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The National Supreme Court of Justice (Spanish: Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación (SCJN) is the Mexican institution serving as the country's federal high court and the spearhead organisation for the judiciary of the Mexican Federal Government. It consists of eleven magistrates, known as ministers of the court, one of whom is designated the court's president.

Judges of the SCJN are appointed for 15 years.[1] They are ratified through affirmation by the Senate from a list proposed by the President of the Republic. The ministers chosen will select from among themselves who shall be the President of the Court to serve a four-year period; any given minister may serve out more than one term as president, but may not do so consecutively.

Contents

Requirements for holding a seat on the National Supreme Court of Justice[edit]

Be a natural born citizen of Mexico.

Be at least 35 years old at the time of one's appointment

Have held a Law degree for at least 10 years.

To have a good reputation and have not have been convicted of theft, fraud, forgery, breach of trust, or any other offense which could imply a punishment of more than one year in prison.

Not have been Director for Domestic Affairs, Chief of an Administrative Department, Attorney General of the Republic or Federal District Attorney, Senator, Member of Parliament, Governor of any State, or Chief Executive of the Federal District during the year prior to his or her appointment.

The Constitution requires that the appointment of ministers of the court should fall to those persons who have served ably, effectively and honourably in the administration of justice, or to those who have distinguished themselves by their honor, competence and professional background in the exercise of their duties.

Ministers may take leave of their posts for three reasons:

The end of their terms

Relinquishment, which is only allowed in serious cases, all of which must be affirmed by the President and accepted or discarded by the Senate.

Voluntary retirement: Proceeds when the interested party requests their retirement, as long as they meet the conditions of age and seniority.

The court itself is located just off the main plaza of Mexico City on the corners of Pino Suarez and Carranza Streets. It was built between 1935 and 1941 by Antonio Muñoz Garcia. Prior to the Conquest, this site was reserved for the ritual known as "Dance of the Flyers" which is still practiced today in Papantla. Hernán Cortés claimed the property after the Conquest and its ownership was in dispute during much of the colonial period with Cortes' heirs, the city government, and the Royal and Pontifical University all claiming rights. It was also the site of a very large market known as El Volador.[2]

Within the building, there are four flanks painted in 1941 by José Clemente Orozco, two of which are named The Social Labor Movement and Commonwealth. There is also a mural done by American artist George Biddle entitled "War and Peace" at the entrance to the law library.[2] The building also contains a mural by Rafael Cauduro, which "graphically illustrates the Gran Guignol of Mexican torture",[3] and includes a depiction of the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre as well as "a cut-away of a prison, perhaps the infamous Lecumberri Black Palace where student leaders who escaped death were jailed."[3]

The Supreme Court building

One of the chambers of the Mexican Supreme Court

Entrance to the court

While this building is still the chief seat for the Supreme Court, an alternative site at Avenida Revolución was opened in 2002.[4]

1.
Mexico
–
Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan

2.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation

3.
Constitution of Mexico
–
The Constitution of Mexico, formally the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States is the current constitution of Mexico. It was drafted in Santiago de Querétaro, in the State of Querétaro, by a constitutional convention and it was approved by the Constitutional Congress on 5 February 1917. It is the successor to the Constitution of 1857, and earlier Mexican constitutions, the current Constitution of 1917 is the first such document in the world to set out social rights, serving as a model for the Weimar Constitution of 1919 and the Russian Constitution of 1918. Constitution Day is one of Mexicos annual Fiestas Patrias, commemorating the promulgation of the Constitution on 5 February 1917, although the official anniversary is on 5 February, the holiday takes place on the first Monday of February regardless of the date. Carranza convoked a congress specifically to draft the new constitution and it replaced the liberal Constitution of 1857, extending that constitutions restrictions on the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico. Its innovations were in expanding the Mexican states power into the realms of economic nationalism, political nationalism, the constitution was a means to confer legitimacy on a shaky regime. The Liberal Party of Mexicos 1906 political program proposed a number of reforms that were incorporated into the 1917 Constitution, Article 27 of the Constitution incorporated some of the PLMs demands for land reform in Mexico. Points in the PLMs call for improvement in education were also incorporated, such as completely secular education, compulsory attendance up until age 14, not surprisingly, the PLM also called for restrictions on the Roman Catholic Church, which were incorporated in the constitution. These included treating religious institutions as businesses and required to pay taxes, nationalization of religious institutions real property, the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States was drafted by the Constitutional Congress in Querétaro, not the capital. Carranza chose the site because it was where Emperor Maximilian of Mexico was executed, delegates to the congress were to be elected, with one per jurisdiction that had existed in 1912, when congressional elections had been held during the Francisco I. Those who had been hostile to the Constitutionalist Cause were banned from participating, Carranza was pressured to amnesty those who had been hostile as well as allow those who had gone into exile to return to Mexico, but he refused. The congress formally opened in November 1916, with delegate elections, the final draft was approved on 5 February 1917. The membership of the congress was not representative of all regions, classes, the 220 delegates were all Carrancistas, since the Constitutionalist faction had been victorious militarily. However, that did not mean they were of one mind, most delegates were middle class, not workers or peasants. Middle class professionals predominated, with lawyers, teachers, engineers, doctors, villas home state of Chihuahua had only one delegate. The predominantly civilian composition of the Constituent Congress was in contrast with the place of power in revolutionary Mexico. Most senior generals did not participate directly in the congress, an important group of delegates elected to the congress were the Bloc Renovador, who had been elected in 1912 to the Mexican legislature during Maderos presidency. Some considered them tainted for their continuing to serve during Victoriano Huertas regime, some congressmen fled Mexico, others were jailed by Huerta

4.
Politics of Mexico
–
The constituent states of the federation must also have a republican form of government based on a congressional system as established by their respective constitutions. The executive power is exercised by the branch, which is headed by the President. Legislative power is vested upon the Congress of the Union, a two-chamber legislature comprising the Senate, judicial power is exercised by the judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation, the Council of the Federal Judiciary and the collegiate, unitary and district tribunals. The politics of Mexico are dominated by three parties, National Action Party, the Party of the Democratic Revolution and Institutional Revolutionary Party. Registered political parties receive public funding for their operation and can obtain private funding within the limits prescribed by the law. The coalition must present itself with a name and logo. Proportional representation seats are assigned to the coalition based on the percentage of votes obtained in the elections, once each party in the coalition has been assigned plurinominal seats, they do not necessarily continue to work as a coalition in government. Throughout the 20th century, PRI had an almost hegemonic power at the state and federal level and it was in 1997, that PRI lost its absolute majority at the Congress of the Union, and in 2000 the first non-PRI president was elected since 1929. Suffrage is universal, free, secret and direct for all Mexican citizens 18 and older, the identity document in Mexico serves also as the voting card, so all citizens are automatically registered for all elections, that is, no pre-registration is necessary for every election. All elections are direct, that is, no electoral college is constituted for any of the elections at the federal, only when an incumbent president is absolutely absent, the Congress of the Union constitutes itself acts as an electoral college to elect an interim president by absolute majority. Presidential elections are scheduled every six years, except in the case of absolute absence of the president. Elections are usually held on the first Sunday of July, state governors are also elected every six years, whereas the legislatures are renewed every three years. State elections need not be concurrent with federal elections, elections within the Federal District are also organized by a local electoral institute. A strongly ingrained concept in Mexican political life is no reelection, the theory was implemented after Porfirio Díaz managed to monopolize the presidency for over 25 years. Presently, Mexican presidents are limited to a single six-year term, Deputies and senators are not allowed to immediately succeed themselves. The most recent federal elections were held on July 2,2006 concurrent with the full renovation of both chambers of the Congress of the Union. In these elections the Party of the Democratic Revolution, the Labour Party, the Institutional Revolutionary Party and the Ecologist Green Party formed a coalition called Alliance for Mexico. Felipe Calderón got the greatest number of votes according to the preliminary computation, the Federal Electoral Tribunal declared Felipe Calderón the winner of the elections on September 5, and president elect

5.
Mexican nationality law
–
This law was last modified in 2005. In general terms, Mexican nationality is based on both the principle of jus soli and the principle of jus sanguinis, the Mexican constitution also makes a distinction between nationals of Mexico and citizens of Mexico. According to the 30th article of the Constitution of Mexico, there are two ways in which a person can acquire Mexican citizenship, by birth and by naturalization, as in most other Central and South American countries, Mexican law differentiates between nationality and citizenship. The 34th article of the Mexican constitution establishes that Mexican citizens are those Mexican who are 18 years of age or older, Mexican law also distinguishes between naturalized citizens and natural-born citizens in many ways. Under the Mexican constitution, naturalized citizens are prohibited from serving in an array of positions. The Mexican nationality law acknowledges that a Mexican by birth may possess another nationality, if that is the case, however, such an individual must always enter and leave the country as a Mexican. If in such a case, she or he can request a Certificate of Nationality from the government, visa requirements for Mexican citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Mexico

6.
Capital punishment in Mexico
–
Capital punishment in Mexico was officially abolished in 2005, having not been used in civil cases since 1937, and in military cases since 1961. There is significant history of abolitionism in Mexico, dating back to the 19th century, following the Plan of Ayutla, the 1857 constitution was drafted, which specifically outlawed the death penalty for political crimes, and allowed abolition for ordinary crimes in the future. Personal experiences too may have been a factor, as many Mexicans had experienced political repression, there was widespread condemnation of the death penalty in the media, and many Mexican literates were familiar with the work of Cesare, Marquis of Beccaria. Following the rule of Porfirio Díaz, the death penalty article was amended in the reform led to the current Constitution of Mexico. Mexico is a majority Roman Catholic country, with 88% of the population identifying themselves as Roman Catholic, the Vatican has made numerous statements criticizing capital punishment, and this may be a factor in the debate in Mexico. The Mexican Drug War has fueled rising rates of violent crimes such as kidnapping and murder, there have been proposals to amend the 1917 Constitution to allow capital punishment from both the PVEM and the Institutional Revolutionary Party, but both were rejected. Constitution, Article 22 Cruel and unusual punishment is prohibited, specifically, penalties of death, mutilation, infamy, marks, physical punishments, torments, excessive fines, confiscation of assets, and others are abolished. Confiscation of assets does not include the application of said assets to pay for civil responsibilities caused by a crime, or when used to pay taxes or other fines. Nor will it be confiscation when said assets are part of activities, or when they are related to organized crime. In 1981, Mexico ratified the American Convention on Human Rights, a treaty of the Organization of American States, Mexico does not extradite to countries that are seeking the death penalty, and has successfully defended 400 of its citizens charged with a capital offence in the United States. This has in the past led to American fugitives crossing the border into Mexico in order to avoid the death penalty, medina had been convicted in 1989 for killing an undercover police officer in Dallas. According to Mexican officials, Suárez was not informed about his right to consular access, and fourteen countries lobbied the United States Supreme Court on behalf of him

7.
Gun laws in Mexico
–
Gun politics and laws in Mexico covers the role firearms play as part of society within the limits of the United Mexican States. A common misconception is that firearms are illegal in Mexico and that no person may possess them and this belief originates due the general perception that only members of law enforcement, the armed forces, or those in armed security protection are authorized to have them. The right to keep and bear arms was first recognized as a right under Article 10 of the Mexican Constitution of 1857. However, as part of the Mexican Constitution of 1917, Article 10 was changed where-by the right to keep, the new version of Article 10 specified that citizens were entitled to keep arms but may only bear them among the population in accordance to police regulation. This modification to Article 10 also introduced the so-called. for exclusive use of the, dictating that the law would stipulate which weapons were reserved for the armed forces, including law enforcement agencies, for being considered weapons of war. For purposes of protection, firearms are only permitted within the place of residence and of the type. Contemporary Mexican society experiences gun homicide at a higher rate than other nations. Firearms have played a significant role in the History of Mexico, Mexican Golden Age films often depicted the protagonists and antagonists as gun-slinging cowboys and charros, an example of a cultural attachment to guns that was shared in both sides of the border. It was through the means of armed combat that Mexico achieved its independence from Spain, during the first half of the 20th century, a prevalent culture of guns was well present in Mexico. Prior to the Independence of Mexico, the first official record of a restriction on the possession of firearms occurred in 1811 as the Mexican War of Independence was taking place and this restriction came about as an attempt to stop the Miguel Hidalgo-led insurgency against the Royalists of Spain. The inclination to adopt a ban on firearms came as a precaution. After this measure, four years followed without war under President Guadalupe Victoria, after he took office in April 1829, civil unrest continued and he was ousted by mid-December only for two other men to serve as president before the end of the year. Also in 1857, another mandate was issued requiring a license in order to carry lawfully. In December of the year, a mandate required all persons to surrender such banned weapons. In January 1972, with the enactment of the Federal Law of Firearms and Explosives, la ley señalará cuáles son las prohibidas y la pena en que incurren los que las portaren. Article 10, Every man has the right to keep and to arms for his security. The law will indicate which arms are prohibited and the penalty for those who would carry them, Article 10 of the 1857 Constitution gave citizens the right to keep and bear arms, both in their homes and in public for their security and defense. Legislation was to indicate which types of weapons would be forbidden, la ley federal determinará los casos, condiciones, requisitos y lugares en que se podrá autorizar a los habitantes la portación de armas

8.
President of Mexico
–
The President of the United Mexican States is the head of state and government of Mexico. Under the Constitution, the president is also the Supreme Commander of the Mexican armed forces, the current President is Enrique Peña Nieto, who took office on December 1,2012. Currently, the office of the President is considered to be revolutionary, another legacy of the Revolution is its ban on re-election. Mexican presidents are limited to a single term, called a sexenio. No one who has held the post, even on a basis, is allowed to run or serve again. The constitution and the office of the President closely follow the system of government. Chapter III of Title III of the Constitution deals with the branch of government and sets forth the powers of the president. He is vested with the executive power of the Union. Be a resident of Mexico for at least twenty years, be thirty-five years of age or older at the time of the election. Be a resident of Mexico for the year prior to the election. Not be an official or minister of any church or religious denomination, not be in active military service during the six months prior to the election. Not have been president already, even in a provisional capacity, the ban on any sort of presidential re-election, dating back to the aftermath of the Porfiriato and the end of the Mexican Revolution, has remained in place even as it was relaxed for other offices. In 2014, the constitution was amended to allow Deputies and Senators to run for a consecutive term. Previously, Deputies and Senators were barred from successive re-election, however, the restriction on presidential re-election, even if it is nonsuccessive, remained in place. The presidential term was set at four years from 1821 to 1934, the president is elected by direct, popular, universal suffrage. Whoever wins a plurality of the national vote is elected. The most recent former President, Felipe Calderón, won with 36. 38% of the votes in the 2006 general election, finishing only 0.56 percent above his nearest rival, Andrés Manuel López Obrador. Former President Vicente Fox was elected with a plurality of 43% of the vote, Ernesto Zedillo won 48% of the vote

9.
Federal government of Mexico
–
Similar to the federal government of the United States, the Mexican federal government has three branches, executive, legislative, and judicial. The seat of the government functions per the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, as enacted in 1917. The executive power is exercised by the branch, which is headed by the president and his Cabinet. Legislative power is vested upon the Congress of the Union, a two-chamber legislature comprising the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. Judicial power is exercised by the judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation, the Council of the Federal Judiciary, and the collegiate, unitary, and district tribunals. The federal government, known as the Supreme Power of the Federation, is constituted by the Powers of the Union, the legislative, the executive, Mexico City, as the capital of the federation is the Federal District, the seat of the powers of the Union. All branches of government are independent, no two separate branches must be vested upon a person or institution, and the legislative power must not be vested upon a single individual. The legislative power is vested upon the Congress of the Union, a bicameral congress comprising the Senate, the Senate addresses all matters concerning foreign policy, approves international agreements, and confirms presidential appointments. The Chamber of Deputies is formed by 500 representatives of the nation, Deputies cannot be reelected for the next immediate term. Being a supplementary system of voting, proportionality is only confined to the plurinominal seats. The Senate consists of 128 representatives of the constituent states of the federation, senators cannot be reelected for the next immediate term. Other institutions of the judiciary are the Electoral Tribunal, collegiate, unitary and district tribunals, the ministers of the Supreme Court will serve for 15 years and cannot be appointed to serve more than once. Mexico City did not belong to any state in particular, but to the federation, being the capital of the country, as such, it was constituted as a Federal District, ultimately administered by the Powers of the Union. Nonetheless, since the late 1990s certain autonomy and powers have been gradually devolved, the executive power is vested upon a head of government now elected by first-past-the-post plurality. The legislative power is vested upon a unicameral Legislative Assembly, the judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Tribunal of Justice and the Judiciary Council. The Federal District was divided into delegaciones or boroughs, in 2016, the name was changed to Mexico City and the 12 delegations were transformed into municipalities each one with its own mayor

10.
Cabinet of Mexico
–
The cabinet of Mexico is the Executive Cabinet and is a part of the executive branch of the Mexican government. It consists of eighteen Secretaries of State, the head of the federal executive legal office, in addition to the legal Executive Cabinet there are other Cabinet-level administration offices that report directly to the President of the Republic. Officials from the legal and extended Cabinet are subordinate to the President, the term Cabinet does not appear in the Constitution, where reference is made only to the Secretaries of State. Article 89 of the Constitution provides that the President of Mexico can assign, the Executive Cabinet does not play a collective legislative or executive role. The Executive Cabinet members are appointed by the President of the Republic, only the Attorney General needs to be approved by the Senate. Cabinet Secretaries are often selected from past and current governors, senators, private citizens such as businessmen or former military officials are also common Cabinet choices. It is not rare for a Secretary to be moved from one Secretariat to another, some positions are not part of the legal Executive Cabinet, but have cabinet-level rank therefore their incumbents are considered members of the extended cabinet. Some of the administration offices are, Executive Cabinet CIA, Chiefs of State

11.
Congress of the Union
–
The Congress of the Union is the legislative branch of the Mexican government. The Congress is an assembly, consisting of two chambers, the Chamber of Deputies, and the Senate of the Republic. Its structure and responsibilities are defined in the Third Title, Second Chapter, the upper chamber is the Senate, Cámara de Senadores or Senado. It comprises 128 seats,96 members are elected by popular vote for six-year terms. The lower house is the Chamber of Deputies, Cámara de Diputados and it has 500 seats,300 members are elected by popular vote to three-year terms, the other 200 seats are allocated according to proportional representation. The Congress of the Union has two chambers, the 200 PR-seats are distributed generally without taking account the 300 plurality-seats, but since 1996 a party cannot get more seats overall than 8% above its result for the PR-seats. There are two exceptions to that rule, a party can lose only PR-seats by that rule. Also, a party cannot get more than 300 seats overall, the Chamber of Senators has 128 members, elected for a six-year term,96 of them in three-seat constituencies and 32 by proportional representation on a nationwide basis. In the state constituencies, two seats are awarded to the plurality winner and one to the first runner-up and it is conventional to refer to each Legislature by the Roman numeral of its term. Thus, the current Congress is known as the LXIII Legislature, the previous Congress was the LXII Legislature, the I Legislature of Congress was the first Constitutional congress after the 1857 Constitution. Early in the 20th century, the revolutionary leader Francisco I, madero popularized the slogan, Sufragio Efectivo – no Reelección. In keeping with that long held principle, and until 2014, on February 10,2014, the Mexican Constitution was amended to allow reelection to the legislative bodies for the first time. Starting with the General Election of 2018, Deputies and Senators will be allowed to run for reelection, Chamber of Deputies Senate Politics of Mexico List of legislatures by country Chamber of Deputies Senate

12.
Senate of the Republic (Mexico)
–
The Senate of the Republic, constitutionally Chamber of Senators of the Honorable Congress of the Union, is the upper house of Mexicos bicameral Congress. In a senatorial race, each party nominates two candidates who run and are elected together by direct vote, Senators serve six-year terms, running concurrently with the President of Mexico. Special elections are rare, as substitutes are chosen at every election, the Senate is completely renewed every six years, since senators are barred from immediate reelection. This will change at the 2018 election, in Spanish, it is conventional to refer to each Legislature of the Senate by the Roman numeral of its term. The current session is known as the LXII Legislatura, Senators are elected to serve during two legislatures of the Mexican Chamber of Deputies. Thus, current Senators will serve during the 62nd and 63rd Legislatures of the Chamber of Deputies, according to the Constitution, senators are the representatives of the nation. To be a senator, for any of the two principles of choice, you must meet the requirements, Being a Mexican citizen by birth. Not being active duty in the military or have control of police or rural gendarmerie at least ninety days before the election, not to be secretary or undersecretary of state unless it is definitively separated from office at least ninety days before the election. Not be Minister of the Supreme Court unless definitively separated from office three years before the election, no minister of some religious cult. Senators are elected for a period of six years, corresponding to two legislatures and can not be reelected for the period, although alternately. They are elected by popular suffrage and secret ballot in every state of the republic. They are also 32 senators elected by proportional representation, the integration of the governing bodies in the LXII Legislature has been as follows, For the office of legislative affairs Senators integrate in Commissions that are dedicated to a particular issue. The most important committees are those of, Interior, Constitutional Issues, Defense, Finance, Justice, each Senator belongs to at least three different commissions, and each committee shall elect a Chairman and two Secretaries 5 to coordinate their work. A senator holds office for a period of six years for which he was elected, divided into two legislatures of three years each, from 1 September 2015 is installed LXIII Legislature, which will end his term on 31 August 2018. The time between the regular sessions known as Recesses, there are two recesses that run from December 16 to January 31 and May 1 to August 31. The sessions of the Standing Committee are held in the Senate during the first recess and the House of Representatives in the second recess

13.
Chamber of Deputies (Mexico)
–
The Chamber of Deputies is the lower house of the Congress of the Union, the bicameral legislature of Mexico. The structure and responsibilities of both chambers of Congress are defined in Articles 50 to 70 of the current constitution, the Chamber of Deputies is composed of one federal representative for every 200,000 citizens. Of these,300 majority deputies are elected by plurality from single-member districts. The remaining 200 party deputies are assigned through rules of proportional representation and these seats are not tied to districts, rather, they are allocated to parties based on each partys share of the national vote. The 200 party deputies are intended to counterbalance the sectional interests of the district-based representatives, substitutes are elected at the same time as each deputy, so special elections are rare. From 1917 to 2015, deputies were barred from serving consecutive terms in accordance with the Constitutions ban on immediate reelection to the legislature, thus, the Chamber of Deputies was one of the few legislative bodies in the world that was completely renewed at an election. However, this change at the 2018 elections, deputies are now permitted to run for reelection. Congressional elections held halfway into the six year mandate are known as mid-term elections. President of the Chamber of Deputies Directive Board Congress of Mexico Senate of Mexico Politics of Mexico Official website

14.
Administrative divisions of Mexico
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The United Mexican States is a federal republic composed of 31 states and Mexico City. According to the Constitution of 1917, the states of the federation are free, each state has its own congress and constitution. Mexico City is currently being reformed to have the rights of a state. The states of the Mexican Federation are free, sovereign, autonomous and they are free to govern themselves according to their own laws, each state has a constitution that cannot contradict the federal constitution, which covers issues of national competence. Since states have autonomy, each has its own civil and penal codes. In addition, the federation makes up a constituency in which 32 senators are elected by the method of proportional representation, Federal Deputies, however, do not represent the states, but rather the citizens themselves. The Chamber of Deputies and the Senate together comprise the Congress of the Union, the states are internally divided into municipalities. Each municipality is autonomous in its ability to elect their own council, the council is headed by a mayor elected every 3 years with no possibility of immediate reelection. Each municipality has a composed of councilors in terms of population size. The council is responsible, in most cases, to all utilities required for its population. This concept, which arises from the Mexican Revolution, is known as a free municipality. In total there are 2438 municipalities in Mexico, the state with the highest number of municipalities is Oaxaca, with 570, Mexico City has a special status within the federation, being a federal district. Until January 2016, Mexico City was officially called Federal District and it is the seat of government of the Union and the capital of the United Mexican States. Mexico City was separated from the State of Mexico, of which it was the capital, on November 18,1824, as such, it did not belong to any state in particular but to all. Therefore, it was the president of Mexico, in representation of the federation, with full autonomy, Mexico City would have its own constitution – it previously had only an organic law called Statute of Autonomy – and its boroughs became municipalities. Until the ratification of Mexico Citys constitution, it is divided for administrative purposes into 16 delegacionesor boroughs. *Mexicos post agency, Correos de México, does not offer an official list, various competing commercially devised lists exist. The list here reflects choices among them according to these sources, on September 27,1821, after three centuries of Spanish rule, Mexico gained independence

15.
States of Mexico
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The United Mexican States is a federal republic composed of 31 states and Mexico City. According to the Constitution of 1917, the states of the federation are free, each state has its own congress and constitution. Mexico City is currently being reformed to have the rights of a state. The states of the Mexican Federation are free, sovereign, autonomous and they are free to govern themselves according to their own laws, each state has a constitution that cannot contradict the federal constitution, which covers issues of national competence. Since states have autonomy, each has its own civil and penal codes. In addition, the federation makes up a constituency in which 32 senators are elected by the method of proportional representation, Federal Deputies, however, do not represent the states, but rather the citizens themselves. The Chamber of Deputies and the Senate together comprise the Congress of the Union, the states are internally divided into municipalities. Each municipality is autonomous in its ability to elect their own council, the council is headed by a mayor elected every 3 years with no possibility of immediate reelection. Each municipality has a composed of councilors in terms of population size. The council is responsible, in most cases, to all utilities required for its population. This concept, which arises from the Mexican Revolution, is known as a free municipality. In total there are 2438 municipalities in Mexico, the state with the highest number of municipalities is Oaxaca, with 570, Mexico City has a special status within the federation, being a federal district. Until January 2016, Mexico City was officially called Federal District and it is the seat of government of the Union and the capital of the United Mexican States. Mexico City was separated from the State of Mexico, of which it was the capital, on November 18,1824, as such, it did not belong to any state in particular but to all. Therefore, it was the president of Mexico, in representation of the federation, with full autonomy, Mexico City would have its own constitution – it previously had only an organic law called Statute of Autonomy – and its boroughs became municipalities. Until the ratification of Mexico Citys constitution, it is divided for administrative purposes into 16 delegacionesor boroughs. *Mexicos post agency, Correos de México, does not offer an official list, various competing commercially devised lists exist. The list here reflects choices among them according to these sources, on September 27,1821, after three centuries of Spanish rule, Mexico gained independence

16.
Municipalities of Mexico
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Municipalities are the second-level administrative division in Mexico, where the first-level administrative division is the state. There are 2,438 municipalities in Mexico, with an average population 45,616, the internal political organization and their responsibilities are outlined in the 115th article of the 1917 Constitution and further expanded in the constitutions of the states to which they belong. All Mexican states are divided into municipalities and this concept, which originated after the Mexican Revolution, is known as a municipio libre. A municipal president heads the ayuntamiento, the municipal president is elected by plurality and cannot be reelected for the next immediate term. The municipal council consists of a cabildo with a síndico and several regidores, in that sense, a municipality in Mexico is roughly equivalent to the counties of the United States, whereas the auxiliary presidency is equivalent to a township. Nonetheless, auxiliary presidencies are not considered an administrative division since they depend fiscally on the municipalities in which they are located. Although an urban area might cover an entire municipality, auxiliary councils might still be used for administrative purposes, municipalities are responsible for public services, street lighting, public safety, traffic, supervision of slaughterhouses and the cleaning and maintenance of public parks, gardens and cemeteries. They may also assist the state and federal governments in education, emergency fire and medical services, environmental protection and maintenance of monuments and historical landmarks. Since 1983, they can collect property taxes and user fees, although more funds are obtained from the state, since the Conquest and colonization of Mexico, the municipality became the basic entity of the administrative organization of New Spain and the Spanish Empire. Settlements located in strategic locations received the status of city and were entitled to form an ayuntamiento or municipality, as such, every state set its own requirements for a settlement to become a municipality. However, in 1983 the 115th article was modified to expand the authority to raise revenue. Data from the 2015 Intercensal Survey by INEGI and it is administered through the Government of the Federal District and it has its own unicameral Legislative Assembly. For administrative purposes, the Federal District is subdivided into delegaciones or boroughs, while not fully equivalent to a municipality, since 2000, they enjoy a certain degree of political autonomy since residents within a borough directly elect a local borough head of government. However, boroughs do not form local councils and they are not constituted by a group of trustees. They do not have powers, which are mostly centralized in the Federal District government. Most of the public services are organized by the Federal District even if part of the administration responsibilities are carried out by the boroughs. Still, at the level, the delegaciones of the Federal District are considered a second-level territorial division in statistical data collection. Other municipalities in Mexico have chosen to use a similar administrative internal organization, all municipalities of Baja California are subdivided into boroughs or delegaciones

17.
Mexican general election, 2006
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A general election was held in Mexico on Sunday, July 2,2006. Voters went to the polls to elect, on the level, A new President of the Republic to serve a six-year term. 500 members to serve for a term in the Chamber of Deputies. 128 members to serve terms in the Senate. In each state, two first-past-the-post seats are allocated to the party with the largest share of the vote, several local ballots were also held on the same day, most notably, The election of a new Head of Government and new Legislative Assembly of the Federal District. See,2006 Mexican Federal District election, gubernatorial elections in the states of Guanajuato, Jalisco and Morelos. Municipal and local elections in those three states and in Campeche, Colima, Nuevo León, Querétaro, and Sonora. San Luis Potosí also elected a new local congress, on September 5,2006, Felipe Calderón Hinojosa was declared President-Elect by the Federal Electoral Tribunal after a highly controversial post-electoral process. Eight political parties participated in the 2006 presidential election, five of them joined forces in two different electoral coalitions, calderons victory was confirmed by the Federal courts on September 5,2006, and he was declared President-elect of Mexico. 3% of the vote. The IFE further declared that the count, which began on Wednesday. PAN chairman Manuel Espino Barrientos requested that IFE declare a winner by the night of July 3,2006, Preliminary results clearly showed that PRI-PVEM candidate Roberto Madrazo did not have a realistic chance of winning the presidency. Those results also showed that the parties would retain their registration. The so-called foreign vote, whereby for the first time Mexican citizens living abroad were allowed to vote, albeit solely in the presidential contest, the overall turn-out for this election was approximately 59% of the eligible voters. The Preliminary Electoral Results Program is mandated by law to provide an estimate of the electoral results. This point was made repeatedly by IFE President Ugalde in his statements as the 2006 electoral process unfolded. The use of the PREP has been criticized because its data has been used by one candidate to proclaim his victory, however, the PREP tends to predict the winner accurately when the difference between candidates is more than 1%. After the PREP was concluded on 4 July, the official district-based counts were begun on Wednesday 5 July 2006, in some cases, such as when a tally sheet was illegible, the sealed ballot packets were opened and recounted. All under the eyes of any election observers that any political party cared to provide, the district committee results, along with the ballots, were then transferred to the IFE in Mexico City, which resulted in the running total shown below

18.
Mexican general election, 2012
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A general election was held in Mexico on Sunday, July 1,2012. Voters went to the polls to elect, on the level, A new President of the Republic to serve a six-year term. The current Constitution of Mexico prohibits any type of presidential re-election,500 members to serve for a three-year term in the Chamber of Deputies. 128 members to serve terms in the Mexican Senate. In each state, two first-past-the-post seats are allocated to the party with the largest share of the vote, several local ballots were held on the same day, notably, The election of a new Head of Government and new Legislative Assembly of the Federal District. If approved, the reforms will be implemented, Second round voting in case no presidential candidate receives an absolute majority of the votes. 96 Senators of the Republic,3 for each state, elected by plurality for a period of six years,400 Federal Deputies elected for a period of three years with possibility of reelection. The following are individuals who have formally announced that they are running for president in 2012. 5th Josefina Vázquez Mota was announced as PAN presidential candidate following her victory in the selection process. Nominee, Andrés Manuel López Obrador, former Head of Government of the Federal District from Tabasco, Marcelo Ebrard, withdrew November 15,2011 Never publicly announced intentions to run but was considered a likely contender. The movement Yo Soy 132 formed in response to perceived bias, with initial focus on Peña Nieto as the flagship of corruption, tyranny. On May 11,2012, Peña Nieto visited Universidad Iberoamericana and was received with scorn, both printed and televised media reported this as a minor mishap, called the students intolerant, and claimed that they had been paid by leftist organizations. In response,131 students identified themselves on a YouTube video by their university IDs and this caused a ripple effect as many tweeted Im the 132nd student in solidarity. Mass protests organized by public and private university students then took place across the country, following the elections, López Obrador demanded a full recount, claiming there had been widespread irregularities. 2% of the popular vote. Which officially has until 6 September to announce a winner, the complaint also pointed towards the PRIs campaign going over budget an alleged 1000% over the established allowed budget by the Federal Electoral Institute which is of 336 million Mexican pesos. On July 18 López Obrador accused Peña Nieto of using illicit funds and he said that if the Electoral Tribunal does not invalidate the election, Mexico will be governed by a gang of evildoers. On 30 August 2012, the TEPJF, Mexicos highest election-law court rejected the allegations of fraud after they concluded there was insufficient evidence of wrongdoing. Mexicos Federal Electoral Institute confirmed in January 2013 that Peña Nietos party spent $5.2 million in electronic cards throughout the whole campaign, opposition parties complained that this represented a form of illicit funding, but the IFE claimed the contrary

19.
Mexican general election, 2018
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General elections are scheduled to be held in Mexico in July 2018. Voters will elect a new president to serve a term,500 members of the Chamber of Deputies and 128 members of the Senate. The members of the legislature elected on this date will be the first allowed to run for re-election in subsequent elections, incumbent President Enrique Peña Nieto is not eligible for a second term according to the constitution. The President is elected by plurality in a round of voting. No party is allowed to more than 300 seats. In the three-seat constituencies two seats are allocated to the party receiving the highest number of votes and one seat to the party receiving the second-highest number of votes

20.
Mexican gubernatorial elections, 2010
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Gubernatorial elections were held in fourteen Mexican states on Sunday, July 4,2010. The gubernatorial elections were held simultaneously with other state and local elections, elections for governor were held in Aguascalientes, Chiapas, Chihuahua, Durango, Hidalgo, Oaxaca, Puebla, Quintana Roo, Sinaloa, Tamaulipas, Tlaxcala, Veracruz and Zacatecas. A multi-party alliance between President Felipe Calderóns National Action Party and left-wing parties won elections in Oaxaca, Puebla, the results indicated an Institutional Revolutionary Party pick-up from the National Action Party. The Institutional Revolutionary Party held Chihuahua, the Institutional Revolutionary Party held Durango. The Institutional Revolutionary Party held Hidalgo, the incumbent government of Institutional Revolutionary Party Governor Ulises Ruiz Ortiz was seen as increasingly repressive and corrupt by voters and political observers. Ruiz oversaw the crackdown on left-wing protesters in the city of Oaxaca in 2006, Ruiz was also believed to be linked to Oaxacan paramilitary groups which are responsible to violence and deaths in rural areas of Oaxaca. On the day of the election, Oaxacan police arrested 39 people for possessing bomb making materials in two hotels, a party alliance between the states largest vote winner, the Peace and Progress Coalition led by Gabino Cue, ousted the PRI from power. An alliance between the National Action Party, the Party of the Democratic Revolution and smaller parties won Puebla from the Institutional Revolutionary Party, the Institutional Revolutionary Party held Hidalgo. The mayor of Cancún had been arrested during the campaign for alleged connections to drug traffickers, an alliance between the National Action Party, the Party of the Democratic Revolution and smaller parties appear to have won Sinaloa from the incumbent Institutional Revolutionary Party. The gubernatorial election in Tamaulipas was marred by the violent assassination of the leading PRI candidate, Rodolfo Torre Cantú and his brother, Egidio, became the PRI candidate following the assassination. The Institutional Revolutionary Party held Tamaulipas, the Institutional Revolutionary Party won Tlaxcala from the National Action Party. The Institutional Revolutionary Party held Vercruz, the Institutional Revolutionary Party won Zacatecas from the left-wing Party of the Democratic Revolution. BBC News, Drug gang violence casts shadow over Mexico elections

21.
National Electoral Institute
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The organizations president is Lorenzo Córdova Vianello. The legislative branch of the government, the national political parties. Since its creation, the constitutional and legal regulations in this matter have experienced further major reforms. IFE had legal personnel and assets of its own and its headquarters were located in the Federal District, and it was organized under a decentralized framework that allowed it to exercise its duties throughout the country. As a result of reforms initiated by President Enrique Peña Nieto, the IFE was dissolved on April 4,2014. IFE was also charged with the registration, funding and oversight of national political parties, rules and guidelines for the registration of national political parties are outlined in the Federal Code of Electoral Institutions and Procedures. The creation of a political association is usually regarded as the first step towards the creation of a full-fledged political party. INE website Federal Electoral Tribunal website IFE, Now INE INE directory

22.
Institutional Revolutionary Party
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Though it is a full member of the Socialist International, the PRI is not considered a social democratic party in the traditional sense, its modern policies have been characterized as centrist. Its membership in the Socialist International dates from 1996, along with its rival, the left-wing PRD, they make Mexico one of the few nations with two major, competing parties part of the same international grouping. The PRI is the largest political party in Mexico according to membership, the adherents of the PRI party are known in Mexico as priístas and the party is nicknamed el tricolor because of its use of the colors green, white and red. The current president of Mexico, Enrique Peña Nieto, is a member of the PRI, at first glance, the PRIs name looks like a confusing oxymoron or paradox to English speakers since they normally associate the term revolution with the destruction of institutions. In 1990, Peruvian Nobel Prize laureate for literature, Mario Vargas Llosa, even though the armed phase of the Mexican Revolution had ended in 1920, Mexico had continued to encounter political unrest. The intent was to institutionalize the agreements result of Mexican Revolution, in the first years of the partys existence, the PNR was, above all, the only political machine existing. As President of the government, the executive President continued to hold power as in an era known as the Maximato. The following presidents of this period, Emilio Portes Gil, Pascual Ortiz Rubio and this ended with the election of Lázaro Cárdenas, a candidate handpicked by the liberal PNR leaders. Though the now strongly conservative Calles thought he could control him, after establishing himself in the presidency, in 1936 Cárdenas had Calles and dozens of his corrupt associates arrested or deported to the United States. Cárdenass successor Manuel Ávila Camacho gave the party its present name in 1946, from 1929 to 1982, the PRI won every presidential election by well over 70 percent of the vote—margins that were usually obtained by massive electoral fraud. Toward the end of his term, the incumbent president in consultation with party leaders, in essence, given the PRIs overwhelming dominance, the president chose his successor. The PRIs dominance was near-absolute at all levels as well. It held a majority in the Chamber of Deputies, as well as every seat in the Senate. After several decades in power the PRI had become a symbol of corruption, consequently, its left wing went on to form its own party the Party of the Democratic Revolution in 1989. The conservative National Action Party became a party after 1976 when it obtained the support from businessmen after recurring economic crises. Critics claim electoral fraud, with voter suppression and violence, was used when the machine did not work. However, the three major parties now make the claim against each other. Subsequent administrations maintained stability with continued assistance from PRI members such as Secretary of Finance Francisco Gil Diaz, Lázaro Cárdenas renamed the party the Party of the Mexican Revolution whose aim was to establish a democracy of workers and socialism

23.
National Action Party (Mexico)
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The National Action Party, founded in 1939, is one of the three main political parties in Mexico. Since the 1980s has been an important political party winning local, state, in 2000, PAN candidate Vicente Fox was elected for a six-year Presidential term, in 2006, PAN candidate Felipe Calderón succeeded Fox in presidency. During the period 2000-2012, both houses of the legislature had PAN pluralities, but the party did not have a majority in either house of the Congress. In the 2006 legislative elections the party won 207 out of 500 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 52 out of 128 Senators, in the 2012 Legislative Elections, the PAN won 38 seats in the Senate, and 114 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The National Action Party was founded in 1939 by Manuel Gómez Morín and he saw the need for the creation a permanent political party rather than an ephemeral organization to oppose the expansion of power by the post-revolutionary Mexican state. When Gómez Morín was rector of in 1933-35, the government attempted to impose socialist education, in defending academic freedom, Gómez Morín forged connections with individuals and groups that later came together in the foundation of the PAN in September 1939. Gómez Morín was not himself a militant Catholic, but he was a believer who rejected liberalism and individualism. In 1939, Gómez Morín and a significant number of UNECs leadership came together to found the PAN, the PAN’s “Doctrine of National Action” was strongly influenced by Catholic social doctrine articulated in Rerum novarum and Quadragesimo anno and rejected Marxist models of class warfare. The PAN’s newspaper, La Nación was founded by another former UNEC member, the relationship between the PAN and the Catholic Church was not without tension. The partys founder Gómez Morín was leery of clerical oversight of the party, although its members were mainly urban Catholic professionals, for its part, the Church hierarchy did not want to identify itself with a particular political party, since the Constitution of 1917 forbade it. In the 1950, the PAN, which had seen to be Catholic in its makeup. The PAN initially was a party of “civic example”, an independent loyal opposition that generally did not win elections at any level, however, in the 1980s it began a transformation to a political power, beginning at the local and state levels in the North of Mexico. A split in the PAN occurred in 1977, with the faction and the more secular wing splitting. The conflict came to a head and in 1977. The party ran no candidate in 1976. The PAN had strength in Northern Mexico and its candidates had won elections earlier on, the following year Manuel Torres Serranía, from Quiroga, Michoacán, became the partys first municipal president and Alfonso Hernández Sánchez its first state deputy. In 1962, Rosario Alcalá became the first female candidate for state governor, in 1967 Norma Villarreal de Zambrano became the first female municipal president. Until the 1980s, the PAN was an opposition party that was considered pro-Catholic and pro-business. The PAN came to be viewed as viable opposition party for a range of voters as it became more secular

24.
Party of the Democratic Revolution
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The Party of the Democratic Revolution is a social democratic political party in Mexico. The PRD is one of the three political parties in Mexico, the others being the Institutional Revolutionary Party and the National Action Party. The PRD originated from the Democratic Current, a political faction formed in 1986 from the PRI Party, the PRD was formed after the 1988 electoral fraud which sparked a movement away from the authoritarian rule of the PRI. Today, the PRD is a member of the Broad Progressive Front alliance, the PRD has its origins with the leftists members of the PRI, Institutional Revolutionary Party. The PRI had dominated Mexican politics since its founding in 1929, in 1986, three PRI members – Rodolfo González Guevara, Porfirio Muñoz Ledo, and Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas – formed the Democratic Current, a political faction within the PRI. The Democratic Current was also against technocratization, in which the people in power had not held public office and were scholars that were educated abroad. Under the Miguel de la Madrid presidency which lasted from 1982-1988, the Democratic Current did not have many technocrats and was thus left out of the decision making process. This political marginalization led the Democratic Current members to be vocal about their concerns because they did not have a position of power to protect within the PRI. However, the PRI refused to acknowledge the Democratic Current as an organization unless they joined a union, the forming of a group that was not united because of work but because of difference in ideology within the PRI caused fear of division within the party. Once de la Madrids six-year term as president was coming to a close, the PRI had no process to apply as candidate so Cardenas could not run as a candidate for president. On October 4,1987 Carlos Salinas de Gortari was ultimately chosen as the PRI candidate, Gortari did not embody anything that the Democratic Current wanted and many of the Democratic Current members left the PRI including Cárdenas during November 1987. Some Democratic Current members went on to support Cárdenas in his 1988 quest for presidency, on October 12,1988 Cárdenas became the Authentic Party of the Mexican presidential candidate. Cárdenas still remained an independent candidate due to laws which meant that many parties could choose Cárdenas as their candidate. The win of the PRIs candidate, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, years later, it was determined that there was indeed electoral fraud in the election. The 1988 electoral fraud sparked a movement against the rule of the PRI. As an integral part of the movement towards democracy, the Party of the Democratic Revolution was formed as Mexico’s only leftwing party, on May 5,1989, Cárdenas declared the establishment of the PRD. Former PRI members who helped found the PRD include, Cárdenas, Andrés Manuel López Obrador, Porfirio Muñoz Ledo. The party was founded by smaller left-wing parties such as the Mexican Communist Party, Unified Socialist Party of Mexico, Socialist Mexican Party, the PMS donated its registration with the Federal Electoral Commission to enable the new party to be established

25.
Labor Party (Mexico)
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The Labor Party is a political party in Mexico. It was founded on December 8,1990, the party is currently led by Alberto Anaya. The PTs roots lay in a network of community formed by Maoist activists. The party first participated in elections in 1991, but it failed to win 1.5 percent of the vote. In 1994, Rosario Ybarra, the prominent activist, became the presidential candidate, in 1998 the PT allied with the larger Democratic Revolution Party for the first time in the state of Zacatecas. In the 2000 elections, the party took part in the PRD-led Alliance for the Good of All, as part of the Alliance, it won 7 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 1 seat in the Senate. The PT ran separately from the PRD in the 2003 elections for the Chamber of Deputies, the party won 2.4 percent of the popular vote and 6 out of 500 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. In November 2005, the PT endorsed the PRDs candidate for President, in these elections the party won 12 out of 500 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 3 out of 128 Senators. In October 2006, the PT further allied itself with the PRD and the Convergence Party to form the Broad Progressive Front, which was granted the register by the Federal Electoral Institute

26.
National Regeneration Movement
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The National Regeneration Movement is a left-wing political party in Mexico. Formally registered as a party in 2014, it is led by former two-time presidential candidate Andrés Manuel López Obrador. MORENA was founded by López Obrador as a cross-party organization supporting his candidacy for the Presidency in the 2012 general election, after the election López Obrador left his former party, the Party of the Democratic Revolution, and MORENA transformed from an unofficial movement into a political party

27.
Ecologist Green Party of Mexico
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The Ecological Green Party of Mexico is one of the six political parties to have representation in the Mexican Congress. In the 2012 Legislative elections, the party took 34 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, in 2008, the PVEM initiated an advertising campaign in favor of reintroducing the death penalty in Mexico. This led to the European Green Partys withdrawal of recognition of the PVEM as a green party. During an interview, PVE candidate Gamaliel Ramirez verbally attacked an openly gay candidate for Guadalajara mayor & called for laws against homosexuality to be established. In the following days, Ramirez issued an apology after the party expressed disappointment at his remarks. While the party has pledged to support LGBT rights issues,3 representatives abstained from a vote on Mexico City granting legal recognition to same-sex couples, official website Death penalty debate grows in Mexico Mexico to rethink death penalty

28.
Citizens' Movement (Mexico)
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Citizens Movement is a political party in Mexico. Andrés Manuel López Obrador was the first leader and it was initially known as Convergence for Democracy, but the name was shortened to simply Convergence in August 2002. In July 2011, it was reformed as the Citizens Movement, Convergence was founded as a national political grouping in 1997. In that election, as its part of the share, it was awarded one Senate seat. It fought the 2003 mid-term congressional election as an independent party, as of 2004 it governed 28 municipalities in various parts of the country. The party won 17 out of 500 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 5 out of 128 Senators, Convergence describes itself as a democratic socialist party. Its electoral colours are blue and orange, the party logo is a circle, superimposed by an orange eagle. The party was renamed the Citizens Movement and reformed on 31 July 2011

29.
New Alliance Party (Mexico)
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The New Alliance Party is a political party in Mexico. The creation of this party by the SNTE, a group that has supported the PRI in every election caused accusations of treason for Gordillo. The partys president is Jorge Kahwagi, on January 8,2006 the PNA elected Roberto Campa as its candidate for president in the 2006 general elections. In the 2006 legislative elections the party won nine out of 500 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, in the 2009 legislative elections the party lost one seat in the Chamber of Deputies, leaving it with eight seats. In the 2012 legislative elections, PANAL won 2 seats in the Senate, the party logo distinctly resembles that of the now-defunct Canadian Alliance, a conservative party active from 2000 to 2003. The logo was provided by an ad agency, purported to resemble a dove, despite the discovery of the logos resemblance to that of the Canadian Alliance, it was nonetheless adopted. The partys 2012 presidential candidate, Gabriel Quadri, appeared in a wetsuit at his campaign launch, the New Alliance Party introduced Copa Turquesa 2015, a soccer tournament, which will begin on March 28 in the boys division and April 5 in the women division. Copa Turquesa will be held in municipalities in the state of Puebla. Copa Turquesa will have 12 headquarters in the municipalities of, el SNTE y su nuevo partido politico. Archived from the original on 19 November 2008, archived from the original on 27 September 2007

30.
Foreign relations of Mexico
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The foreign relations of Mexico are directed by the President of the United Mexican States and managed through the Secretariat of Foreign Affairs. Since the 1930s, the Estrada Doctrine has served as a complement to these principles. Once the order was reestablished, its policy was built under hemispheric prestige in subsequent decades. A greater priority to Latin America and the Caribbean was given during the administration of President Felipe Calderón, for a long time, Mexico has been one of the largest contributors to the United Nations regular budget, in 2008 over 40 million dollars were given to the organization. In addition, it was the only Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation, Mexico is considered as a newly industrialized country, a regional power and an emerging market, hence its presence in major economic groups such as the G8+5 and the G-20 major economies. The Article 89, Section 10 of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States states the principles of the Mexican foreign policy, which were officially incorporated in 1988. The direction that the policy will take lies on the President, as the head of state. Textually, the article establishes that, The powers and duties of the President are the following, aside from these principles constitutionally recognized, the foreign policy has been based on some doctrines. This policy was said to be based on the principles of non-intervention, peaceful resolution of disputes, during the first presidency of the National Action Party, Vicente Fox appointed Jorge Castañeda to be his Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Castañeda immediately broke with the Estrada Doctrine, promoting what was called by critics the Castañeda Doctrine, the new foreign policy called for an openness and an acceptance of criticism from the international community, and the increase of Mexican involvement in foreign affairs. On November 28,2006, President-elect Felipe Calderón announced that Patricia Espinosa would serve as his Secretary of Foreign Affairs starting on December 1,2006, as well as giving greater priority to Latin America and the Caribbean states. The Mexican foreign service started in 1822, the year after the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba. In 1831, legislation was passed that underpinned the establishment of diplomatic representations with other states in Europe, as a regional power and emerging market, Mexico holds a significant global presence. As of 2009, the Secretary of Foreign Affairs has over 150 representations at its disposal overseas, in addition, Mexico does not recognize Kosovo as an independent country. Historically, Mexico has remained neutral in international conflicts, during the Fox administration, a further integration towards Mexicos northern neighbors was a top priority. The September 11 attacks changed the priorities of U. S. foreign policy toward the strengthening of regional security, bush, former President of the United States. In addition, the Independent Task Force on North America advocates a greater economic, formal relations did not begin until 1944, at the height of the Second World War, which both countries participated in on the Allied side. Prior to the negotiations around the North American Free Trade Agreement, economic, and more recently, both countries have been building a closer security and defense relationship

31.
Spanish language
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Spanish —also called Castilian —is a Romance language that originated in the Castile region of Spain, with hundreds of millions of native speakers around the world. It is usually considered the worlds second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese and it is one of the few languages to use inverted question and exclamation marks. Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Beginning in the early 16th century, Spanish was taken to the colonies of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania, around 75% of modern Spanish is derived from Latin. Greek has also contributed substantially to Spanish vocabulary, especially through Latin, Spanish vocabulary has been in contact from an early date with Arabic, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language is the second most important influence after Latin and it has also been influenced by Basque as well as by neighboring Ibero-Romance languages. It also adopted words from languages such as Gothic language from the Visigoths in which many Spanish names and surnames have a Visigothic origin. Spanish is one of the six languages of the United Nations. It is the language in the world by the number of people who speak it as a mother tongue, after Mandarin Chinese. It is estimated more than 437 million people speak Spanish as a native language. Spanish is the official or national language in Spain, Equatorial Guinea, speakers in the Americas total some 418 million. In the European Union, Spanish is the tongue of 8% of the population. Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the United States, in 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 million Hispanic United States residents who are five years of age and over,38 million speak Spanish at home. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas. Article III reads as follows, El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado, las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State, the other Spanish languages as well shall be official in their respective Autonomous Communities. The Spanish Royal Academy, on the hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. Two etymologies for español have been suggested, the Spanish Royal Academy Dictionary derives the term from the Provençal word espaignol, and that in turn from the Medieval Latin word Hispaniolus, from—or pertaining to—Hispania

32.
Magistrate
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The term magistrate is used in a variety of systems of governments and laws to refer to a civilian officer who administers the law. In ancient Rome, a magistratus was one of the highest ranking government officers, in other parts of the world, such as China, a magistrate was responsible for administration over a particular geographic area. Today, in some jurisdictions, a magistrate is an officer who hears cases in a lower court. In other jurisdictions, magistrates may be volunteers without formal training who perform a judicial role with regard to minor matters. In ancient Rome, the word referred to one of the highest offices of state. Analogous offices in the authorities, such as municipium, were subordinate only to the legislature of which they generally were members. Ex officio, often a combination of judicial and executive power, in Rome itself, the highest magistrates were members of the so-called cursus honorum -career of honors. They held both judicial and executive power within their sphere of responsibility, and also had the power to issue ius honorarium, the Consul was the highest Roman magistrate. Roman magistrates were not lawyers, but were advised by jurists who were experts in the law, the term was maintained in most feudal successor states to the western Roman Empire. The term chief magistrate applied to the highest official, in sovereign entities the head of state and/or head of government and these were referred as administrative magistrates to distinguish them from the judiciary magistrates. The President of Portugal is considered the Supreme Magistrate of the Nation, in Mexicos Federal Law System, a magistrado is a superior judge, hierarchically beneath the Supreme Court Justices. The magistrado reviews the cases seen by a judge in a term if any of the parties disputes the verdict. For special cases, there are magistrados superiores who review the verdicts of special court, magistrates/JPs are limited to issuing sentences of no longer than six months for one offence and up to twelve months consecutively for multiple offences. A wide range of legal matters is within the remit of magistrates. However, commission areas were replaced with Local Justice Areas by the Courts Act 2003, meaning no longer need to live within 15 miles, although, in practice. Thus, every magistrate in England and Wales may act as a magistrate anywhere in England or Wales, there are two types of magistrates in England and Wales, justices of the peace and district judges who hold office as members of the professional judiciary. According to requirements, around 50% of magistrates are women, over 41% of magistrates are retired from employment while others may be self-employed or able to arrange leave from their employment. No formal qualifications are required, but magistrates require intelligence, common sense, integrity, membership is widely spread throughout the area covered and drawn from all walks of life

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The Constitution of Mexico, formally the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States (Spanish: Constitución …

Cover of the original copy of the Constitution

Venustiano Carranza, leader of the victorious faction, convoked the elected body to draft the new constitution.

The new constitution was approved on 5 February 1917, and it was based in the previous one instituted by liberal Benito Juárez in 1857. This picture shows the Constituent Congress of 1917 swearing fealty to the newly created Constitution.

Revolutionary general Plutarco Elías Calles was a fierce anticlerical. When he became president of Mexico in 1924, he began enforcing the constitutional restrictions on the Roman Catholic Church, leading to the Cristero War (1926–29)