Today, the majority of paleoanthropologists believe that the Neandertals were a species separate from modern humans. But most paleoanthropologists also believe that there was at least some degree of cross-fertilization between Neandertals and modern humans. These two beliefs seem to represent a contradiction in the species concept in human evolution that requires clarification.

The island of Flores, Indonesia, was the discovery site of fossil adult humans just three feet tall with a cranial capacity of about 380 cubic centimeters. Their scientific name is Homo floresiensis. However, they have been nicknamed “hobbits,” after the stars of the Lord of the Rings saga by Tolkien.