Machine learning is the science of getting computers to act without being explicitly programmed. In the past decade, machine learning has given us self-driving cars, practical speech recognition, effective web search, and a vastly improved understanding of the human genome. Machine learning is so pervasive today that you probably use it dozens of times a day without knowing it. Many researchers also think it is the best way to make progress towards human-level AI. In this class, you will learn about the most effective machine learning techniques, and gain practice implementing them and getting them to work for yourself. More importantly, you'll learn about not only the theoretical underpinnings of learning, but also gain the practical know-how needed to quickly and powerfully apply these techniques to new problems. Finally, you'll learn about some of Silicon Valley's best practices in innovation as it pertains to machine learning and AI.
This course provides a broad introduction to machine learning, datamining, and statistical pattern recognition. Topics include: (i) Supervised learning (parametric/non-parametric algorithms, support vector machines, kernels, neural networks). (ii) Unsupervised learning (clustering, dimensionality reduction, recommender systems, deep learning). (iii) Best practices in machine learning (bias/variance theory; innovation process in machine learning and AI). The course will also draw from numerous case studies and applications, so that you'll also learn how to apply learning algorithms to building smart robots (perception, control), text understanding (web search, anti-spam), computer vision, medical informatics, audio, database mining, and other areas.

NN

It's a good introduction - not too complicated and covers a wide range of topics. The programming exercises are well put together and significantly help understanding. The free Matlab license is nice.

RS

Aug 13, 2019

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Andrew Ng is a great teacher.\n\nHe inspired me to begin this new chapter in my life. I couldn't have done it without you\n\nand also He made me a better and more thoughtful person.\n\nThank You! Sir.

From the lesson

Linear Regression with Multiple Variables

What if your input has more than one value? In this module, we show how linear regression can be extended to accommodate multiple input features. We also discuss best practices for implementing linear regression.

Taught By

Andrew Ng

Transcript

In this video, I want to give you more practical tips for getting gradient descent to work. The ideas in this video will center around the learning rate alpha. Concretely, here's the gradient descent update rule. And what I want to do in this video is tell you about what I think of as debugging, and some tips for making sure that gradient descent is working correctly. And second, I wanna tell you how to choose the learning rate alpha or at least how I go about choosing it. Here's something that I often do to make sure that gradient descent is working correctly. The job of gradient descent is to find the value of theta for you that hopefully minimizes the cost function J(theta). What I often do is therefore plot the cost function J(theta) as gradient descent runs. So the x axis here is a number of iterations of gradient descent and as gradient descent runs you hopefully get a plot that maybe looks like this. Notice that the x axis is number of iterations. Previously we where looking at plots of J(theta) where the x axis, where the horizontal axis, was the parameter vector theta but this is not what this is. Concretely, what this point is, is I'm going to run gradient descent for 100 iterations. And whatever value I get for theta after 100 iterations, I'm going to get some value of theta after 100 iterations. And I'm going to evaluate the cost function J(theta). For the value of theta I get after 100 iterations, and this vertical height is the value of J(theta). For the value of theta I got after 100 iterations of gradient descent. And this point here that corresponds to the value of J(theta) for the theta that I get after I've run gradient descent for 200 iterations. So what this plot is showing is, is it's showing the value of your cost function after each iteration of gradient decent. And if gradient is working properly then J(theta) should decrease after every iteration. And one useful thing that this sort of plot can tell you also is that if you look at the specific figure that I've drawn, it looks like by the time you've gotten out to maybe 300 iterations, between 300 and 400 iterations, in this segment it looks like J(theta) hasn't gone down much more. So by the time you get to 400 iterations, it looks like this curve has flattened out here. And so way out here 400 iterations, it looks like gradient descent has more or less converged because your cost function isn't going down much more. So looking at this figure can also help you judge whether or not gradient descent has converged. By the way, the number of iterations the gradient descent takes to converge for a physical application can vary a lot, so maybe for one application, gradient descent may converge after just thirty iterations. For a different application, gradient descent may take 3,000 iterations, for another learning algorithm, it may take 3 million iterations. It turns out to be very difficult to tell in advance how many iterations gradient descent needs to converge. And is usually by plotting this sort of plot, plotting the cost function as we increase in number in iterations, is usually by looking at these plots. But I try to tell if gradient descent has converged. It's also possible to come up with automatic convergence test, namely to have a algorithm try to tell you if gradient descent has converged. And here's maybe a pretty typical example of an automatic convergence test. And such a test may declare convergence if your cost function J(theta) decreases by less than some small value epsilon, some small value 10 to the minus 3 in one iteration. But I find that usually choosing what this threshold is is pretty difficult. And so in order to check your gradient descent's converge I actually tend to look at plots like these, like this figure on the left, rather than rely on an automatic convergence test. Looking at this sort of figure can also tell you, or give you an advance warning, if maybe gradient descent is not working correctly. Concretely, if you plot J(theta) as a function of the number of iterations. Then if you see a figure like this where J(theta) is actually increasing, then that gives you a clear sign that gradient descent is not working. And a theta like this usually means that you should be using learning rate alpha. If J(theta) is actually increasing, the most common cause for that is if you're trying to minimize a function, that maybe looks like this. But if your learning rate is too big then if you start off there, gradient descent may overshoot the minimum and send you there. And if the learning rate is too big, you may overshoot again and it sends you there, and so on. So that, what you really wanted was for it to start here and for it to slowly go downhill, right? But if the learning rate is too big, then gradient descent can instead keep on overshooting the minimum. So that you actually end up getting worse and worse instead of getting to higher values of the cost function J(theta). So you end up with a plot like this and if you see a plot like this, the fix is usually just to use a smaller value of alpha. Oh, and also, of course, make sure your code doesn't have a bug of it. But usually too large a value of alpha could be a common problem. Similarly sometimes you may also see J(theta) do something like this, it may go down for a while then go up then go down for a while then go up go down for a while go up and so on. And a fix for something like this is also to use a smaller value of alpha. I'm not going to prove it here, but under other assumptions about the cost function J, that does hold true for linear regression, mathematicians have shown that if your learning rate alpha is small enough, then J(theta) should decrease on every iteration. So if this doesn't happen probably means the alpha's too big, you should set it smaller. But of course, you also don't want your learning rate to be too small because if you do that then the gradient descent can be slow to converge. And if alpha were too small, you might end up starting out here, say, and end up taking just minuscule baby steps. And just taking a lot of iterations before you finally get to the minimum, and so if alpha is too small, gradient descent can make very slow progress and be slow to converge. To summarize, if the learning rate is too small, you can have a slow convergence problem, and if the learning rate is too large, J(theta) may not decrease on every iteration and it may not even converge. In some cases if the learning rate is too large, slow convergence is also possible. But the more common problem you see is just that J(theta) may not decrease on every iteration. And in order to debug all of these things, often plotting that J(theta) as a function of the number of iterations can help you figure out what's going on. Concretely, what I actually do when I run gradient descent is I would try a range of values. So just try running gradient descent with a range of values for alpha, like 0.001 and 0.01. So these are factor of ten differences. And for these different values of alpha are just plot J(theta) as a function of number of iterations, and then pick the value of alpha that seems to be causing J(theta) to decrease rapidly. In fact, what I do actually isn't these steps of ten. So this is a scale factor of ten of each step up. What I actually do is try this range of values. And so on, where this is 0.001. I'll then increase the learning rate threefold to get 0.003. And then this step up, this is another roughly threefold increase from 0.003 to 0.01. And so these are, roughly, trying out gradient descents with each value I try being about 3x bigger than the previous value. So what I'll do is try a range of values until I've found one value that's too small and made sure that I've found one value that's too large. And then I'll sort of try to pick the largest possible value, or just something slightly smaller than the largest reasonable value that I found. And when I do that usually it just gives me a good learning rate for my problem. And if you do this too, maybe you'll be able to choose a good learning rate for your implementation of gradient descent.

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