History of Germany

The French Revolution and Germany

The French Revolution, which erupted in 1789 with the storming of the
Bastille in Paris, at first gained the enthusiastic approval of some German
intellectuals, who welcomed the proclamation of a constitution and a bill of
rights. Within a few years, most of this support had dissipated, replaced by
fear of a newly aggressive French nationalism and horror at the execution of the
revolution's opponents. In 1792 French troops invaded Germany and were at first
pushed back by imperial forces. But at the Battle of Valmy in late 1792, the
French army, a revolutionary citizens' army fighting on its own soil, defeated
the professional imperial army. By 1794 France had secured control of the
Rhineland, which it was to occupy for twenty years.

During the Rhineland occupation, France followed its traditional policy of
keeping Austria and Prussia apart and manipulating the smaller German states. In
observance of the Treaty of Basel of 1795, Prussian and German forces north of
the Main River ceased efforts against the French. Austria endured repeated
defeats at the hands of the French, most notably at the Battle of Austerlitz in
1805. At this battle, Russians fought alongside Austrians against the French,
who were aided by forces from several south German states, including Bavaria,
Baden, and Württemberg.

Prussia reentered the war against France in 1806, but its forces were badly
beaten at the Battle of Jena that same year. Prussia was abandoned by its ally
Russia and lost territory as a result of the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807. These
national humiliations motivated the Prussians to undertake a serious program of
social and military reform. The most noted of the reformers--Karl vom Stein,
Karl August von Hardenberg, Wilhelm von Humboldt, and Gerhard von Scharnhorst,
along with many others--improved the country's laws, education, administration,
and military organization. Scharnhorst, responsible for military reforms,
emphasized the importance to the army of moral incentives, personal courage, and
individual responsibility. He also introduced the principle of competition and
abandoned the privileges accorded to nobility within the officer corps. A
revitalized Prussia joined with Austria and Russia to defeat Napoleon at the
Battle of Leipzig in late 1813 and drove him out of Germany. Prussian forces
under General Gebhard von Blücher were essential to the final victory over
Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.

Despite Napoleon's defeat, some of the changes he had brought to Germany
during the French occupation were retained. Public administration was improved,
feudalism was weakened, the power of the trade guilds was reduced, and the
Napoleonic Code replaced traditional legal codes in many areas. The new legal
code was popular and remained in effect in the Rhineland until 1900. As a result
of these reforms, some areas of Germany were better prepared for the coming of
industrialization in the nineteenth century.

French occupation authorities also allowed many smaller states,
ecclesiastical entities, and free cities to be incorporated into their larger
neighbors. Approximately 300 states had existed within the Holy Roman Empire in
1789; only about forty remained by 1814. The empire ceased to exist in 1806 when
Francis II of Austria gave up his imperial title. In its place, Napoleon had
created the Confederation of the Rhine, made up of the states of western and
southern Germany, under French direction. Austria and Prussia were not members.
The confederation was to provide Napoleon with troops for his military
campaigns. After his defeat, the confederation was dissolved.