors,
launchers, and interceptors, this weapon system is intended to intercept
and destroy long-range ballistic missiles and their warheads in flight.
The term is often used interchangeably with ballistic missile defense
(BMD). See also, "ballistic missile defense," "Strategic Defense
Initiative," and "theater missile defense."

Anti-Ballistic
Missile (ABM) Treaty - Formally known as "Treaty on the
Limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems," the ABM Treaty was signed
by the United States and the Soviet Union on May 26, 1972, that
restricted each state to two ABM deployment areas (each with up 100 ABM
launchers and interceptors) so that either party would have some of its
territory exposed to a retaliatory nuclear strike from the other,
thereby helping to maintain a nuclear deterrence relationship. A
protocol signed in July 1974 further limited ABM deployment areas to a
single location for either party. On December 13, 2001, the United
States announced its intent to withdraw from the ABM Treaty, declaring
that US-Russia security relations no longer rested on nuclear deterrence
and that pursuit of missile defenses against "rogue states" required
abandoning the Treaty. US withdrawal from the ABM Treaty officially took
effect on June 13, 2002.

Australia
Group - A voluntary association of 38 states (all signatories to
the Chemical Weapons Convention and the Biological Weapons Convention)
established in 1985 that coordinates export licensing of materials and
equipment related to the development of chemical and biological weapons
(biological weapons were added in 1990). Australia Group's "common
control list" requires licensing for export of certain chemical
precursors, dual-use chemical and biological equipment, plant and animal
pathogens, and biological agents. The government of Australia, which
initially proposed a meeting of interested parties in April 1985, serves
as the informal chair of the association. Australia Group official website.

B

Ballistic
missile - Missiles propelled upwards on a trajectory towards a
ground target. Ballistic missiles lack guidance systems (except for the
initial, upward, boost phase) and are essentially rocketed into the sky
(at times beyond the atmosphere) before free falling on the target area
in a steep arc.

Ballistic
missile defense (BMD) - A system designed to identify, target,
intercept, and destroy incoming ballistic missiles in flight.

Biological
warfare/weapons (BW) - Use of living organisms, toxic biological
products, and plant growth regulators to produce death, disease, or
incapacitation in humans, animals, or plants.

Biological
and Toxins Weapons Convention (BTWC) - Also known as the
Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), the BTWC is a treaty banning
biological and toxin weapons opened for signature on April 10, 1972, and
ratified by the United States on January 22, 1975. The more than 100
parties to the convention undertake not to develop, produce, stockpile,
or acquire biological agents or toxins "of types and quantities that
have no justification for prophylactic, protective, and other peaceful
purposes," as well as related weapons and means of delivery. There are
no verification or enforcement provisions in the treaty itself, though
states may bring up any cases of violation at the UN Security Council. University of Bradford website on
the BWTC.

Biological
Threat Reduction Program (BTRP) - Formerly known as the
Biological Weapons Proliferation Prevention (BWPP) program, BTRP
encompasses several Department of Defense programs that reduce the risk
of biological weapons proliferation in the FSU while still allowing for
legitimate, peaceful research using biological materials.

C

Centrifuge
- A rapidly-spinning cylinder that uses the different masses of
isotopes to slowly separate those isotopes in gaseous form; used to
enrich uranium.

Chemical
warfare/weapons (CW) - The use of non-living chemical substances
and/or toxins to kill, incapacitate, harass, or control. Among the
chemical agents developed for military use are chlorine, phosgene,
mustard gas, the nerve agents GB (Sarin) and VX, and a riot control
agent called CS. A chemical agent refers to the harmful chemical itself,
whereas a weapon usually refers to the agent and its delivery systems.

Chemical
Weapons Convention (CWC) - Opened for signature on January 13,
1993, the CWC is intended to eliminate chemical weapons around the
world. Parties to the convention undertake not to develop, produce,
acquire, stockpile, transfer, or use chemical weapons. Due to the
dual-use nature of many chemical agents, the CWC has a great impact on
civilian industries. As of November 19, 2004, 167 states have become
parties to the convention. The Organisation for the Prohibition of
Chemical Weapons (OPCW) was established in the Hague in 1997, the year
the CWC entered into force. The OPCW is responsible for implementing the
CWC through on-site inspections, information sharing, and provision of
training and resources to enhance preparedness of parties against
chemical attacks. OPCW
official website.

Coolant
- A substance circulated through a nuclear reactor to remove or
transfer heat. Coolants may be water, heavy water, carbon dioxide,
helium, sodium, or sodium-potassium alloy. In power reactors, steam from
the heated coolant can be used to rotate turbines in order to generage
energy.

Cooperative
Nonproliferation (CNP) - The term used to describe US government
programs aimed at reducing the threat of the proliferation of weapons
of mass destruction, their delivery systems, and WMD-related expertise
by working cooperatively with other countries. CNP projects are carried
out mainly by the Departments of Defense, Energy, and State.

Cooperative
Threat Reduction (CTR) - A suite of programs begun by the Soviet
Nuclear Threat Reduction Act of 1991 that attempt to secure or
dismantle WMD, their delivery vehicles, and related infrastructure and
materials through cooperative methods. CTR projects come under the
jurisdiction of the Department of Defense and are aimed towards
preventing WMD proliferation in Russia and the former Soviet Union.

Core
- The central portion of a nuclear reactor containing the fuel
elements.

D

Defense
and Military (Def-Mil) Contacts - CTR programs aiming to
strengthen partnerships between US defense agencies and their
counterparts in the FSU.

Delivery
vehicle - Weapon system that carries one or more warheads to the
target area (e.g., cruise or ballistic missiles, bombers, etc.).

Dual-use
- Capable of having both civilian, industrial and military
applications. For example, certain biological samples could be used to
produce pharmaceutical products like vaccines or to construct biological
weapons.

F

Fissile
materials - Material that can undergo nuclear fission (i.e.
release large amounts of energy by splitting atoms) when struck with
"slow" or "low-energy" neutrons. Fissile materials are particularly
useful for fueling nuclear reactors or creating nuclear weapons.
Examples of fissile materials include uranium (U-233 and U-235) and
plutonium (Pu-239).

Fission
- The process of splitting atomic nuclei by bombarding the nuclei with
neutrons. The split nuclei result in the release of enormous amounts of
energy and more neutrons capable of splitting other atoms.

Former
Soviet Union (FSU) - Independent states that used to make up the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), including Russia, Estonia,
Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine, Georgia, Armenia,
Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and
Uzbekistan.

Fuel
rod - Tube, up to four or five meters (or about 15 feet) long and
usually made of zircalloy, containing the fuel for a nuclear reactor.

H

Heavy
water (deuterium oxide) - Water found in nature that is composed
of deuterium (or "heavy hydrogen") and oxygen (D2O or 2H2O instead of
the usual H2O). It is often used as a moderator in nuclear reactors as
heavy water slows down neutrons and does not absorb them, unlike
ordinary water. This helps sustain a chain reaction within
uranium-fueled reactors. Heavy water reactors are nuclear reactors that
use heavy water as a moderator (and perhaps coolant).

Highly-enriched
uranium (HEU) - Uranium is normally found in nature with 0.7% of
the total composed of U-235, an isotope of uranium that is particularly
conducive to nuclear fission. HEU is uranium with an artificially
increased U-235 concentration of 20% or more, which can then be used to
assemble very crude nuclear weapons. "Weapons-grade" uranium, used in
the creation of most nuclear weapons, often refers to HEU with 85-90% or
more U-235. HEU with lesser concentrations of U-235 is also used for
fueling research reactors and nuclear submarines.

I

Initiatives
for Proliferation Prevention (IPP) - Department of Energy
program that creates economic opportunities in the commercial sectors
for former Soviet WMD scientists through private-public partnerships.
Stably-employed former WMD scientists are less likely to transfer WMD
expertise to states and terrorists desiring nuclear weapons.

Intercontinental
ballistic missile (ICBM) - Long-range, land-based missile with a
maximum target range exceeding 5,500 km (roughly 3,400 miles or the
distance between the US and Russia). They often carry nuclear warheads,
having played a critical role in the US-Soviet standoff during the Cold
War. See also, "ballistic missile."

International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) - An independent organization,
founded in 1957 within the United Nations and headquartered in Vienna,
that promotes nuclear non-proliferation through safeguards and
verifications and that advances peaceful and safe uses of nuclear energy
through scientific research and technical cooperation. The organization
also administers the safeguards in non-nuclear-weapons states as
required of signatories to Non-Proliferation Treaty. The IAEA is
composed of the General Conference of all 138 member states, which
reviews budgets and proposals brought to it by the 35-member Board of
Governors. The work of the IAEA is supported by its own Secretariat with
a staff of 2,200 personnel from over 90 countries. IAEA official website.

International Science and Technology Center (ISTC)
- Established in November 1992 by international agreement amongst
Russia, the United States, the European Union, and Japan, the ISTC has
the primary objective of connecting former Soviet WMD scientists with
market demands for expertise in the fields of biology, chemistry, and
nuclear science. By giving former weapons scientists a stable job in one
of its science projects, ISTC and contributing governments and
organizations prevent WMD "know-how" from falling into the wrong hands.
At the same time, ISTC helps countries of the FSU transition to market
economies and transform a militarized scientific community into a
peaceful one that tackles civilian issues, such as public and
agricultural health, renewable energy, and counter-terrorism. The ISTC
has headquarters in Moscow and maintains branch offices and projects in
Russia, Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and
Tajikistan. ISTC official
website.

Isotopes
- Chemically identical atoms of the same element with different numbers
of neutrons in their nuclei and thus different atomic masses (e.g.,
U-238 and U-235).

L

Light
water - Ordinary water (H2O) to be distinguished from heavy water
(D2O or 2H2O) when used as a moderator or coolant in nuclear reactors.

Low-enriched
uranium (LEU) - Uranium is normally found in nature with 0.7% of
the total composed of U-235, an isotope of uranium that is particularly
conducive to nuclear fission. LEU is uranium with an increased
concentration of U-235 but less than 20% of total weight made up of that
isotope. LEU of 2-5% U-235 is used in commercial reactors, such as
those producing power for heat and electricity. The goal of several CNP
programs dealing with nuclear weapons and materials is to reduce the
level of U-235 in weapons-grade uranium, converting the HEU into LEU,
which can then be used for commercial purposes. Also known as
"lightly-enriched uranium."

M

Material
protection, control, and accounting (MPC&A) - A
comprehensive system to 1) physically protect the nuclear materials
themselves, 2) control access to and movement of nuclear materials, and
3) keep track of nuclear materials (including quantity and location)
through databases and inventories.

Missile
Technology Control Regime (MTCR) - An informal association of 34
states founded in 1987 that facilitates information sharing and
coordination on export licensing of technologies used in manufacturing
missiles and rockets, especially those intended to carry WMD. MTCR
produced the MTCR Guidelines, which sets out common export policy
guidelines, and the Equipment, Software, and Technology Annex, which
lists items to be controlled. MTCR official website.

Mixed
oxide (MOX) fuel - Combination of plutonium (Pu-239) from spent
fuel rods and natural, low enriched, or depleted uranium left over from
enrichment plants. MOX fuel is one way to recycle nuclear fuel for
commercial energy reactors, but the process creating MOX fuel can also
be used to convert weapons-grade plutonium into a form that
simultaneously cannot be employed in weapons development yet can produce
energy for heating and electricity.

Moderator
- Part of the nuclear reactor that slows down neutrons enough to hit
and split uranium (U-235). Materials used as a moderator include
ordinary/light water, heavy water, and graphite.

N

Non-Proliferation
Treaty (NPT) - Signed in 1968 and entering into force in 1970,
the NPT's signatories (187 to date) pledge to cap the number of states
possessing nuclear weapons to the five permanent members of the UN
Security Council (United States, United Kingdom, France, Russian
Federation, and People's Republic of China). All other member states
vowed not to develop nuclear weapons and, under Article III of the NPT,
to cooperate with the IAEA's safeguards mechanisms to verify their
compliance with the terms of the treaty. The five nuclear-weapons
states, in turn, promised not only to prevent nuclear proliferation but
also to assist non-nuclear-weapons states, especially developing
countries, in accessing peaceful nuclear technologies. The NPT also
encourages all nuclear-weapons states to disarm, promotes the creation
of nuclear-weapons-free zones, and calls for a review conference every
five years. UN
website on NPT. US Department of State
website on NPT.

Nuclear
Cities Initiative (NCI) - Expire CNP program run by the US
Department of Energy in conjunction with Russian Federal Atomic Energy
Agency that aimed to downsize the Russian nuclear weapons complex by
converting facilities in Russia's ten closed nuclear cities into
civilian production plants.

O

Organisation
for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) - International
body established in 1997 and responsible for implementing the Chemical
Weapons Convention. See Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) above. OPCW's official website.

P

Plutonium
- Rarely found in nature, plutonium is a heavy element usually
manufactured through the irradiation of uranium (U-238) in a nuclear
reactor. Pu-239 (a particular isotope of plutonium) can be used in
fueling reactors or in the creation of nuclear weapons. Weapons-grade
plutonium refers to plutonium with a high concentration (90% or more) of
Pu-239.

S

Safeguards
- The system of control and handling of nuclear materials that subjects
them to domestic and international (IAEA) inspections as agreed upon in
treaties and agreements and in domestic legislation.

Science and Technology Center in Ukraine (STCU) -
Established in October 1993 by international agreement amongst Ukraine,
Canada, Sweden (later replaced by the EU), and the United States, the
STCU develops and funds projects for former Soviet WMD scientists
enabling them to apply their expertise in peaceful pursuits. With
headquarters in Kyiv, Ukraine, STCU maintains offices and projects in
Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova, and Uzbekistan. STCU official website.

Science
and Technology Center - One of two institutions (Moscow, Russia
and Kyiv, Ukraine, respectively) that support efforts to provide
peaceful, commercial opportunities for former Soviet weapons scientists
in order to prevent the proliferation of WMD expertise.

Strategic
Defense Initiative (SDI) - Also known as "Star Wars," SDI is a
defense research and development program started in 1983 to devise a
system of radars and space-based weapons to destroy hostile ballistic
missiles in flight. Controversial throughout its lifespan, the program
was eventually terminated in the 1990s. See also, "anti-ballistic
missile system," "ballistic missile defense" and "theater missile
defense."

W

Weapons
of mass destruction (WMD) - A category of weapons including
nuclear, chemical, and biological arms. At times, WMD can also include
radiological weapons, or "dirty bombs," that disperse radioactive
material along with the detonation of a conventional explosive device.
Variations of the term WMD include: NBC (nuclear, biological, chemical),
WMD (weapons of mass disruption), and CBRN (chemical, biological,
radiological, nuclear). See also Bugs, Bombs, and
Deadly Gases: The WMD Reference Center.

Weapons-grade
material - Uranium that consists of more than 90% of the isotope
U-235, or plutonium that is 90% or more Pu-239. Note that such high
concentrations of either isotope are not necessary for the construction
of crude or radiological weapons. See also, "highly-enriched uranium"
and "plutonium."

Z

Zangger
Committee - An informal association of 35 states (including all
permanent members of the UN Security Council) that grew out of a series
of meetings in Vienna from 1971 to 1974 chaired by Professor Claude
Zangger of Switzerland. The Committee drew up (and continues to update) a
list of what materials and equipment ought to cause concern for the
international community if exported to non-nuclear states (i.e. states
that do not have nuclear weapons). Transfer of materials on this
"Trigger List" recommends, under the Non-Proliferation Treaty, IAEA
safeguards to ensure that they are not diverted to arms development.
However, decisions by the Zangger Committee are not legally binding. Zangger
Committee official website.