CRC funded reports

1995-1996

The Council received reports from 12 completed research projects
during the year 1995-96. Summaries of
these reports are given below. These reports are held by the Australian Institute of Criminology's
JV Barry Library and are available on inter-library loan. For full bibliographic information on any
report, search the Library's Catalogue.

In the book published from this research (Hypnosis, Memory and Behaviour in
Criminal Investigation, 1995, Guilford Press, New York) the authors focus on the
issues that arise when one is trying to conduct or to evaluate an attempt to
enhance memory with hypnosis, and when hypnosis is used in an attempt to commit
an act that is criminal. The study aims to present, evaluate, and offer guidance
on matters that experts have to consider in these areas, and to balance
priorities when experts are seeking to act effectively and ethically in their
interactions with the forensic system as a whole.

The themes and issues that the authors take up stem from two main sources: their
own research with a variety of forensic cases, and their view that the
literature to date has under emphasised the complexity of the issues and their
importance in practice. The study emphasises the need for effective procedures
and ethical actions when hypnosis is used in the forensic setting.

A study to assess the rate of recidivism among Victorian (major) offenders, and factors which affect the recidivism rate

This research examines in detail the interactions between the personal
characteristics of offenders as they bear on reoffending patterns. By focussing
on the reoffending of released prisoners, the research provides insight into the
behaviour of offenders who are at a relatively "developed" stage of their
criminal career. It is argued that recidivism needs to be understood as a
complex, dynamic feature of criminal career patterns, that it is influenced by
an array of factors, only some of which are under the control of criminal
justice agencies, and the use of recidivism as a measure of system effectiveness
needs to take into account these factors if it is to provide a meaningful
measure of system performance.

The study followed the recidivism patterns of 838 offenders on their release
from Victorian prisons between May 1985 and December 1986, for a period of seven
and a half years, using officially recorded data. Four measures were used to
examine recidivism, re-conviction, re-imprisonment, time to fail and
re-offending rates. In the seven years after their release, a total of 620 of
the 838 prisoners in the full sample (74%) were reconvicted of at least one
offence. Just over one-quarter of all releasees had been re-convicted of a
further offence within three months of release, one third were re-convicted
within five months of release, and by the end of the first year, the proportion
re-convicted reached one-half.

Evaluation of the capacity of community based corrections to reduce recidivism

This study examines what factors in the community supervision of offenders are
related to reduced recidivism rates. A group of Community Corrections Officers
were offered training in a "pro-social" supervision model which included each of
the principles of effective supervision. The Community Corrections Officers were
then asked to use the supervision model with their clients.

Three hundred and eighty-five clients were then followed up, after one year and
after four years, through a client questionnaire and through analysis of client
files and police records. The results of the study showed that offenders who
were supervised by these Community Corrections Officers received more assistance
with their problems, and were less likely, even after four years, to commit
serious violent offences. It was also evident from the results of the study that
offenders on community work sites where they associated with other offenders
were more likely to commit further offences and to breach their orders.

Since the publication of the first report on this project Community Corrections
Divisions in both Victoria and New Zealand have offered training in the
"pro-social model" to most of their Probation Officers and Community Corrections
Officers.

A large population of all persons arrested by police in Western Australia for
the first time between 1 April 1984 and 30 June 30 1993 were followed up to
determine if they had ever been re-arrested. Probabilities of re-arrest were
estimated at 0.52 for male non-Aboriginal people, 0.36 for female non-Aboriginal
people, 0.88 for male Aboriginal people and 0.85 for female Aboriginal people.
Significant variations in the probability of re-arrest and/or the time to
re-arrest for different age groups, the number of times arrested, occupational
status, offence group, place of birth and bail status were observed. Co-variate
analysis of non-Aboriginal people found with the offence of "driving under the
influence" (DUI) was also undertaken to test the significance of difference in
probabilities of re-arrest for sub-groups. Probabilities of re-arrest were: for
males 0.47 for any offence and 0.31 for a repeat DUI; and for females 0.34 for
any offence and 0.20 for a repeat DUI. The results are discussed in the light of
estimates of re-imprisonment and the utility of offender risk assessment.

An investigation into legal and ethical issues associated with the use of prisoner informants

Report title: Research Grant on Prison Informers
Grantees: Assoc Prof David Brown, University of New South Wales, New South Wales
Criminology Research Council grant ; (13/91)

This research outlined the major conditions encouraging the use of prison
informers. A detailed article was prepared outlining the nature of the prison
inmate code on informing. The key issues for public debate and political
response were identified as being the reliability of evidence emerging from
prison informers and integrity of the legal processes. Accordingly a number of
regulatory proposals and reforms were made in the course of the research.

A number of the recommendations arising from this research have been addressed
or adopted by various agencies. For example, the High Court has laid down a
requirement for a prison informer warning; an inquiry was held specifically into
the use of informants conducted by the NSW ICAC, and the ICAC has released two
inquiry reports containing a range of recommendations, including an informer
handling policy for police, which has been adopted by the NSW Police Service;
the NSW DPP has instituted an Informer Index and elaborate policy guidelines in
relation to informers; and the NSW Government has tightened various legislative
criteria in relation to sentence discounts.

Temporal patterns in the development of drug use, criminal behaviour and drug treatment

Funding for this study enabled an existing investigation examining drug
treatment in the Melbourne Odyssey House therapeutic community to be extended to
include a more detailed analysis of archived records relating to convictions and
incarcerations. Analyses addressed the temporal association between drug use,
criminal behaviour and treatment. Follow-up procedures were able to successfully
locate 75 per cent of a target sample of 427 ex-therapeutic residents treated
between 1984 and 1988. Interviews were conducted with 255 or 60 per cent and an
additional 20 (5 per cent) were officially confirmed to have died in the period
prior to follow-up. The available evidence supported the conclusion that
findings for those interviewed could be generalised to the Odyssey population.

Examination revealed exposure to the Odyssey program to be an important
predictor of outcomes following treatment. In the most recent year prior to
interview three variables significantly predicted outcomes. Attaining a higher
treatment level in the Odyssey program was the most stable predictor of reduced
criminal involvement. Those aged between 26 and 29 who had used opiates for less
than five years of admission evidenced an independently reduced probability of
criminal involvement. Those incarcerated prior to admission were more likely to
be criminally involved in the most recent year.

The results suggest further investigation of the therapeutic community treatment
model as an appropriate direction for corrections work with the large class of
offenders for whom drug dependence and antisocial behaviour are connected. In
particular it is recommended that the therapeutic community model should be
carefully examined with respect to its relevance as an alternative to prison.

An evaluation of protective behaviours: a school-based anti-victim program

Report title: An Evaluation of Protective Behaviours: A School-based Anti-Victim Program
Grantees: Techsearch Inc., University of South Australia, South Australia
Criminology Research Council grant ; (36/92-3)

Child abuse is recognised as a major social problem in our community and a
variety of initiatives aim to alleviate the problem. One approach has been to
develop school based primary prevention programs directed at improving the
abilities of children to avoid or resist abuse. The Protective Behaviours
program is such a program. In South Australia, large numbers of teachers and
child care workers have been trained to teach Protective Behaviours to children.

The Review was planned in two linked stages. Stage 1, which was undertaken
during 1993, focussed on teachers' use of the Protective Behaviours program.
Stage 2, which was undertaken during 1994, focussed on student outcomes.

A survey approach was selected to generate information about teachers' use of
the Protective Behaviours program. A questionnaire was developed, trialled, and
administered to a stratified random sample of over 1400 teachers who had been
trained in Protective Behaviours.

From this analysis several ways of promoting the wider teaching of personal
safety programs like Protective Behaviours were suggested.

The results of this study reveal complex and, at times, perplexing insights into
the thinking of children about personal safety issues. They serve to remind
proponents of personal safety education that none of the concepts and strategies
used in programs can be assumed to be learnt by all children. Children's
responses to physical and emotional maltreatment, for example, were shown to be
very different from their responses to sexual maltreatment. The findings do,
however, give qualified support to the efficacy of the Protective Behaviours
program and provide some evidence to support its essential rationale.

The results of this research indicate that based on the statistical analysis of
Koorie offending in Victoria between 1989-90 and 1993-94, Koorie contact with
the criminal justice system in Victoria has become worse over the five-year
post-Royal Commission period of analysis.

The proportion of offenders in country Victoria as compared with metropolitan
Melbourne has increased markedly between 1989-90 and 1993-94 from 48 per cent to
59 per cent respectively. Similarly, the average increase in Koorie offending
rates per 100 000 persons is particularly high in country Victoria (39.7 per
cent) and only marginal in metropolitan Melbourne (2.7 per cent).

There have been various law reform initiatives as well as many recommendations
of the Royal Commission pertaining to law and justice in this area. However, the
Royal Commission's recommendation to decriminalise public drunkenness has not
been implemented in Victoria and the research shows that this is having
disproportionate effects on Koories in Victoria.

Family violence: young people and youth workers informing government about the implementation of mandatory reporting

This study questioned young people and youth sector workers about various
aspects of new Victorian mandatory reporting laws. Focus groups were conducted
by peer researchers with 163 young people comprising a mix of those who had
experienced and had not experienced protective intervention, and a specially
designed self-report survey was administered to 150 workers drawn from the
membership of the peak youth affairs body for the State. The data identify the
knowledge skill and training needs of youth sector workers and the common
concerns of young people about the impact of the new laws. The report makes a
series of recommendations with respect to legislative and administrative
changes, training, information, program initiatives and research:

the Department of Health and Community Services should prepare and issue administrative guidelines placing a positive expectation upon notifiers and protective interviewers to act in accordance with the wishes of young people 14 years and above;

that specific training be provided to youth workers irrespective of their status in relation to the legislative requirements of the Victorian mandatory reporting legislation;

there should be a range of age appropriate materials explaining the meaning and consequences of mandatory reporting to young people and their rights when protective investigation is to be triggered or has been triggered;

printed material should be available in schools, hospitals, doctors' and dentists' surgeries, Department of Social Security, Commonwealth Employment Services and train stations;

establishment of a statewide advisory line for young people and those who want to provide support to them.

One approach to reducing both criminal activity and fear of crime in urban areas
is through deliberate and conscious design of the built environment. This
approach to creating safer cities is known as Crime Prevention Through
Environmental Design (CPTED).

This research study, which was conducted in selected areas of the Gold Coast,
developed an environmental crime prevention instrument designed to
operationalise generally accepted principles of CPTED. The study also tested a
survey instrument which explored fear of crime and actual experience of crime.
The instruments tested whether dwellings, streets and neighbourhoods which score
high on measures of CPTED have lower rates and incidence of fear of crime than
those which score low on measures of CPTED.

The study attempted to expand the range of options available to crime prevention
agencies. A strong association between high household and street CPTED values
and low rates of crime was found. Thus, CPTED principles might well be relevant
in reducing property crimes.

If good design principles are applied to existing development by upgrading the
environmental factors of households, streets and neighbourhoods, property crime
rates could be reduced. Similarly, if CPTED principles are adopted in proposed
developments, the level of security is likely to be increased.

The detection of domestic violence through routine assessment at drug and alcohol treatment centres

Report title: The Detection of Domestic Violence through Routine Assessment at Drug and Alcohol Treatment Centres Volume 1 (PDF 11MB)Volume 2 (PDF 14MB)Grantees: Dr Michelle Gomel and Dr Robert Gertler, The University of Sydney, New South Wales
Criminology Research Council grant ; (26/93-4)

This project was undertaken in five clinics, both public and private,
specialising in the longer term treatment of substance abuse, in the Sydney
metropolitan area. It examined the prevalence of both victims and perpetrators
of domestic violence amongst more than 250 clients of the drug and alcohol
clinics. By using both semi-structured interviews and standardised
self-completion questionnaires, the investigators were able to determine
psychodemographic characteristics for both victims and perpetrators.

A very high prevalence of both victims and perpetrators of domestic violence
amongst clients of the clinics was found. A large proportion of clients were in
mutually violent relationships. The inter-relationship between domestic violence
and substance abuse was found to be important in a number of ways. The influence
of the family of origin was strong, both in terms of exposure to parental drug
and alcohol use and experiencing or witnessing parental violence.

The investigators developed an educational package designed to better inform
staff about domestic violence, to increase detection rates and to improve
management responses such as the instigation of changes to intake procedures and
the addition of a clinical program component for both staff and clients.
Subsequent assessment of the educational program found that more victims and
perpetrators were being identified and that this was occurring at an earlier
stage of the admission.

Police culture and the handling of domestic violence: an urban/rural comparison

This report describes the culture of uniformed police in Tasmania. It is based
on five months' fieldwork with the police in southern Tasmania. The report
examines the influence of police culture on the handling of domestic violence.

The report discusses the way in which the police make decisions about how they
handle domestic violence incidents.

At the operational level the relationship between the police and the other
agencies dealing with domestic violence is poor. Uniformed police officers feel
they get inadequate support from both the agencies directly involved in dealing
with domestic violence and also the other agencies, such as the Child Protection
Unit whom they may have to call upon for assistance. In order to change the
relationship between the support services and the police, and to improve the
overall handling of domestic violence cases, the main recommendations made in
this report can be summarised as follows:

that an integrated domestic violence awareness program be introduced involving members of all relevant agencies;

that a domestic violence coordination unit be established;

that a community based approach to handling domestic violence be adopted in the rural areas;

that governments commit adequate funds to programs relating to domestic violence in order to provide good services;

that an appropriate program be introduced for perpetrators of domestic violence as part of an integrated approach;

that the provision of services by those agencies peripherally involved with domestic violence be reviewed.