Figure 1 shows a resistor network known as a Wheatstone bridge. Part of the apparatus which you'll build shortly for the DNA melting curves module involves half of a "bridge". This is a common circuit used to measure the resistance of an unknown value, ''R<sub>x</sub>''. For now, we will look at it analytically. ''R<sub>x</sub>'' is a resistance you are trying to measure, and ''R<sub>3</sub>'' is a variable resistor.

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[[Image:Hw1wheatstone.JPG|250px|center]]<br>

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Figure 1 shows a resistor network known as a Wheatstone bridge. This is a common circuit used to measure an unknown resistance. ''R<sub>x</sub>'' is the component being measured, and ''R<sub>3</sub>'' is a variable resistor (often called a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potentiometer potentiometer] or just a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pot pot] for no sensible reason).

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<center>Figure 1: A Wheatstone bridge circuit.</center>

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(a) Assuming ''R<sub>3</sub>'' is set such that the bridge is balanced (i.e. ''V<sub>ab</sub>=0''), derive an analytical expression for ''R<sub>x</sub>'' in terms of ''R<sub>1</sub>'', ''R<sub>2</sub>'' and ''R<sub>3</sub>''.

(b) Now let ''R<sub>3</sub>'' also be a fixed value, and suppose that ''R<sub>x</sub>'' varies in a way that makes ''V<sub>ab</sub>'' nonzero. Derive an expression for the current that would flow if you connected an [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammeter ammeter] from ''a'' to ''b''. Assume the ammeter has zero internal resistance.

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(a) The bridge is balanced when ''V<sub>ab</sub>'' is zero. Assuming ''R<sub>3</sub>'' is set so the bridge is balanced, derive an expression for ''R<sub>x</sub>'' in terms of ''R<sub>1</sub>'', ''R<sub>2</sub>'' and ''R<sub>3</sub>''.

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(b) Now let ''R<sub>3</sub>'' also be a fixed resistor. Suppose that ''R<sub>x</sub>'' varies in a way that makes ''V<sub>ab</sub>'' nonzero. Derive an expression for the current that would flow if you connected an [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammeter ammeter] from ''a'' to ''b''. Assume the ammeter has zero internal resistance.

Referring again to the Wheatstone Bridge in Figure 1, suppose that ''R<sub>x</sub>'' varies with some physical parameter (strain, temperature, etc.) in the range of 1-10k<math>\Omega</math>. You want to use the circuit to measure the physical variable by observing ''V<sub>ab</sub>=0'' and correlating it to the resistance changes. In what range should the values of ''R<sub>1</sub>'', ''R<sub>2</sub>'' and ''R<sub>3</sub>'' be to make a sensitive measurement? Explain your reasoning. (Hint: using <tt>matlab</tt> to plot the output as a function of the varying resistances is a very useful way to think about this problem).

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A thermistor is a resistor whose value varies with temperature. Thermistors are specified by a zero power resistance, ''R<sub>0</sub>'', at a given temperature and a temperature coefficient, ''&alpha;''. As shown in Figure 2, a small person inside the thermistor observes the temperature on a thermometer and adjusts a variable resistor so that ''R=R<sub>0</sub>+&alpha;T'', where ''T'' is the temperature.

Now imagine a Wheatstone bridge made out of four identical thermistors, as shown in figure 3. One of the thermistors (''R<sub>4</sub>'') is attached to an odd-looking blue apparatus that varies in temperature. The other three are maintained at a constant 20°C.

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'''''Photodiode i-v characteristics:''''' Using the data that you collected in the lab for the photodiode, generate 3-4 ''i-v'' curves for a photodiode at different light levels (including in darkness). Plot these on the same graph to see how incident light affects diode ''i-v'' characteristics. <br>

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<br/>[[Image:ThermistorBridge.jpg|359px|center]]<br/>

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Give a brief (qualitative) explanation for why photodiodes are best used in reverse bias?

(a) Derive an expression for ''V<sub>ab</sub>'' as a function of temperature.

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'''''Transfer functions:''''' For the black boxes that you measured in the lab, determine what kind of circuit/filter each one is (two of them will look similar, but have an important difference - what is it?). Determine a transfer function that can model the circuit, and fit the model to the data to see whether the model makes sense.<br>

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(b) What if both ''R<sub>1</sub>'' and ''R<sub>4</sub>'' are attached to the apparatus? Which configuration is more sensitive to temperature variations?

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Of the four boxes, "D" is required, and you should choose one of either "A" or "C". You can fit "B" for bonus credit.

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==Question 3: Photodiode I-V Characteristics==

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==Question 5==

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Using the data that you collected in the lab for the photodiode, generate 3-4 ''i-v'' curves for a photodiode at different light levels (including in darkness). Plot these on the same graph to see how incident light affects diode ''i-v'' characteristics. <br>

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Referring to the circuit shown in Figure 2, what value of ''R<sub>L</sub>'' (in terms of ''R<sub>1</sub>'' and ''R<sub>2</sub>'') will result in the maximum power being dissipated in the load?<br>

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Give a brief (qualitative) explanation for why photodiodes are best used in reverse bias?

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(''Hint:'' this is much easier to do if you first remove the load, and calculate the equivalent Thevenin output resistance ''R<sub>T</sub>'' of the divider looking into the node labeled ''V<sub>out</sub>''. Then express ''R<sub>L</sub>'' for maximal power transfer in terms of ''R<sub>T</sub>''.

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[[Image:Hw1Divider.JPG|250px||center]]<br>

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==Question 4: Unknown Transfer Functions==

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<center>Figure 2: A voltage divider formed by ''R<sub>1</sub>'' and ''R<sub>2</sub>'' driving a resistive load ''R<sub>L</sub>''.</center>

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For the black boxes that you measured in the lab, determine what kind of circuit/filter each one is (two of them will look similar, but have an important difference - what is it?). Determine a transfer function that can model the circuit, and fit the model to the data to see whether the model makes sense.

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==Question 6==

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Of the four boxes, "D" is required, and you should choose one of either "A" or "C". You can fit "B" for bonus credit.

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Lab module 0 introduced the op-amp circuit shown in Fig. 3.

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[[Image:Hw1invopamp.JPG|250px|center]]<br/>

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==Question 5:Power in a Voltage Divider==

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<center>'''Figure 3: Inverting Voltage Amplifier'''</center><br/>

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(a) Calculate the gain of this circuit, ''V<sub>out</sub>/V<sub>in</sub>'' in terms of the input voltage and the two resistor values.

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Referring to the circuit shown in Figure 4, what value of ''R<sub>L</sub>'' (in terms of ''R<sub>1</sub>'' and ''R<sub>2</sub>'') will result in the maximum power being dissipated in the load?

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[[Image:TransimpedenceAmplifierSchematic.jpg|250px|center]]<br/>

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(''Hint:'' this is much easier to do if you first remove the load, and calculate the equivalent Thevenin output resistance ''R<sub>T</sub>'' of the divider looking into the node labeled ''V<sub>out</sub>''. Then express ''R<sub>L</sub>'' for maximal power transfer in terms of ''R<sub>T</sub>''.

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<center>'''Figure 4: Transimpedence Amplifier'''</center><br/>

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(b) In the DNA melting lab, fluorescence intensity will be determined by measuring the current output of a photodiode. Figure 4 shows a circuit that converts a current to a voltage called a transimpedance amplifier.

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[[Image:Hw1Divider.JPG|250px||center]]<br>

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<center>Figure 4: A voltage divider formed by ''R<sub>1</sub>'' and ''R<sub>2</sub>'' driving a resistive load ''R<sub>L</sub>''.</center>

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Determine an expression for the output voltage of the circuit produced by a DC current input at ''i<sub>in</sub>''. Express your answer in the form of a transfer function, ''V<sub>out</sub>/I<sub>in</sub>''.

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(c) A transimpedence amplifier with a gain of approximately 10<sup>8</sup> V/A will be required for the DNA lab. What value of resistor in the circuit of Figure 4 would achieve this gain?

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(d) It is undesirable to use the large values of resistors you computed in part C. The circuit in Figure 5 shows another possible implementation of the transimpedence amplifier. Derive an expression for the output voltage of the circuit in figure 5 in terms of the input current and the three resistor values.

(c) Since this is such a high-gain circuit, it can be quite noisy, if the input current ''I<sub>in</sub>'' experiences high-frequency fluctuations. You can insert a capacitor to reduce the noise (i.e. make a low-pass filter to eliminate high-frequency content). Where would you insert it, and how would you choose its size? <br>

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(d) Now write down the expression for this new circuit's output with respect to the current input for AC signals (Hint: in the expression from part (a), substitute the parallel combination ''R<sub>L</sub><math>\parallel</math>C'' for the resistor ''R<sub>x</sub>'' that you chose).

Question 1:Wheatstone Bridge

Figure 1 shows a resistor network known as a Wheatstone bridge. This is a common circuit used to measure an unknown resistance. Rx is the component being measured, and R3 is a variable resistor (often called a potentiometer or just a pot for no sensible reason).

Figure 1: Schematic Diagram of a Wheatstone Bridge

(a) The bridge is balanced when Vab is zero. Assuming R3 is set so the bridge is balanced, derive an expression for Rx in terms of R1, R2 and R3.

(b) Now let R3 also be a fixed resistor. Suppose that Rx varies in a way that makes Vab nonzero. Derive an expression for the current that would flow if you connected an ammeter from a to b. Assume the ammeter has zero internal resistance.

Question 2: Measuring Physical Quantities with a Wheatstone Bridge

A thermistor is a resistor whose value varies with temperature. Thermistors are specified by a zero power resistance, R0, at a given temperature and a temperature coefficient, α. As shown in Figure 2, a small person inside the thermistor observes the temperature on a thermometer and adjusts a variable resistor so that R=R0+αT, where T is the temperature.

Now imagine a Wheatstone bridge made out of four identical thermistors, as shown in figure 3. One of the thermistors (R4) is attached to an odd-looking blue apparatus that varies in temperature. The other three are maintained at a constant 20°C.

Figure 3: Wheatstone Bridge Made of 4 Thermistors

(a) Derive an expression for Vab as a function of temperature.

(b) What if both R1 and R4 are attached to the apparatus? Which configuration is more sensitive to temperature variations?

Question 3: Photodiode I-V Characteristics

Using the data that you collected in the lab for the photodiode, generate 3-4 i-v curves for a photodiode at different light levels (including in darkness). Plot these on the same graph to see how incident light affects diode i-v characteristics.

Give a brief (qualitative) explanation for why photodiodes are best used in reverse bias?

Question 4: Unknown Transfer Functions

For the black boxes that you measured in the lab, determine what kind of circuit/filter each one is (two of them will look similar, but have an important difference - what is it?). Determine a transfer function that can model the circuit, and fit the model to the data to see whether the model makes sense.

Of the four boxes, "D" is required, and you should choose one of either "A" or "C". You can fit "B" for bonus credit.

Question 5:Power in a Voltage Divider

Referring to the circuit shown in Figure 4, what value of RL (in terms of R1 and R2) will result in the maximum power being dissipated in the load?

(Hint: this is much easier to do if you first remove the load, and calculate the equivalent Thevenin output resistance RT of the divider looking into the node labeled Vout. Then express RL for maximal power transfer in terms of RT.

Figure 4: A voltage divider formed by R1 and R2 driving a resistive load RL.