The
Vedic periodVedic period or Vedic age (c. 1500 – c. 600 BCE) is the
period in the history of the
Indian subcontinentIndian subcontinent intervening between
the end of the urban Indus Valley Civilization, and a second
urbanisation which began in c. 600 BCE. It gets its name from the
Vedas, which are liturgical texts containing details of life during
this period that have been interpreted to be historical[1] and
constitute the primary sources for understanding the period.
The
VedasVedas were composed and orally transmitted by speakers of an Old
Indo-Aryan language who had migrated into the northwestern regions of
the
Indian subcontinentIndian subcontinent early in this period. The associated Vedic
culture was tribal and pastoral until c. 1200 or 1100 BCE, and
centred in the Punjab. It then spread eastward to the
GangesGanges Plain,
becoming more agricultural and settled. The
Vedic periodVedic period saw the
emergence of a hierarchy of social classes and coalesce into Janapada
(monarchical, state-level polities).[2][3] Archaeological cultures
identified with phases of Vedic material culture include the Ochre
Coloured Pottery culture, the Gandhara Grave culture, the Black and
red ware culture and the
Painted Grey WarePainted Grey Ware culture.[4]
The end of the
Vedic periodVedic period witnessed the rise of
MahajanapadaMahajanapada (large,
urbanised states) as well as shramana movements (including
JainismJainism and
Buddhism) which challenged the Vedic orthodoxy.[5] Around the
beginning of the Common Era, the Vedic tradition formed one of the
main constituents of the so-called "
HinduHindu synthesis".[6]

History[edit]
Origins[edit]
See also: Indo-European migrations, Indo-Aryan peoples, Indo-Aryan
migration, and Indigenous Aryans
The commonly accepted period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to the
second millennium BCE.[7] After the collapse of the Indus Valley
Civilisation, which ended c. 1900 BCE,[8][9] groups of Indo-Aryan
peoples migrated into north-western India and started to inhabit the
northern Indus Valley.[10] The
Indo-AryansIndo-Aryans were a branch of the
Indo-Iranians, which—according to the most widespread
hypothesis—have originated in the Andronovo culture[11] in the
Bactria-
MargianaMargiana era, in present northern Afghanistan.[12][note 1]

Archaeological cultures associated with Indo-Iranian migrations (after
EIEC). The Andronovo,
BMACBMAC and Yaz cultures have often been associated
with Indo-Iranian migrations. The GGC, Cemetery H, Copper Hoard and
PGW cultures are candidates for cultures associated with Indo-Aryan
movements.

Some writers and archaeologists have opposed the notion of a migration
of
Indo-AryansIndo-Aryans into India.[19] Edwin Bryant and Laurie Patton used the
term "Indo-Aryan Controversy" for an oversight of the Indo-Aryan
Migration theory, and some of its opponents.[20] These ideas are
outside the academic mainstream. Mallory and Adams note that two types
of models "enjoy significant international currency" as to the
Indo-European homeland, namely the Anatolian hypothesis, and a
migration out of the Eurasian steppes.[21] According to Upinder Singh,
"The original homeland of the Indo-Europeans and
Indo-AryansIndo-Aryans is the
subject of continuing debate among philologists, linguists,
historians, archaeologists and others. The dominant view is that the
Indo-Aryams came to the subcontinent as immigrants. Another view,
advocated mainly by some Indian scholars, is that they were indigenous
to the subcontinent."[22]
The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from the
Rigveda-samhita,[23] i. e. the oldest layer of the Vedas, which
was composed c. 1500–1200 BCE.[24][25][12] They brought with them
their distinctive religious traditions and practices.[26] The Vedic
beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to
the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion,[27] and the
Indo-Iranian religion.[28] According to Anthony, the Old Indic
religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the
contact zone between the
Zeravshan RiverZeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and
(present-day) Iran.[29] It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central
Asian and new Indo-European elements",[29] which borrowed "distinctive
religious beliefs and practices"[30] from the Bactria–Margiana
Culture.[30][note 2]
Early Vedic Period (c. 1500 – c. 1200 BCE)[edit]
See also: Rigvedic tribes

The
RigvedaRigveda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the
Dasas and Dasyus. It describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not
perform sacrifices (akratu) or obey the commandments of gods (avrata).
Their speech is described as mridhra which could variously mean soft,
uncouth, hostile, scornful or abusive. Other adjectives which describe
their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations.
However, some modern scholars such as
Asko ParpolaAsko Parpola connect the Dasas
and Dasyus to Iranian tribes Dahae and Dahyu and believe that Dasas
and Dasyus were early Indo-Aryan immigrants who arrived into the
subcontinent before the Vedic Aryans.[32][33]
Accounts of military conflicts between the various tribes of Vedic
Aryans are also described in the Rigveda. Most notable of such
conflicts was the Battle of Ten Kings, which took place on the banks
of the river Parushni (modern day Ravi).[note 3] The battle was fought
between the tribe Bharatas, led by their chief Sudas, against a
confederation of ten tribes.[36] The Bharatas lived around the upper
regions of the river Saraswati, while the Purus, their western
neighbours, lived along the lower regions of Saraswati. The other
tribes dwelt north-west of the Bharatas in the region of Punjab.[37]
Division of the waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the
war.[38][unreliable source?] The confederation of tribes tried to
inundate the Bharatas by opening the embankments of Ravi, yet Sudas
emerged victorious in the Battle of Ten Kings.[39] Purukutsa, the
chief of the Purus, was killed in the battle and the Bharatas and the
Purus merged into a new tribe, the Kuru, after the war.[37]
Later
Vedic periodVedic period (c. 1100 – c. 500 BCE)[edit]

After the 12th century BCE, as the
RigvedaRigveda had taken its final form,
the Vedic society transitioned from semi-nomadic life to settled
agriculture. Vedic culture extended into the western
GangesGanges Plain.[40]
Possession of horses remained an important priority of Vedic leaders
and a remnant of the nomadic lifestyle,[41] resulting in trade routes
beyond the
HinduHindu Kush to maintain this supply as horses needed for
cavalry and sacrifice could not be bred in India.[42] The Gangetic
plains had remained out of bounds to the Vedic tribes because of thick
forest cover. After 1000 BCE, the use of iron axes and ploughs became
widespread and the jungles could be cleared with ease. This enabled
the Vedic Aryans to settle at the western Gangetic plains.[43] Many of
the old tribes coalesced to form larger political units.[44]
The Vedic religion was further developed when the
Indo-AryansIndo-Aryans migrated
into the
Ganges PlainGanges Plain after c. 1100 BCE and became settled
farmers,[45][46][47] further syncretising with the native cultures of
northern India.[48] In this period the varna system emerged, state
Kulke and Rothermund, which in this stage of Indian history were a
"hierarchical order of estates which reflected a division of labor
among various social classes". The
Vedic periodVedic period estates were four:
BrahminBrahmin priests and warrior nobility stood on top, free peasants and
traders were the third, and slaves, labourers and artisans, many
belonging to the indigenous people, were the fourth..[49][50][51] This
was a period where agriculture, metal, and commodity production, as
well as trade, greatly expanded,[52] and the Vedic era texts including
the early
UpanishadsUpanishads and many Sutras important to later
HinduHindu culture
were completed.[53]

Modern replica of utensils and falcon shaped altar used for
Agnicayana, an elaborate shrauta ritual originating from the Kuru
Kingdom,[45] around 1000 BCE.

The Kuru Kingdom, the earliest Vedic "state", was formed by a
"super-tribe" which joined several tribes in a new unit. To govern
this state, Vedic hymns were collected and transcribed, and new
rituals were developed, which formed the now orthodox Shrauta
rituals.[54] Two key figures in this process of the development of the
Kuru state were the king
ParikshitParikshit and his successor Janamejaya,
transforming this realm into the dominant political and cultural power
of northern
Iron AgeIron Age India.[45]
The most well-known of the new religious sacrifices that arose in this
period were the
AshvamedhaAshvamedha (horse sacrifice).[55] This sacrifice
involved setting a consecrated horse free to roam the kingdoms for a
year. The horse was followed by a chosen band of warriors. The
kingdoms and chiefdoms in which the horse wandered had to pay homage
or prepare to battle the king to whom the horse belonged. This
sacrifice put considerable pressure on inter-state relations in this
era.[55] This period saw also the beginning of the social
stratification by the use of varna, the division of Vedic society in
Kshatriya, Brahmins,
VaishyaVaishya and Shudra.[54]
The Kuru kingdom declined after its defeat by the non-Vedic Salva
tribe, and the political centre of Vedic culture shifted east, into
the
PanchalaPanchala kingdom on the Ganges.[45] Later, the kingdom of Videha
emerged as a political centre farther to the East, in what is today
northern
BiharBihar of India and south eastern Nepal, reaching its
prominence under the king Janaka, whose court provided patronage for
BrahminBrahmin sages and philosophers such as Yajnavalkya, Uddalaka Aruni,
and Gargi Vachaknavi.[4]
Towards urbanisation[edit]
By the 6th century BCE, the political units consolidated into large
kingdoms called Mahajanapadas. The process of urbanisation had begun
in these kingdoms and commerce and travel, even over regions separated
by large distances became easy.[56] Anga, door step of modern-day West
Bengal, a small kingdom to the east of Magadha, formed the eastern
boundary of the Vedic culture.[57]
YadavasYadavas expanded towards the south
and settled in Mathura. To the south of their kingdom was
VatsaVatsa which
was governed from its capital Kausambi. The
Narmada RiverNarmada River and parts of
North Western Deccan formed the southern limits.[58][59] The newly
formed states struggled for supremacy and started displaying imperial
ambitions.[60]
The end of Vedic India is marked by linguistic, cultural and political
changes. The grammar of
PāṇiniPāṇini marks a final apex in the
codification of Sutra texts, and at the same time the beginning of
Classical Sanskrit.[61] The invasion of
Darius IDarius I of the Indus valley
in the early 6th century BCE marks the beginning of outside influence,
continued in the kingdoms of the Indo-Greeks.[62] Meanwhile, within
India, the shramana movements (including
JainismJainism and Buddhism)
challenged the authority and orthodoxy of Vedic scriptures and
ritual.[5]
Culture[edit]

Society[edit]
Vedic society was relatively egalitarian in the sense that a distinct
hierarchy of socio-economic classes or castes was absent.[63][64]
However, political hierarchy was determined by rank, where rajan stood
at the top and dasi at the bottom.[64] The words Brahamana and
KshatriyaKshatriya occur in various family books of the Rigveda, but they are
not associated with the term varna. The words
VaishyaVaishya and
ShudraShudra are
absent. Verses of the Rigveda, such as 3.44-45, indicate the absence
of strict social hierarchy and the existence of social mobility:[32]

O, Indra, fond of soma, would you make me the protector of people, or
would you make me a king, would you make me a sage who has drunk soma,
would you impart to me endless wealth.

The Vedic household was patriarchal and patrilineal. The institution
of marriage was important and different types of marriages—
monogamy, polygyny and polyandry are mentioned in the Rigveda. Both
women sages and female gods were known to Vedic Aryans. However, hymns
attributable to female sages are few and female gods were not as
important as male ones. Women could choose their husbands and could
remarry if their husbands died or disappeared.[64] While the wife
enjoyed a respectable position, she was subordinate to her
husband.[65] People consumed milk, milk products, grains, fruits, and
vegetables. Meat eating is mentioned, however, cows are labelled
aghnya (not to be killed). Clothes of cotton, wool and animal skin
were worn.[64] Soma and sura were popular drinks in the Vedic society,
of which soma was sanctified by religion. Flute (vana), lute (vina),
harp, cymbals, and drums were the musical instruments played and a
heptatonic scale was used.[65] Dancing, dramas, chariot racing, and
gambling were other popular pastimes.[64]
The emergence of monarchical states in the later Vedic age, led to a
distancing of the rajan from the people and the emergence of a varna
hierarchy. The society was divided into four social groups—
Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The later Vedic texts
fixed social boundaries, roles, status and ritual purity for each of
the groups. The
Shatapatha BrahmanaShatapatha Brahmana associates the Brahmana with
purity of parentage, good conduct, glory, teaching or protecting
people;
KshatriyaKshatriya with strength, fame, ruling, and warfare; Vaishya
with material prosperity and production-related activities such as
cattle rearing and agriculture; Shudras with the service of the higher
varnas. The effects of
RajasuyaRajasuya sacrifice depended on the varna of the
sacrificer.
RajasuyaRajasuya endowed Brahmana with lustre,
KshatriyaKshatriya with
valour,
VaishyaVaishya with procreative power and
ShudraShudra with stability. The
hierarchy of the top three varnas is ambiguous in the later Vedic
texts. Panchavamsha Brahmana and verse 13.8.3.11 of the Shatapatha
Brahmana place
KshatriyaKshatriya over Brahmana and Vaishya, whereas, verse
1.1.4.12 places Brahmana and
VaishyaVaishya over the
KshatriyaKshatriya and Shudra.
The
Purusha suktaPurusha sukta visualised the four varnas as hierarchical, but
inter-related parts of an organic whole.[66] Despite the increasing
social stratification in the later Vedic times, hymns like Rigveda
IX.112, suggest some amount of social mobility: "I am a reciter of
hymns, my father a physician, and my mother grinds (corn) with stones.
We desire to obtain wealth in various actions."[67][68]
Household became an important unit in the later Vedic age. The variety
of households of the Vedic era gave way to an idealised household
which was headed by a grihapati. The relations between husband and
wife, father and son were hierarchically organised and the women were
relegated to subordinate and docile roles. Polygyny was more common
than polyandry and texts like Tattiriya
SamhitaSamhita indicate taboos around
menstruating women. Various professions women took to are mentioned in
the later Vedic texts. Women tended to cattle, milked cows, carded
wool; were weavers, dyers, and corn grinders. Women warriors such as
Vishphala, who lost a leg in battle, are mentioned. Two female
philosophers are mentioned in the Upanishads.[69] Patrick Olivelle, in
his translation of the Upanishads, writes that "the fact that these
women are introduced without any attempt to justify or to explain how
women could be engaged in theological matters suggests the relatively
high social and religious position of at least women of some social
strata during this period."[70]
Political organisation[edit]

Vedic weaponry

Ancient Indian Antennae sword; Metalwork, 1500–500 BCE.

Ancient Indian Ax Blade, 1500–1000 BCE.

Early Vedic Aryans were organised into tribes rather than kingdoms.
The chief of a tribe was called a rajan. The autonomy of the rajan was
restricted by the tribal councils called sabha and samiti. The two
bodies were, in part, responsible for the governance of the tribe. The
rajan could not accede to the throne without their approval. The
distinction between the two bodies is not clear. Arthur Llewellyn
Basham, a noted historian and indologist, theorises that sabha was a
meeting of great men in the tribe, whereas, samiti was a meeting of
all free tribesmen. Some tribes had no hereditary chiefs and were
directly governed by the tribal councils. Rajan had a rudimentary
court which was attended by courtiers (sabhasad) and chiefs of septs
(gramani). The main responsibility of the rajan was to protect the
tribe. He was aided by several functionaries, including the purohita
(chaplain), the senani (army chief), dutas (envoys) and spash
(spies).[71]
Purohita performed ceremonies and spells for success in
war and prosperity in peace.[72]
In the later Vedic period, the tribes had consolidated into small
kingdoms, which had a capital and a rudimentary administrative
system.[73] To aid in governing these new states, the kings and their
BrahminBrahmin priests arranged Vedic hymns into collections and developed a
new set of rituals (the now orthodox shrauta rituals) to strengthen
the emerging social hierarchy.[45] The rajan was seen as the custodian
of social order and the protector of rashtra (polity). Hereditary
kingship started emerging and competitions like chariot races, cattle
raids, and games of dice, which previously decided who was worthy of
becoming a king, became nominal. Rituals in this era exalted the
status of the king over his people. He was occasionally referred to as
samrat (supreme ruler). The rajan's increasing political power enabled
him to gain greater control over the productive resources. The
voluntary gift offering (bali) became compulsory tribute; however,
there was no organised system of taxation. Sabha and samiti are still
mentioned in later Vedic texts, though, with the increasing power of
the king, their influence declined.[74] By the end of the later Vedic
age, different kinds of political systems such as monarchical states
(rajya), oligarchical states (gana or sangha), and tribal
principalities had emerged in India.[74]
According to Michael Witzel's analysis of the Kuru Kingdom, it can be
characterized as the earliest Vedic "state", during the Middle Vedic
Period.[45][75] However,
Robert BellahRobert Bellah observes that it is difficult
to "pin down" whether the Kurus were a true "state" or a complex
chiefdom, as the Kuru kings notably never adopted royal titles higher
than "rājan," which means "chief" rather than "king" in the Vedic
context.[76] The Middle Vedic Period is also characterized by a lack
of cities; Bellah compares this to early state formation in ancient
Hawai'i and "very early Egypt," which were "territorial states" rather
than "city-states," and thus "it was the court, not the city, that
provided the center, and the court was often peripatetic."[77] Romila
Thapar characterizes Vedic-era state formation as being in a condition
of "arrested development," because local chiefs were relatively
autonomous, and because surplus wealth that could have been directed
towards state-building was instead used for the increasingly grandiose
rituals that also served to structure social relations.[78] The period
of the Upanishads, the final phase of the Vedic era, was approximately
contemporaneous with a new wave of state formations, linked to the
beginning of urbanization in the
GangesGanges Valley: along with the growth
of population and trade networks, these social and economic changes
put pressure on older ways of life, setting the stage for the
UpanishadsUpanishads and the subsequent sramana movements,[79] and the end of
the Vedic Period, which was followed by the
MahajanapadaMahajanapada period.
According to George Erdosy, archaeological data for the period of
period from 1000 to 600 BCE shows a two-tiered settlement pattern in
the
GangesGanges Valley, with some "modest central places," suggestive of
the existence of simple chiefdoms, with the Kurukshetra District
itself displaying a more complex (albeit not yet urbanized)
three-tiered hierarchy.[80] Subsequently (after 600 BCE) there are
four tiers of site sizes, including large towns and fortified cities,
consistent with an urbanized state-level society.[81]
Economy[edit]

Ceramic goblet from Navdatoli, Malwa, 1300 BCE.

Economy in the
Vedic periodVedic period was sustained by a combination of
pastoralism and agriculture.[65] There are references, in the Rigveda,
to the leveling of fields, seed processing, and storage of grains in
large jars. War booty was also a major source of wealth.[64] Economic
exchanges were conducted by gift giving, particularly to kings (bali)
and priests (dana), and barter using cattle as a unit of currency.
While gold is mentioned in some hymns, there is no indication of the
use of coins. Metallurgy is not mentioned in the Rigveda, but the word
ayas and instruments made from it such as razors, bangles, axes are
mentioned. One verse mentions purification of ayas. Some scholars
believe that ayas refers to iron and the words dham and karmara refer
to iron-welders.[82] However, philological evidence indicates that
ayas in the
RigvedaRigveda refers only to copper and bronze, while iron or
śyāma ayas, literally "black metal", first is mentioned in the
post-Rigvedic Atharvaveda,[4][45] and therefore the Early Vedic Period
was a Bronze Age culture whereas the Late Vedic Period was an Iron Age
culture.[citation needed]
The transition of Vedic society from semi-nomadic life to settled
agriculture in the later Vedic age led to an increase in trade and
competition for resources.[83] Agriculture dominated the economic
activity along the
GangesGanges valley during this period.[84] Agricultural
operations grew in complexity and usage of iron implements
(krishna–ayas or shyama–ayas, literally black metal or dark metal)
increased. Crops of wheat, rice, and barley were cultivated. Surplus
production helped to support the centralised kingdoms that were
emerging at this time.[45] New crafts and occupations such as
carpentry, leather work, tanning, pottery, astrology, jewellery,
dying, and winemaking arose.[85] Apart from copper, bronze, and gold,
later Vedic texts also mention tin, lead, and silver.[86]
Panis in some hymns refers to merchants, in others to stingy people
who hid their wealth and did not perform Vedic sacrifices. Some
scholars suggest that Panis were semitic traders, but the evidence for
this is slim.[37] Professions of warriors, priests, cattle-rearers,
farmers, hunters, barbers, vintners and crafts of chariot-making,
cart-making, carpentry, metal working, tanning, making of bows,
sewing, weaving, making mats of grass and reed are mentioned in the
hymns of the Rigveda. Some of these might have needed full-time
specialists.[82] There are references to boats and oceans. Book X of
the
RigvedaRigveda refers to both eastern and western oceans. Individual
property ownership did not exist and clans as a whole enjoyed rights
over lands and herds. Enslavement (dasa, dasi) in the course of war or
as a result of non-payment of debt is mentioned. However, slaves
worked in households rather than production-related activities.[64]
Religion[edit]
Main article: Historical Vedic religion

A steel engraving from the 1850s, which depicts the creative
activities of Prajapati, a Vedic deity who presides over procreation
and protection of life.

The Vedic forms of
HinduismHinduism are one of the precursors to modern
Hinduism.[87] Texts considered to date to the
Vedic periodVedic period are mainly
the four Vedas, but the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the older Upanishads
as well as the oldest Shrautasutras are also considered to be Vedic.
The
VedasVedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices
performed by the 16 or 17
ShrautaShrauta priests and the purohitas.[citation
needed]
The rishis, the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda, were considered
inspired poets and seers (in post-Vedic times understood as "hearers"
of an eternally existing Veda,
ŚrautaŚrauta means "what is heard").
The mode of worship was the performance of sacrifices (Yajna) which
included the chanting of Rigvedic verses (see Vedic chant), singing of
Samans and 'mumbling' of sacrificial mantras (Yajus).
YajnaYajna involved
sacrifice and sublimation of the havana sámagri (herbal preparations)
in the fire accompanied by the chanting of the Vedic mantras. The
sublime meaning of the word yajna is derived from the Sanskrit verb
yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of worship of deities
(devapujana), unity (saògatikaraña) and charity (dána).[88] An
essential element was the sacrificial fire—the divine Agni—into
which oblations were poured, as everything offered into the fire was
believed to reach God. People prayed for abundance of rain, cattle,
sons, long life and gaining 'heaven'.
Vedic peopleVedic people believed in the transmigration of the soul, and the
peepul tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the
Atharvaveda.[89] Many of the concepts of
Indian philosophyIndian philosophy espoused
later like Dharma, Karma etc. trace their root to the Vedas.[90]
The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra,
AgniAgni (the
sacrificial fire), and Soma and some deities of social order such as
Mitra–Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga and Amsa, further nature deities such
as
SuryaSurya (the Sun),
VayuVayu (the wind), and Prithivi (the earth).
Goddesses included
UshasUshas (the dawn), Prithvi, and
AditiAditi (the mother of
the Aditya gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially Saraswati,
were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as
all-powerful. The relationship between humans and the deity was one of
transaction, with
AgniAgni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of
messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common Indo-Iranian
religion remain visible, especially in the Soma cult and the fire
worship, both of which are preserved in Zoroastrianism.
Ethics in the
VedasVedas are based on the concepts of
SatyaSatya and Rta. Satya
is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute.[91] Whereas,
Ṛta is the expression of Satya, which regulates and coordinates the
operation of the universe and everything within it.[92] Conformity
with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to
punishment.
Vedic religion evolved into the
HinduHindu paths of
YogaYoga and Vedanta, a
religious path considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas,
interpreting the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with
'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of
IshvaraIshvara and Brahman. These post-Vedic systems of thought, along with
later texts like the Upanishads, and epics, namely
GitaGita of Mahabharat,
have been fully preserved and form the basis of modern Hinduism. The
ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are preserved in the
conservative
ŚrautaŚrauta tradition.
Literature[edit]
Main article: Vedas

An early 19th-century manuscript of
RigvedaRigveda (padapatha) in Devanagari.
The
Vedic accent is marked by underscores and vertical overscores in
red.

The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on
text-internal details, but can be correlated to relevant
archaeological details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be
classified in five chronological strata:[4]

Rigvedic text: The
RigvedaRigveda is by far the most archaic of the Vedic
texts preserved, and it retains many common Indo-Iranian elements,
both in language and in content, that are not present in any other
Vedic texts. Its time span likely corresponds to the Late Harappan
culture,
Gandhara Grave cultureGandhara Grave culture and Ochre Coloured Pottery culture.
MantraMantra language texts: This period includes both the mantra and prose
language of the
AtharvavedaAtharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda
Khilani, the
SamavedaSamavedaSamhitaSamhita (containing some 75 mantras not in the
Rigveda), and the mantras of the Yajurveda. Many of these texts are
largely derived from the Rigveda, but have undergone certain changes,
both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation. Conspicuous changes
include change of vishva "all" by sarva, and the spread of the kuru-
verbal stem (for Rigvedic krno-). This is the time of the early Iron
Age in north-western India, corresponding to the Black and Red Ware
(BRW) and
Painted Grey WarePainted Grey Ware (PGW) cultures, and the early Kuru
Kingdom, dating from c. the 12th to 11th century BCE.
SamhitaSamhita prose texts: This period marks the beginning of the collection
and codification of a Vedic canon. An important linguistic change is
the complete loss of the injunctive. The Brahmana part ('commentary'
on mantras and ritual) of the Black
YajurvedaYajurveda (MS, KS, TS) belongs to
this period. Archaeologically, the
Painted Grey WarePainted Grey Ware (PGW) culture
from c. 1000 or 900 BCE corresponds to the
Kuru KingdomKuru Kingdom and the
subsequent eastward shift of the political centre from the Kurus to
the Panchalas on the Ganges.
Brahmana prose texts: The
BrahmanasBrahmanas proper of the four
VedasVedas belong to
this period, as well as the Aranyakas, the oldest of the Upanishads
(BAU, ChU, JUB) and the oldest Shrautasutras (BSS, VadhSS). In the
east,
VidehaVideha (N.
BiharBihar and Nepal) is established as the third main
political centre of the Vedic period.
Sutra language texts: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit
leading up to c. 500 BCE, comprising the bulk of the
ŚrautaŚrauta and Grhya
Sutras, and some
UpanishadsUpanishads (e.g. KathU, MaitrU).

^ The roots of this culture seem to go further back to the Sintashta
culture, with funeral sacrifices which show close parallels to the
sacrificial funeral rites of the Rigveda.[13] Around 1800–1600 BCE,
the
Indo-AryansIndo-Aryans are believed to have split off from the Iranians[14]
whereupon they were defeated and split into two groups by the
Iranians,[15] who dominated the Central Eurasian steppe zone[16] and
"chased them to the extremities of Central Eurasia."[16] One of these
Indo-Aryan groups would found the
MitanniMitanni kingdom in northern Syria
(c. 1500–1300 BCE).[12] The other group were the Vedic people, who
were pursued by the Iranians "across Iran into India."[17] For an
overview of the current relevant research, see:

^ At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this
culture, including the god
IndraIndra and the ritual drink Soma, which
according to Anthony was "probably borrowed from the BMAC
religion."[31] "Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of
might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to the adopted god
Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic
culture.
IndraIndra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rigveda.
He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant
drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra) probably borrowed from the BMAC
religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic
speakers."
^ According to Erdosy, this battle provided a prototype for the epic
Mahabharata,[34] Hiltebeitel calls this idea a "particularly baffling
fancy."[35]