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The Nissan Leaf is a compact five-door hatchbackelectric car manufactured by Nissan and introduced in Japan and the United States in December 2010, followed by various European countries and Canada in 2011. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) official range for the 2016 model year Leaf with the 30 kWh battery is 172 km (107 miles) on a full battery charge, while the trim with the smaller 24 kWh battery is 135 km (84 miles), the same as the 2014/15 model year. Leaf battery packs can be charged from fully discharged to 80% capacity in about 30 minutes using DC fast charging.[1]

More than 300,000 Leafs have been sold worldwide through January 2018, making the Leaf the world's all-time best-selling highway-capable electric car in history,[2] as of December 2017[update], the United States is the world's largest Leaf market with almost 114,827 sold, followed by Japan with almost 72,500 units, and Europe with almost 68,000. As of December 2016[update], the European market is led by Norway with over 19,400 new units registered, and the UK with 15,000 units by mid-September 2016. The Leaf was the world's best-selling plug-in electric car in 2013 and 2014.

Nissan introduced its first battery electric vehicle, the Nissan Altra, at the Los Angeles International Auto Show on 29 December 1997.[5] The Altra was produced between 1998 and 2002. Only about 200 vehicles were ever produced, and it was mainly used as a fleet vehicle for companies such as electric utilities.[6][7] Nissan also developed the Nissan Hypermini and ran a demonstration program for it, the car sold in limited numbers to supply government and corporate fleets in Japan between 1999 and 2001.[8] A small fleet of Hyperminis was also field-tested in several cities in California between 2001 and 2005.[9]

The Leaf's frontal style is characterized by a sharp V-shape design with large, up slanting light-emitting diode (LED) headlights that create a distinctive blue internal reflective design, the headlights also split and redirect airflow away from the door mirrors, which reduces wind noise and aerodynamic drag. The LED low-beam headlights consume less electricity than halogen lamps.[better source needed][27]

Nissan sought to make the Leaf appealing to mainstream drivers by giving it a familiar five-door hatchback design,[28] the bottom of the car has aerodynamic paneling to reduce drag and improve aerodynamics as much as possible.[29] According to Nissan, the 2011 MY Leaf has a drag coefficient of Cd=0.29 which was improved to Cd=0.28 in 2012 for the 2013 model year.[30] Auto magazine Car and Driver used a wind tunnel to measure Cd=0.32 for the 2012 MY Leaf.[31]

The Leaf's design locates the battery, the heaviest part of any EV, below the seats and rear foot space, keeping the center of gravity as low as possible and increasing structural rigidity compared to a conventional five-door hatchback.[25][39][41]

The battery pack is expected to retain 70–80% of its capacity after 10 years but its actual lifespan depends on how often DC fast charging (480 volts DC) is used and also on driving patterns and environmental factors.[34][42] Nissan said the battery will lose capacity gradually over time but it expects a lifespan of over ten years under normal use;[42] in March 2018, a statistical study compared reported battery decline in 30 kWh Leafs and 24 kWh Leafs, with 30 kWh models exhibiting the same battery capacity as 24 kWh cars within 3.5 years, albeit with probable accelerated battery decline in 30kWh models. [43] The 2011/12 Leaf's battery was initially guaranteed by Nissan for eight years or 160,000 km (100,000 miles)[44][45] (see Warranty sub-section below under United States for limitations). Nissan stated in 2015 that until then only 0.01 percent of batteries, produced since 2010, had to be replaced because of failures or problems and then only because of externally inflicted damage. Some vehicles have already covered more than 200,000 km (120,000 miles) with no battery problems.[46] In April 2016, Nissan estimated that fewer than 5 batteries are replaced per year worldwide; about 0.012% of all Leafs since introduction. Nissan recycles 15–20 batteries per year; as of 2016 too few to use for stationary energy storage.[47] Nissan plans to offer recycled batteries as 4.2 kWh home storage by fall 2016, called xStorage.[48]

In addition to the main battery, the Leaf also has an auxiliary 12-voltlead–acid battery that provides power to the car computer systems and accessories such as the audio system, supplemental restraint systems, headlights and windshield wipers,[49] the small solar panel on the Leaf rear spoiler helps to charge this accessory battery.[better source needed][50] (In the United States models, only comes with SL trim.[51])

For the 2011 model year Leafs, Nissan recommended owners perform the following preventive actions to help maximize the lithium-ion battery’s useful life and its ability to hold a charge:[49]

Avoid leaving the vehicle for over 14 days where the Li-ion battery available charge gauge reaches a zero or near zero (state of charge).

As a result of the controversy regarding several U.S. owners reporting premature loss of battery capacity in places with hot climate, Nissan USA announced in January 2012, that it will offer an extended battery warranty on the 2013 model year Leaf which includes 2011 and 2012 model years as well.[52] The 2013 Leaf is covered by a "State Of Health" clause which covers gradual capacity loss, this provision allows for the battery pack to either be repaired or replaced if the battery life reduces quicker than anticipated over the eight years warranty period.[53]

Battery replacement program

Beginning in 2014 Leaf owners can sign up to pay a monthly fee, and receive a new battery pack with the latest available technology that is compatible with their vehicle, the replacement battery has a full 12 bars (100%) of capacity. Nissan said the replacement pack will maintain at least nine bars (70% capacity) or more capacity for the time that they own their car and make monthly payments.[54] Leaf owners could also buy a new battery at a discount.[55]

Based on third-party test drives carried out in the U.S., reviewers have found that the range available from a single charge can vary up to 40% in real-world situations; reports vary from about 100 km (62 miles) to almost 222 km (138 miles) depending on driving style, load, traffic conditions, weather (i.e., wind, atmospheric density), and accessory use.[62][63] Nissan tested the Leaf under several scenarios to estimate real-world range figures, and obtained a worst-case scenario of 76 km (47 miles) and a best-case scenario of 222 km (138 miles). The following table summarizes the results under each scenario tested using EPA's L4 test cycle and presents EPA rating as a reference:[64][65]

Consumer Reports tested a 2011/12 model Leaf loaner under cold-weather driven as a daily commuter, the average range obtained was 105 km (65 miles) per charge with temperatures varying from 20 to 30 °F (−7 to −1 °C). The magazine also reported one trip under a temperature of 10 °F (−12 °C) that began with the range panel indicator showing 32 km (20 miles) remaining. After 13 km (8 miles) the Leaf drastically lost power and dropped its speed and continued to run slower until the last stretch was completed almost at walking speed. Consumer Reports concluded that the Leaf works as designed under cold temperatures but a more accurate range indicator is desirable.[66]

In June 2011, Nissan reported, based on data collected through the Leaf's advanced telematics system, that most Leaf owners in Japan and the United States drive distances less than 100 km (60 miles) per day.[67] Nissan also found that on average owners charge their electric cars for two hours a night, and occasionally some owners drive two days on one charge;[68] in October 2011, Nissan North America reported that based on a bigger sample of 7,500 Leafs on the U.S. roads, the typical driver averages 60 km (37 miles) a day and the average trip length is 11 km (7 miles), measured as the distance between power on and power off.[69]

In spring 2012, the Finnish car magazine Tekniikan Maailma tested the Leaf in city driving at temperatures of −15 °C (5 °F). They achieved a range of 59 km (37 miles) with cabin and battery heaters on.[70]

According to Nissan, the U.S. 2013 model year Leaf has a more efficient heating system that allows the Leaf to extend its range in cold-weather conditions by 32 to 40 km (20 to 25 miles).[71] The EPA rating is 121 km (75 miles) from 117 km (73 miles) in the previous models.[20] Nissan explained that actually these ratings are not comparable, because for the 2013 model year the EPA changed the test procedures to calculate range for electric cars, before 2013, the agency estimated the range assuming the battery pack was charged to 100% of its capacity. Nissan estimates that the 2013 Leaf has a 135 km (84 miles) range from a 100% charge (Long-Distance Mode charging), while the range drops to 106 km (66 miles) for an 80% charge (Long-Life Mode charging). The new EPA testing procedure considers the average of these two ranges, the increased Long-Distance Mode range comes from improvements to the Leaf’s regenerative braking system, an overall weight reduction and enhanced aerodynamics.[20][72]

The 2013 European version, has a certified range of 200 km (120 miles) under the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC), up from 175 km (109 miles) for the 2011/12 model.[21]

The official EPA range for the 2014 and 2015 model year Leaf, increased from 121 to 135 km (75 to 84 miles).[73] The difference in range is due to a technicality, as Nissan decided to eliminate the EPA blended range rating, which was an average of the 80% charge range and the 100% charge range, for the 2014 model year, only the 100% charge range figure applies.[74]

Nissan added more battery capacity which increased the range of the car on a full charge. A larger 30 kWh battery is on the SL and SV trims, and the S trim initially kept the smaller 24 kWh battery found in earlier Leafs.[75] However, midway through the 2016 model year, Nissan changed the battery in the base Leaf S model from 24 kWh to 30 kWh.[76]

The official EPA range for the 2016 Leaf with the 30 kWh battery is 172 km (107 miles), while the range for Leaf with the smaller 24 kWh is 135 km (84 miles), the same as the 2014/15 model year.[19][better source needed][77][78]

According to Consumer Reports, as of December 2011[update], the Nissan Leaf has an out-of-pocket operating cost of 3.5 cents per mile (2.19¢ per km) while the heavier Chevrolet Volt has a cost in electric mode of 3.8 cents per mile (2.38¢ per km). These costs are based on the U.S. national average electricity rate of 11 cents per kWh and energy consumption was estimated from their own tests.[82] The consumer magazine also compared the Leaf with the most fuel-efficient hybrid and gasoline-powered cars as tested by Consumer Reports, the results are summarized in the following table, and the analysis found that the Leaf operating cost is much less than half of the gasoline-powered cars for trips up to 110 km (70 miles), which is close to the Leaf's maximum range. The Volt while on EV mode has a close cost per mile but as the distance is larger than its electric range of 56 km (35 miles), the Leaf advantage is similar to the other cars. Consumer Reports also noted that even with a much higher electric rate of 19 cents per kWh, such as rural Connecticut, the Leaf still cost about 20% less to operate than the Prius and around 50% less than the Corolla.[82]

According to Nissan, the operating cost of the Leaf in the UK is 1.75 pence per mile (1.09p per km) when charging at an off-peak electricity rate, while a conventional gasoline-powered car costs more than 10 pence per mile (6.25p per km). These estimates are based on a national average of British Gas Economy 7 rates as of January 2012, and assumed 7 hours of charging overnight at the night rate and one hour in the daytime charged at the Tier-2 daytime rate.[83]

According to Edmunds.com, the price premium paid for the Leaf, after discounting the US$7,500federal tax credit, may take a long time for consumers to recover in fuel savings. In February 2012, Edmunds compared the mid-sized Leaf (priced at US$28,550) with the compact gasoline-powered Nissan Versa (priced at US$19,656) and found that the payback period for the Leaf is nine years for gasoline at US$3 per gallon, seven years at US$4 per gallon, and drops to five years with gasoline prices at US$5 per gallon. Considering gasoline prices by early 2012, the break even period is seven years, these estimates assume an average of 24,000 km (15,000 miles) annual driving and vehicle prices correspond to Edmunds.com's true market value estimates.[84] For the same two vehicles, the U.S. EPA estimates the Leaf's annual fuel cost at US$612 while the Versa's annual fuel cost is US$1,860. EPA estimates are based on 45% highway and 55% city driving, over 15,000 annual miles; gasoline price of US$3.72 per gallon and electricity price of US$0.12 per kWh.[85]

In a similar comparison carried out in April 2012, by TrueCar.com for The New York Times, the analysis found that at a gasoline price of US$3.85 per gallon, the payback period required for the Leaf to compensate the nearly US$10,000 difference in purchase versus a Nissan Versa, takes 8.7 years. The analysis assumes an average of 15,000 miles driven a year, a fuel economy of 33.6 mpg‑US (7.0 L/100 km; 40.4 mpg‑imp) for the Versa, priced at US$18,640, and a Leaf price of US$28,421, after discounting the US$7,500 federal tax. The payoff time drops to 6 years if gasoline is priced at US$5 per gallon, the newspaper also reported that according to the March 2012 Lundberg Survey, gasoline prices would need to reach US$8.53 a gallon for the Leaf to be competitive with a similar gasoline-powered car in the 6 years an average person owns a car, while the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid requires a gasoline price of US$12.50 a gallon to break even.[86][87]

According to a study published in June 2013, by the Electric Power Research Institute, the total cost of ownership of the 2013 Nissan Leaf SV is substantially lower than that of comparable conventional and hybrid vehicles. For comparison, the study constructed average hybrid and conventional vehicles and assumed an average U.S. distance per trip distribution. The study took into account the manufacturer's suggested retail price, taxes, credits, destination charge, electric charging station, fuel cost, maintenance cost, and additional cost due to the use of a gasoline vehicle for trips beyond the range of the Leaf.[88][89]

In February 2014, the Automotive Science Group (ASG) published the result of a study conducted to assess the life-cycle of over 1,300 automobiles across nine categories sold in North America, the study found that among advanced automotive technologies, the Nissan Leaf holds the smallest life-cycle environmental footprint of any model year 2014 automobile available in the North American market with minimum four-person occupancy. The study concluded that the increased environmental impacts of manufacturing the battery electric technology is more than offset with increased environmental performance during operational life, for the assessment, the study used the average electricity mix of the U.S. grid in 2014.[90][91]

In December 2014, Nissan announced that Leaf owners have accumulated together 1 billion kilometers (625 million miles) driven, this amount of electric miles translates into avoiding 180 million kilograms of CO2 emissions by driving an electric car in comparison to travelling with a gasoline-powered car.[92] In December 2016, Nissan reported that Leaf owners worldwide achieved the milestone of 3 billion kilometers (1.9 billion miles) driven collectively through November 2016, saving nearly 500 million kilograms of CO2 emissions.[93]

Recharging receptacles vary between models, the Leaf, with the SL option, has two charging receptacles: a standard SAE J1772-2009 connector for level 1 and 2 charging (120/220 volts AC)[94] and a JARI high-voltage DC connector designed by TEPCO for DC fast charging (500 volts DC 125 amps)[95] using the CHAdeMO protocol.[96] Beginning in late 2016, all three models (S, SV, and SL) came equipped with both charging receptacles.[76]

The Leaf's charging port with two inlets is located at the front of the car.

Models with an on-board 3.6 kW charger[97] can be fully recharged from empty in 8 hours from a 220/240-volt 30 amp supply (5.2 kW allowable draw[98]) that can provide the on-board charger its full 3.6 kW of usable power.[99][100] Models with an on-board 6.6 kW charger[30][101] can be fully recharged from empty in 4 hours from a 220/240-volt 40 amp supply (7.7 kW allowable draw[98]) that can provide the on-board charger its full 6.6 kW of usable power.[99][100]

In North America and Japan, using a standard household outlet (120-volt, 15 amp breaker, 12 amp maximum allowable draw,[98] 1.4 kW) and the 7.5-meter (25 ft)[102] cable included by Nissan, the Leaf will regain approximately 5 miles of range per hour. This type of charging is ideal for the commuter that can plug into standard outlets at home and at work during the typical 21 hours a day that the typical North American car is parked, it is also useful for emergency charging from any ubiquitous 120-volt outlet just about anywhere in North America.[99]

United States electrical regulations require a 240-volt charging station to be permanently wired unless proper interlock mechanisms are available to ensure the charging current can be safely turned on and off.[98] Nissan selected AeroVironment to supply its charging dock and installation services in North America[103] (see the United States section below for more details).

For models with DC fast charging, a battery pack can be charged from fully discharged to 80% capacity in about 30 minutes.[1] Nissan developed its own 500-volt DC fast charger that went on sale in Japan for ¥1,470,000 (around US$16,800) in May 2010.[104][105] Nissan warns that if fast charging is the primary way of recharging, then the normal and gradual battery capacity loss is about 10% more than regular 220-volt charging over a 10-year period.[34] Other companies make compatible charging stations, and companies and local government have various initiatives to create networks of public charging stations[99][106] (see electric vehicle network).

The Nissan Leaf employs an advanced telematics system called CarWings which originally was only available in Japan,[107][108] the system sends and receives data via a built-in GPRS radio similar to the connectivity of mobile phones. Carwings is connected any time the car is in range of a cell tower and it makes possible several user functionalities, such as position and possible range on a map and which charging stations are available within range, the system also tracks and compiles statistics about distance traveled and energy consumption and produces daily, monthly and annual reports of these and several other operational parameters. All information is available in the Leaf's digital screens.[107][109]

NHTSA rates the 2011 and 2012 model years as five stars overall, the 2013 and 2014 model years' rating is 4 stars overall due to lower scores for passengers in front and side tests.[110]

The Nissan Leaf won the "Top Safety Pick" awarded by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety in 2011. The Leaf received top ratings of "Good" for front, side, and rear impact crash tests, and also on rollover protection. All injury measurements except one were rated good, indicating a low risk of significant injuries in crashes according to the scale of severity employed in the IIHS’s testing,[111][112] the European New Car Assessment Programme (Euro NCAP) awarded the Leaf the highest five-star car safety rating, earning the following ratings for each criterion:

In December 2010, Nissan published a guide for first responders that details procedures for handling a damaged 2011 Leaf at the scene of an accident, the steps include a manual high-voltage system shutdown, subsequent to the assumed automatic disconnects, built into the car's safety systems. Rescue personnel are instructed by Nissan to disconnect both the high voltage and 12 V systems before performing any first response actions.[114][115][116]

The Nissan Leaf's battery pack is shielded from crash damage by structural steel reinforcement.[117] To prevent shock and fire hazards, the Leaf has a battery safety system that is activated in a crash that involves the airbags, the airbag control unit sends a signal which mechanically disconnects the high voltage from the vehicle.[114]

In December 2011, Nissan reported, as an indication of the Leaf safety performance, that none of the around two dozen Leafs that were destroyed during the March 2011 tsunami caught fire and their batteries remained intact,[118] as of December 2011[update], no fires after a crash have been reported in the U.S. associated with the Leaf or other plug-in electric cars available in the market.[119][needs update]

Due to significant noise reduction typical of electric vehicles that travel at low speeds, the 2011 Leaf includes digital warning sounds, one for forward motion and another for reverse, to alert pedestrians, the blind, and others of its presence,[120][121] for this purpose Nissan created the Vehicle Sound for Pedestrians (VSP) system, which was also used in Nissan Fuga hybrid. The system developed makes a noise easy to hear for those outside in order to be aware of the vehicle approaching, but the warning sounds do not distract the car occupants inside. Nissan explained that during the development of the sound, they studied behavioral research of the visually impaired and worked with cognitive and acoustic psychologists.[121][122][123] The sine-wave sound system sweeps from 2.5 kHz at the high end to a low of 600 Hz, an easily audible range across age groups. Depending on the speed and if the Leaf is accelerating or decelerating, the sound system makes sweeping, high-low sounds, the sound system ceases operation when the Nissan Leaf reaches 30 km/h (18.6 mph) and engages again as car slows to under 25 km/h (15.5 mph). For the 2011 model, the driver could turn off sounds temporarily through a switch inside the vehicle, but the system automatically reset to "On" at the next ignition cycle, the system is controlled through a computer and synthesizer in the dash panel, and the sound is delivered through a speaker in the front driver’s side wheel well.[121][122][124] Nissan removed the ability to disable the pedestrian alert between model year 2011 and 2012 in anticipation of the U.S. ruling to be issued by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.[125]

After the new sounds were publicized, the U.S. National Federation of the Blind commented that "while it was pleased that the alert existed, it was unhappy that the driver could turn it off."[121] The Leaf's electric warning sound had to be removed for cars delivered in the UK, as the country's law mandates that any hazard warning sound must be capable of being disabled between 11:00 p.m. and 6:00 a.m., and the Leaf's audible warning system does not allow for such temporary deactivation.[126]

In November 2012, Nissan announced the specifications of the updated 2013 model Leaf destined for the Japanese market, the improved version delivers a range increase of 14% on the Japanese cycle, allowing the travel distance on a full charge to go from 200 to 228 km (124 to 142 miles). Besides adjusting the regenerative braking to improve power generation, Nissan reduced the Leaf weight by integrating the electric motor, inverter, and AC/DC converter, achieving a combined weight reduction for those parts of 10%. Also, lighter parts were used throughout, and an improved battery module and more integrated electronic units have together reduced the car mass by over 77 kg (170 lb), 5% of the previous version.[127][128]

The 2013 Leaf has a larger trunk, with its volume increased from 330 to 370 litres (11.6 to 13 cu ft). The extra space was freed by moving a downsized charger from the back of the car to the front. Other improvements include a new gauge that tells the driver how much battery capacity is remaining by percentage, and a long-life battery mode is now available in any charging mode, which charges the battery to 80% to improve pack life. Also, Nissan will introduce in the Japanese market a lower price entry-level model with less equipment, called the S trim, this model will be priced at just under ¥2.5 million (around US$29,700), almost half a million yen (approximately US$5,950) cheaper than the previous year’s entry price.[127][128]

American market

The 2013 model year Leaf destined for the U.S. market has several key improvements similar to the Japanese version, better range, faster charging capabilities, a more efficient cabin heater, and a lower starting price. According to Nissan USA, several of the changes seek to address shortcomings of previous versions of the Leaf, and feedback from Leaf owners was taken into consideration,[30][101] the 2013 model year Leaf delivers a higher range than the 2012 model with the same 24 kWh battery pack. The efficiency gains come from a combination of improvements to aerodynamics through tweaks to the front fascia that allowed a reduction of the drag coefficient; a more efficient heater; the addition of a driver-selected B-mode that increases regenerative braking; and energy/range management.[30][101]

The 2013 model year offers a dashboard display of the battery’s state of charge on a percentage basis, as has been demanded by Leaf owners. A 6.6-kW onboard charger, available as an extra-cost option on the base model, reduces charging times using 240-volt power. This improvement means adding about 32 km (20 miles) in an hour of charging, rather than about 19 km (12 miles) that took with the 3.6-kW charger on 2012 models. A complete charge from empty to full takes about four hours, instead of seven hours.[30][101]

The charge port area now comes with a light not provided on earlier models, and the ability to open the port door from inside the car or by using the key fob,[101] the onboard charger in all 2013 Leafs has also been reduced in size and relocated to a new position under the hood, which increases cargo volume.[30] The new base trim level is called the Leaf S model, and is the result of a strategy for affordability, the S trim replaces the LED headlights with less expensive projector beams, and uses 16-inch steel wheels with plastic covers rather than alloy wheels. The base trim does not include the navigation system and the remote connectivity that allows drivers to turn on the climate control and monitor battery charging remotely using a smartphone.[30] LED headlamps, fog lights, 17-inch alloy wheels and leather seating, are reserved for the higher-end SL trim. Additional premium upgrades to the SL trim include a Bose seven-speaker audio system and around view monitor, which puts cameras in front, in back and on the side mirrors for parking assistance.[101]

The new base-level 2013 Nissan Leaf S starts at US$28,800, the mid-level Leaf SV at US$31,820, and the high-end Leaf SL trim starts at US$34,840. All prices have a mandatory US$850 destination fee added.[129]

European market

The 2013 European version has many of the same improvements of the Japanese and U.S. versions, including an extended range, greater recyclability, more interior space, better charging performance, and more equipment. Also three versions will be available: Visia, Acenta and Tekna, the Visia version has a lower starting price than the previous model, and the Tekna model has even more standard equipment than the 2011/2012 Leaf. The European version was unveiled at the 2013 Geneva Motor Show, and production of the 2013 model began in March 2013 at the Sunderland plant in the UK, and sales started in June 2013,[21] the price of the 2013 Leaf produced in Sunderland is lower than the one built in Japan,[130][131] and to further reduce the purchase price by GB£5,000, Nissan offered a battery leasing option for all trims produced at Sunderland.[132][133] The leasing option is also available in several European countries, reducing the purchase price by €5,900,[134] this measure, among others, helped to reduce the sales price in Germany, for instance, from roughly €37,000 in April 2012[135] (with battery) to roughly €24,000 in July 2013 (excluding battery lease of €79 per month).[136]

On 2 October 2017, for the 2018 model year, Nissan launched the new generation Leaf in Japan, though delivery to some customers was delayed due to a safety inspection issue,[140] the vehicle features a 40 kWh battery pack with an EPA range of 243 km (151 miles)[139] on a single charge. The electric motor produces 110 kilowatts (147 hp) and 320 newton metres (236 lb⋅ft) of torque.[138] It charges through either a 6.6 kW regular plug or a 50 kW CHAdeMO, and has the ability to send power back to the grid.[141] Propilot driver assistance system is available on highest trim level with additional cost,[142] the Propilot system features lane centering technology.

Rear view

Nissan plans an expansion to additional markets in early 2018,[143] the Nissan Leaf 2019 model year, to be offered in late 2018 will have a 60 kWh pack for over 320 km (200 miles) of range.[144][145]

The first vehicles sold in the U.S. were produced at Nissan’s plant in Oppama, Japan, which started production on 22 October 2010.[38][146] The plant has an annual production capacity of 50,000 vehicles.[38] Production of the electric car was disrupted for several months beginning in March 2011 due to the earthquake and tsunami in Japan, and as a result, Nissan announced it was not able to reach its 2011 production target of 50,000 Leafs.[147] Nissan expected to increase sales in 2012 to 40,000 units from 20,000 in 2011, as production returned to normal output and the Leaf became available in more European countries and more regional markets in the U.S.[148]

With cumulative sales of more than 49,000 Leafs through December 2012, Nissan achieved only a 22% increase in sales during 2012, which according with Nissan CEO Carlos Ghosn "was a disappointment for us." Mr Ghosn cited the adverse dollar-yen exchange rate as one of the factors affecting the Leaf price. He also said that they realized the price of the original Leaf models was a problem, and the decision to drop the price on the 2013 model year Leaf by 18% is possible due to the start of U.S. production of the battery car on the new assembly line in Smyrna, Tennessee, which will reduce production costs. Nissan has also taken other steps to improve production efficiency and lower component costs – especially for the battery pack, the single-costliest part of an electric vehicle.[149]

Commercial U.S. production began in January 2013, at Nissan's manufacturing facility in Smyrna, Tennessee.[71] The Smyrna plant was modified with a US$1.4 billion loan granted by the U.S. Department of Energy to allow the manufacturing plant to produce the Nissan Leaf and its advanced batteries.[150][151] The Smyrna plant is expected to produce up to 150,000 vehicles and 200,000 battery packs annually.[151] Nissan planned to unveil the upgraded 2013 model year version Nissan Leaf for the North American market in December 2012, once production of the electric car had begun in the Smyrna plant, but rescheduled the introduction of the 2013 model to January 2013, during the North American International Auto Show.[71][152][153] The Smyrna plant began producing lithium-ion cells in December 2012, these cells are used in the battery pack of the 2013 model year Leaf built at the adjacent assembly plant. The cell fabrication factory in Smyrna is the largest plant in the U.S. that builds automotive-scale lithium-ion batteries, and it can produce batteries for up to 200,000 electric vehicles a year.[154] Motors arrive from Nissan in Decherd.[155] Leaf production in the Smyrna plant began in January 2013, sharing the production line with the Altima mid-size sedan and Maxima full-size sedan.[156][better source needed][157] In 2017, Nissan decided to sell its battery plant to GSR Capital,[158] and build the second-generation Leaf at Smyrna.[159]

Production of the Leaf at Nissan's plant in Sunderland, England, began in March 2013.[160] Nissan benefited from a GB£20.7 million grant from the British government and up to GB£220 million from the European Investment Bank[161][162] to invest £420m in the factory.[160] The plant has the capacity to produce 60,000 lithium-ion batteries and 50,000 Leafs a year,[161] the UK produced Leaf is destined for the European market.[163] In January 2013 Nissan announced an immediate price reduction of GB£2,500 or €3,000 for the Japanese-made Leaf model sold in the UK and other European markets, the price of the 2013 Leaf produced in Sunderland is lower than the model built in Japan,[130][131] and Nissan is offering a battery leasing option for the three trims produced at Sunderland, which further reduces the purchase price by GB£5,000 in the UK,[132][133] and €5,900 in the other European countries where the leasing option is available.[134] The first retail delivery of a 2013 Leaf built in the Sunderland plant took place in the UK in late May 2013.[164] Nissan began building the second-generation Leaf at Sunderland in December 2017.[165]

In March 2013, the Chinese government announced that a partnership between Nissan and Dongfeng Motor to build Leafs is being planned, the initial production line will be able to produce 10,000 units per year until it is upgraded to 50,000 units by 2015.[166]

Nissan officially introduced the Leaf in a ceremony held at its global headquarters in Yokohama on 3 December 2010,[167] the first American customer delivery took place in Northern California on 11 December 2010[168] and the first delivery in Japan took place at the Kanagawa Prefecture on 22 December.[169] Deliveries to individual customers began in Ireland in February 2011, in the UK in March 2011, and in France in August 2011.[170][171][172] Deliveries to corporate customers began in Portugal in December 2010,[173] in the Netherlands in March 2011,[better source needed][174] and in Canada in July 2011.[175] Retail deliveries began in Spain and Norway in September 2011[176][177] in Switzerland in November 2011,[178] and in Germany in January 2012,[179][180] as of January 2018[update], the Leaf was available in more than 60 countries in four continents.[2]

Since December 2010, Nissan sold 49,117 Leafs worldwide during its first two years in the market, making the Leaf the world's best-selling highway-capable electric car ever,[181] with global sales of more than 22,000 units in 2011,[182] the Leaf surpassed the Mitsubishi i MiEV as the best selling all-electric car in history.[183] Global sales during 2012 reached 26,973 Leafs, a rise of 22% over 2011 sales, led by Japan with 11,115 units, an 8% increase over 2011 sales; followed by the United States with 9,819 units representing a 1.5% rise over 2011 sales.[184] During the first half of 2012, the Leaf had a market share of 49% of global sales of all-electric cars,[185] the sales milestone of 50,000 units delivered worldwide was reached by mid February 2013.[186] A total of 47,716 Leafs were sold during 2013, up 77% from 2012,[187] and making the Leaf the world's best-selling plug-in car in 2013.[188]

The Nissan Leaf is the world's best selling highway legal all-electric car in history. Global Leaf sales passed the 300,000 unit milestone in January 2018.[2]

As of mid January 2014, and just after three years in the market, global sales totaled 100,000 units, capturing a 45% market share of worldwide pure electric vehicles sold since 2010.[better source needed][189] During 2014 a total of 61,507 Leafs were sold worldwide;[190] in 2014 the Leaf ranked as the world's best-selling plug-in car for the second year in a row, and until December 2016, the sales volume achieve in 2014 remains the most plug-in cars sold in one year by any single plug-in car model.[188] Global sales totaled over 158,000 units at the end of 2014.[191]

Global Leaf sales passed the 200,000 unit milestone in December 2015.[192][193] Total sales totaled 43,651 units worldwide in 2015, down 29% from 2014,[194] and making the Leaf the world's second best-selling plug-in car in 2015 after the Tesla Model S,[188] the leading market in 2015 was the United States with 17,269 units sold, down 42.8% from 2014,[195] followed by the European market with 15,630 units.[194]

Global sales in 2016 climbed to 49,245 units, making the Leaf the world's second best-selling plug-in car after the Tesla Model S for the second year running. Sales in 2016 were led by Europe with 18,718 units, followed by Japan with 14,793, North America with 15,512, the rest of the world accounted for 222 units.[188][196] Global Leaf sales passed the 250,000 unit milestone in December 2016,[197] and the 300,000 mark in January 2018, allowing the Nissan Leaf to rank as the world's best-selling highway-capable electric car in history,[2] as of December 2016[update], the United States ranks as the top selling market with 103,597 units delivered,[198][199] followed by Japan with 72,494,[200] and Europe with 67,829 units.[188][190][194] The European market is led by Norway with 19,407 new units registered up until December 2016.[198][201] Due to the significant number of used imports registered in the country, there were about 27,500 Leafs on Norwegian roads as of 31 December 2016[update].[201][202] The UK ranks second with 15,000 units sold by mid-September 2016.[203]

In 2017 in the US, Nissan spent an average of over US$16,000 in incentives per vehicle.[204]

Battery leasing option

Initially the Leaf was sold in all markets including the battery pack and is not compatible with QuickDrop battery swapping developed by its alliance partner Renault;[205][206] in April 2013, Nissan announced that sales of the 2013 Leaf will begin in the UK in June 2013, and it will offer a battery leasing option for the three available trims. Pricing for the battery leasing in the UK starts at GB£70 (~US$108) a month for a 36-month lease limited no more than 12,100 km (7,500 miles) a year, with a maximum of GB£129 (~US$198) a month for a 12-month lease with no more than 24,000 km (15,000 miles) driven. The battery leasing option lowers the price of the level entry model to GB£20,990 (~US$32,230) before applying the Plug-in Car Grant.[132][133]

In several European countries, except Norway, Finland, Iceland, Ireland and the Baltic markets, the leasing option will also be offered, resulting in a purchase price reduction of €5,900, the battery monthly charge starts at €79 (~US$103) for a 36-month lease limited no more than 12,500 km (7,800 miles) a year, with a maximum of €142 (~US$186) a month for a 12-month lease with no more than 25,000 km (16,000 miles) driven.[134]

As of January 2018[update], the Nissan Leaf is available for retail customers in more than 60 countries.[2] Since its introduction in 2010, more than 300,000 Leafs have been sold worldwide through early January 2018, making the Leaf the world's all-time best-selling highway-capable electric car in history,[2] as of December 2016[update], the United States ranks as the top selling market with 103,597 units delivered,[198][199] followed by Japan with 72,494,[200] and Europe with 67,829.[188][190][194] The European market is led by Norway with 19,407 new units registered up until December 2016.[198][201] Due to the significant number of used imports registered in the country, there were about 27,500 Leafs on Norwegian roads as of 31 December 2016[update].[201][202] The UK ranks second with 15,000 units sold by mid-September 2016.[203]

The following table presents retail sales by year since deliveries of the Leaf began in December 2010, for the national markets with cumulative sales of more than 500 units through the end of 2015.

In April 2011, Nissan announced that customers in the United States and Japan reported problems in restarting their Leaf vehicles after switching the motor off. Nissan said the problem does not pose any accident risk,[264] on 15 April. Nissan announced that the problem only affected a small proportion of Leafs. Nissan engineers identified a programming error in an air conditioning system sensor that sometimes triggers an erroneous high voltage alert when the air conditioning unit is switched on, due to the increased demand for power, the system issues an Inhibit Restart command, which does not prevent driving the vehicle, but does prevent it restarting after it is turned off. The solution requires reprogramming of the Vehicle Control Module by a Nissan dealer. Nissan announced a "service campaign" to apply the software fix to all 5,300 Nissan Leafs in operation around the world, but it was not an official recall because it was not a safety issue.[265][266][267] The applied software update also improves the car’s on-board range calculation system, which several Leaf owners reported was overestimating the number of miles left; in addition, the update changes the state-of-charge bars display to provide a true reserve capacity; the driver now has up to five miles to find a charging spot after the car reaches the zero miles remaining mark.[268]

A number of early models had air conditioning failures due to a faulty hose.[citation needed]

A number of customers have reported safety problems with the antilock brakes: after an emergency braking event, and once the driver has released the brake pedal, the brakes remain in full force for some amount of time, increasing the risk of rear collisions.[269]

Battery capacity loss

In May 2012, several U.S. owners reported seeing only 11 of 12 battery capacity bars on the in-car display which led them to believe they had lost some battery capacity. As time went on, more people reported seeing the issue, and some had lost two, three, and even in rare cases, four battery capacity bars, the battery capacity loss problem seems to be concentrated in regions with hot climate, and Phoenix, Arizona and the state of Texas in particular. In July 2012, Nissan responded by saying they were investigating the issue, and a carmaker spokesman also said that "the problem is isolated to maybe 0.3 percent of the 13,000 Leafs on U.S. roads, and the company reportedly has loaned cars to some Leaf owners in Arizona as it researches the issue." This is equivalent to around 40 vehicles have experienced a loss of any battery capacity bars.[270][271][272]

Crowd sourced reports of Nissan Leafs with premature battery degradation have been collected at the MyNissanLeaf.com forum[273] and have been tracked on the website's wiki page.[274][275]

By early September 2012, Nissan Executive Vice President said that there is "no problem with the Leaf battery, and that the any customer complaints were merely the result of instrument problems."[276] As a response, a group of 12 Phoenix Leaf owners participated in an independent test in controlled conditions organized by Leaf driver and EV advocate Tony Williams that took place on 15 September 2012, the test confirmed that the Leaf has poor instruments, but the test also found significant loss of range in some cars reflecting battery capacity loss. The worst affected Leaf showed around 60 to 65% of its original battery capacity remaining, and was only capable of driving 95 km (59 miles) before running out of charge.[276][277][278]

Based on a complete evaluation that Nissan Americas conducted with seven different Leafs in its Arizona Testing Center, the carmaker found that the common link among the seven Leafs from Arizona was that all of them had covered much higher mileage than the 20,100 km (12,500 miles) Nissan used to estimate the rate of battery capacity loss over time. All of them had covered at least 50% more than Nissan estimated average, with 31,500 km (19,600 miles) as the average mileage for the cars evaluated. According to Nissan, that average is "more than double the average Phoenix customer mileage of 7,500 miles per year." Nissan concluded that "the cars and the battery packs are behaving as we expected."[279][280] As a result of this assessment, Nissan published an open letter to Leaf owners explaining the results of the assessment and the details of normal battery capacity loss expected over time, the company also decided to set up an independent advisory board to study how the company may improve its communication with customers about the performance of the Leaf. The group will be led by Chelsea Sexton, known for her prominent role on the marketing of the GM EV-1 electric car, she will select the members of the advisory board that would make recommendations to Nissan.[280] By late September Nissan reported that around 450 Leafs have been sold in Arizona, and in the interest of customer satisfaction, two units with battery loss problems were repurchased using the buyback formula modeled on Arizona's lemon law.[281][282] One of the owners that had their Nissan Leaf repurchased established a blog in order to persuade other potential Nissan Leaf buyers in hot climates to reconsider buying this particular vehicle.[283] By mid September, Nissan's CEO Carlos Ghosn announced that there is an improved second generation battery coming online that will cost less than the previous one.[284]

On 17 September 2012, a federal class action lawsuit was filed by California Leaf lessee Humberto Daniel Klee and Arizona Leaf owner David Wallak, accusing Nissan of concealing in its advertising that its Leaf vehicles have a design defect that causes them to prematurely lose battery life and driving range, the class action suit says that "before purchase or lease, Nissan failed to disclose its own recommendations that owners avoid charging the battery beyond 80% in order to mitigate battery damage and failed to disclose that Nissan’s estimated 100 mile range was based on a full charge battery, which is contrary to Nissan’s own recommendation for battery charging."[285]

In January 2013, Nissan USA announced that it will offer an extended battery warranty on the 2013 model year Leaf and will include 2011 and 2012 model years as well.[52]

A 2015 report by insurance company Warranty Direct, stated that of 35,000 Leafs sold in Europe, three had a battery failure, that is 0.01% immobilized compared to 0.255% for internal combustion engined cars.[286]

On 7 July 2015, U.S. Circuit Judge A. Wallace Tashima of the 9th Circuit U.S. approved the class action settlement in the U.S. District Court for the Central District of California, valued at $24 million.[287]

In March 2018, a study in New Zealand showed accelerated reported battery decline in 30 kWh Leafs compared to 24 kWh Leafs. [43] The Automobile Assosication of New Zealand suggests drivers of these cars can seek financial compensation or full refund from the dealer they purchased the car from despite Nissan not providing a battery warranty in New Zealand[288]

Airbag failure

In March 2014, Nissan is recalling nearly one million vehicles for a problem with the airbags, the occupant classification system (OCS) may incorrectly think that the passenger seat is empty when it is occupied by an adult, failing to activate the airbag in a collision. Cars affected include the 2013–14 model year Leaf, Altima, Pathfinder and Sentra, as well as the 2013 NV200, 2013 JX35, 2014 QX60 and the 2014 Q50. Recall documents say that due to the sensitivity of the OCS software calibration, the system may not sense a passenger, that combined with high-engine vibration at idle when the seat is empty and then becomes occupied, or unusual occupant seating postures, can cause the system to fail. If the car crashes during this time, the airbag won't deploy. Nissan will notify owners, and dealerships will fix the OCS software free of charge.[citation needed]

Nissan unveiled the Leaf Nismo RC (Racing Competition) demonstration car at the 2011 New York International Auto Show. This electric car has the same battery pack and motor as the Leaf but is designed and constructed as a racing car with a full carbon fiber monocoque body which makes it about 40% lighter than the production Leaf.[291] Leaf Nismo RC is projected to have a running time of around 20 minutes under racing conditions, and in preliminary testing it accelerated from 0 to 62 mph (0 to 100 km/h) in 6.85 seconds and has a top speed of 93 mph (150 km/h).[292][293] Nissan built eight of these rear-wheel drive cars.[291]

Another concept from Nismo was unveiled at the 2011 Tokyo Motor Show, the Leaf Nismo Concept, it was designed as normal highway-capable automobile and uses the same 80 kW electric motor as the Leaf.[294] In January 2013, Nissan announced that the Leaf Nismo will be produced in low volumes by mid-2013, and sold in Japan only, the Leaf Nismo uses the Leaf's all-electric drive train with no extra power or performance improvements, but has an aerodynamic body kit with styling influenced by the electric Leaf RC demonstrator, new alloy wheels, and interior improvements.[295]

Nissan and its joint venture partner Dongfeng Motor unveiled a production version of the Venucia e30 electric car at the 2012 Auto Guangzhou. An earlier version, the Venucia E-Concept, was unveiled at the 2012 Beijing Auto Show, the car was initially scheduled for production in China by 2015. The Venucia e30 shares the bodywork, dimensions, electric-drive specifications and several other aspects of the Leaf. Dongfeng Nissan started pilot projects in 15 Chinese cities to promote the Venucia e30 with local governments.[299][300] A total of 216 units were delivered in December 2013, these units were marketed as Venucia Morning Wind and they were badged Leafs since local production had not begun at the time.[228] In April 2014 Dongfeng Nissan announced that retail sales of the Venucia e30 were going to begin ahead of schedule.[301]

The Venucia e30 was launched in the Chinese market in September 2014,[302] the e30 has the same 24 kWh lithium ion battery as the Nissan Leaf, with an energy consumption of 14.6 kWh/100 km and a range of 160 km (99 miles).[303]

Nissan installed its autonomous car technology in a Nissan Leaf for demonstration purposes.

In August 2013, Nissan announced its plans to launch several driverless cars by 2020, the company is building in Japan a dedicated autonomous driving proving ground, to be completed in 2014. Nissan installed its autonomous car technology in a Nissan Leaf for demonstration purposes, the car was demonstrated at Nissan 360 test drive event held in California in August 2013.[304][305] In September 2013, the Leaf fitted the prototype Advanced Driver Assistance System was granted a license plate that allows to drive it on Japanese public roads, the testing car will be used by Nissan engineers to evaluate how its in-house autonomous driving software performs in the real-world. Time spent on public roads will help refine the car’s software for fully automated driving,[306] the autonomous Leaf was demonstrated on public roads for the first time at a media event held in Japan in November 2013. The Leaf drove on the Sagami Expressway in Kanagawa prefecture, near Tokyo. Nissan vice chairman Toshiyuki Shiga and the prefecture’s Governor, Yuji Kuroiwa, rode in the car during the test.[307][308]

An Electric Production Class was formed for the 2011 Pikes Peak International Hill Climb and Chad Hord raced a Leaf in the event.[309] The off-road racing driver ascended the 19.99 km (12.42 miles) course in 14 minutes and 33 seconds to win the class.[310] The interior of the car was removed and replaced with mandatory racing seats, safety harness, and a roll cage.[311]

There were 20,000 pre-orders in the United States for the vehicle's debut,[312] after hitting this milestone in September 2010, Nissan stopped taking reservations in the United States until many of the initial orders had been delivered in early 2011.

The Leaf has received awards from multiple organizations. Notable awards include the inclusion by Time magazine as one of the 50 best inventions of 2009,[313] at the 2010 Washington Auto Show, the Leaf was given the 2010 Green Car Vision Award by the Green Car Journal (GCJ), who noted that the Leaf "will provide the features, the styling, and the driving experience that will meet the needs of a sophisticated and demanding market, while producing zero localized emissions and requiring no petroleum fuels."[314]Popular Mechanics, upon awarding the Leaf its 2010 Breakthrough Award, explained that the Nissan Leaf is "not the first pure EV, but [...] hits the mainstream like none of its predecessors." Popular Mechanics also alluded to the Leaf's 160 km (100 miles) range, which is said to be "enough for most commuters for the price of an average vehicle – and with a much lower operating cost than gasoline-powered vehicles."[315]

In 2009, a former Tesla Motors marketing manager criticized Nissan about the cooling system chosen for thermal management in lithium-ion battery packs,[330] he also claimed there may also be an overestimation of the 160 km (100-mile) range that was computed using LA-4 or "city" mode, which may underestimate the energy draw during highway driving conditions.[330][331]

The American magazine Consumer Reports noted that while charger costs vary between US$700 and US$1,200, an at-home charger and its installation cost more than US$2,000 even for simple installations.[332] Nissan estimates a typical charger installation costs US$2,200, the article did not mention that home charger installations were eligible for a 50% federal tax credit up to US$2,000.[333] Consumer Reports noted that the first 5,700 Leaf buyers could get free chargers with federal support in 13 cities, the consumer group also reminded that many older houses could require upgrading the electric service panel to install a 240-volt circuit, which can cost several thousand dollars.[332] The additional 220–240-volt charger is required in the countries—mainly in the Americas—that do not have a 220–240-volt domestic grid, if an owner wants faster charging than under 110–120-volt.

There are a variety of EVSE manufacturers for the Nissan Leaf including SPX, Schneider, Leviton, Aerovironment, Blink and GE, some are priced at less than $850. Since the on-board charger in the Leaf can draw as little as 15 amps, many home installations can be as simple as adding a dedicated 20 amp circuit and receptacle in the garage.

Consumer Reports also called buyers' attention to the fact that the Leaf's total out-of-pocket costs include a US$595 acquisition fee and a US$395 disposition fee. The consumer group also emphasized that the lease price of US$349-a-month applies only to buyers with good credit (Tier 1, or a FICO score of 700 or above); for those with less than optimum credit, the monthly rate would increase. They reminded buyers that the lease comes with a 23,000 km/year (15,000-mile-per-year) allowance, but additional miles will cost extra.[334]

^ ab"Nissan Leaf Technology FAQ". Nissan USA. Retrieved 2012-06-04. Q: How many charging cycles can the energy storage device survive? A: Like all lithium ion batteries, the Nissan Leaf battery will experience gradual capacity loss over time. We expect the battery to last over ten years, however, there may be a gradual loss of capacity of 30% or more depending on your driving patterns, and the effect on your battery, the battery can be used afterward for storage applications.

^ abcd"NEC 1999 National Electrical Code Article 625 – Electric Vehicle Charging System". National Electrical Code. 1999. Retrieved 2010-06-27. C. Equipment Construction 625–13. Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment. Electric vehicle supply equipment rated at 125 volt, single phase, 15 or 20 amperes or part of a system identified and listed as suitable for the purpose and meeting the requirements of Sections 625–18. 625–19. and 625–29 shall be permitted to be cord and plug connected. All other electric vehicle supply equipment shall be permanently connected and fastened in place, this equipment shall have no exposed live parts.

^Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (January 2015). "Bilsalget i 2014" [Car sales in 2014] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 2015-02-04.Click on "Modellfordelt" to display the top 20 selling new cars in Norway: A total of 4,781 new Leafs were sold in 2014.

1.
Nissan
–
Nissan Motor Company Ltd, usually shortened to Nissan, is a Japanese multinational automobile manufacturer headquartered in Nishi-ku, Yokohama. The company sells its cars under the Nissan, Infiniti, since 1999, Nissan has been part of the Renault–Nissan Alliance, a partnership between Nissan and French automaker Renault. As of 2013, Renault holds a 43. 4% voting stake in Nissan, Carlos Ghosn serves as CEO of both companies. Taken together, the Renault–Nissan Alliance would be the fourth largest automaker, however Nissan is the leading Japanese brand in China, Russia. Nissan is the worlds largest electric vehicle manufacturer, with sales of more than 275,000 all-electric vehicles as of mid-December 2016. Masujiro Hashimoto founded the Kaishinsha Motor Car Works 1 July 1911, in 1914, the company produced its first car, called DAT. DAT Motors built trucks in addition to the DAT and Datsun passenger cars, beginning in 1918, the first DAT trucks were produced for the military market. At the same time, Jitsuyo Jidosha Co. Ltd. produced small trucks using parts, Commercial operations were placed on hold during Japans participation in World War I, and the company contributed to the war effort. In 1926 the Tokyo-based DAT Motors merged with the Osaka-based Jitsuyo Jidosha Co. Ltd. a. k. a, Jitsuyo Jidosha Seizo to become DAT Jidosha Seizo Co. Ltd Automobile Manufacturing Co. Ltd. in Osaka until 1932, from 1923 to 1925, the company produced light cars and trucks under the name of Lila. In 1931, DAT came out with a new car, called the Datsun Type 11. Later in 1933 after Nissan Group zaibatsu took control of DAT Motors, in 1933, the company name was Nipponized to Jidosha-Seizo Co. Ltd. and was moved to Yokohama. In 1928, Yoshisuke Aikawa founded the holding company Nihon Sangyo, the name Nissan originated during the 1930s as an abbreviation used on the Tokyo Stock Exchange for Nihon Sangyo. This company was the famous Nissan Zaibatsu which included Tobata Casting, at this time Nissan controlled foundries and auto parts businesses, but Aikawa did not enter automobile manufacturing until 1933. The zaibatsu eventually grew to include 74 firms, and became the fourth-largest in Japan during World War II, in 1931, DAT Jidosha Seizo became affiliated with Tobata Casting, and was merged into Tobata Casting in 1933. As Tobata Casting was a Nissan company, this was the beginning of Nissans automobile manufacturing, in 1934, Aikawa separated the expanded automobile parts division of Tobata Casting and incorporated it as a new subsidiary, which he named Nissan Motor Co. Ltd. The shareholders of the new company however were not enthusiastic about the prospects of the automobile in Japan, at this time, Nissan Motor effectively became owned by Nihon Sangyo and Hitachi. In 1935, construction of its Yokohama plant was completed,44 Datsuns were shipped to Asia, Central and South America

2.
Car classification
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less

3.
Compact car
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The dimension standards are absolute, meaning special consideration is not made for SUVs, CUVs, minivans, station wagons or hatchbacks. Compact car is a largely North American term denoting an automobile smaller than a mid-size car, Compact cars usually have wheelbases between 100 inches and 109 inches. The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines a car as measuring between 100 cubic feet and 109 cubic feet of combined passenger and cargo volume capacity. Vehicle class size is defined in the U. S. by environmental laws in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40—Protection of Environment, Section 600. 315-82 Classes of comparable automobiles. Passenger car classes are defined based on interior volume index or seating capacity, in the United States, the compact car segment currently holds a 16% share of the market. This segment is dominated by import models, one of the first truly small cars on the U. S. market, in the sense that it was considerably smaller than the standard- size cars of its day, was the Austin Bantam that appeared in 1930. Production of the British-based city car lasted only four years with a total of 20,000 units, although other little cars such as the Crosley focused on low price and economy, Americans did not take easily to small cars. The U. S. market after World-War II experienced growth in sales in standard-sized cars, by 1947, Chevrolet had prototypes of the Cadet, an economy car developed by Earle S. MacPherson. Ford also experimented with a car and, unlike Chevrolets Cadet, production ensued for the European market as a large car. In 1950, Nash introduced a convertible Rambler model and it was built on a 100-inch wheelbase to which a station wagon, hardtop, and sedan versions were added. Compared to European standards, they were large, conceived by George W. Mason, the term compact was coined by George W. Romney as a euphemism for small cars with a wheelbase of 110 inches or less. The Nash Rambler established a new segment, it became known as Americas first small car. Several competitors to the Nash Rambler arose from the ranks of Americas other independent automakers, other early compact cars included the Henry J from Kaiser-Frazer, as well as the Willys Aero and the Hudson Jet. In 1952, Ford Division assistant general manager Robert S. McNamara started the Market Research Unit, in 1954,64,500 of over 5 million cars sold in the United States were imports or small American cars. Ford alone sold over 1.4 million big cars, yet 5 percent of those surveyed said they would consider a small car. These models also gave rise to compact vans that were sized similarly to the Volkswagen Type 2 microbus and were based from the Falcon, Corvair, and Valiant automobile platforms. Ford Division marketing research manager George Brown said smaller cars appealed to people with a college education, the cars had to offer not only high gas mileage but also headroom, legroom, and plenty of trunk space. Within a few years after that, the compacts had given rise to a new class called the car, named after the Ford Mustang

4.
C-segment
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C-segment is a Euro Car Segment, a car classification loosely defined by the European Commission as the third smallest segment in the European market. Although the definition is vague, there is overlap between segments A-F based on mass and area parameters. In 2011, the C-segment had an EU market share of 23%, the tiny A-segment cars include the Chevy Spark and Smart Fortwo. Theyre extremely short and very light, slightly larger are B-segment cars like the Ford Fiesta and Chevy Sonic. The A- and B-cars are known as subcompacts, in the C-segment — typically called compacts — are the largest of the small cars

5.
Hatchback
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A hatchback is a car body configuration with a rear door that swings upward to provide access to a cargo area. Hatchbacks may feature fold-down second row seating, where the interior can be reconfigured to prioritize passenger vs. cargo volume. Hatchbacks may feature two- or three-box design, while early examples of the body configuration can be traced to the 1930s, the Merriam-Webster dictionary dates the term itself to 1970. The hatchback body style has been marketed worldwide on cars ranging in size from superminis to small family cars, Hatchbacks may be described as three-door or five-door cars. A model range may include multiple configurations, as with the 2001–2007 Ford Focus which offered sedan, wagon, the models typically share a platform, drivetrain and bodywork forward of the A-pillar. Hatchbacks may have a rigid parcel shelf, liftable with the tailgate. Both station wagons and hatchbacks typically feature a two-box design configuration, with one shared, flexible, interior volume for passengers, further distinctions are highly variable, Pillars, Both configurations typically feature A, B & C pillars, station wagons more likely also feature a D pillar. Cargo volume, Station wagons prioritize passenger and cargo volume, with alongside the cargo volume. Cargo floor contour, Favoring cargo capacity, a station wagon may prioritize a fold-flat floor, seating, Station wagons have two or three rows of seats while hatchbacks have one or two rows of seats. Rear suspension, A station wagon may include reconfigured rear suspension for additional load capacity, Station wagons also have numerous tailgate configurations. Typically, a hatch or liftgate does not extend down to the bumper. You could have a 90-degree break in the back and have a station wagon, a liftback is a broad marketing term for a hatchback where the rear cargo door is more horizontal than vertical, with a sharply raked or fastback profile. In comparison with the hatchback the back opening area is sloped and longer and is lifted up to open. Liftback and fastback are often misused, a fastback is described as a hatchback where the rear cargo door flows down continuously from the roof of the car and most of the time is not as raked as the liftback. In 1946, DeSoto marketed the Suburban as a station wagon, in 1949, Kaiser-Frazer introduced the Vagabond and Traveler hatchbacks. Although these were styled much like the typical 1940s sedan, they incorporated an innovative split rear tailgate, folding rear seats, the design was neither fully a sedan nor a station wagon, but the folding rear seat provided for a large, 8-foot long interior cargo area. These Kaiser-Frazer models have described as America’s First Hatchback. In 1953, Aston Martin marketed the DB2 with a rear tailgate

6.
Electric car
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An electric car is an automobile that is propelled by one or more electric motors, using electrical energy stored in rechargeable batteries or another energy storage device. Electric motors give electric cars instant torque, creating strong and smooth acceleration and they are also around three times as efficient as cars with an internal combustion engine. The first practical electric cars were produced in the 1880s, Electric cars are significantly quieter than conventional internal combustion engine automobiles. They do not emit tailpipe pollutants, giving a reduction of local air pollution. They also provide for independence from oil, which in several countries is cause for concern about vulnerability to oil price volatility. Recharging can take a time and in many places there is a patchy recharging infrastructure. For long distance driving, many cars support fast charging that can give around 80% charge in half an hour using public rapid chargers, drivers can also sometimes suffer from range anxiety- the fear that the batteries will be depleted before reaching their destination. Cumulative global sales of highway-capable light-duty pure electric vehicles passed the one million milestone in September 2016. About 61% of the stock of 2 million light-duty plug-in electric vehicles by the end of 2016 were pure electric cars. The worlds all-time top selling electric car is the Nissan Leaf, released in December 2010. The Tesla Model S, released in June 2012, ranks second with global sales of over 158,000 units through December 2016, the Model S has been the worlds top selling plug-in car for two years in a row,2015 and 2016. Electric cars are a variety of electric vehicle, the term electric vehicle refers to any vehicle that uses electric motors for propulsion, while electric car generally refers to highway-capable automobiles powered by electricity. Thus, a car that derives its power from an on-board battery pack is a form of battery electric vehicle. Most often, the electric car is used to refer to battery electric vehicles. Thomas Parker built the first practical production electric car in London in 1884, the Flocken Elektrowagen of 1888 by German inventor Andreas Flocken is regarded as the first real electric car of the world. The electric vehicle stock peaked at approximately 30,000 vehicles at the turn of the 20th century, advances in internal combustion engines in the first decade of the 20th century lessened the relative advantages of the electric car. These cars were withdrawn from the U. S. market. California electric automaker Tesla Motors began development in 2004 on the Tesla Roadster, the Roadster was the first highway legal serial production all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells, and the first production all-electric car to travel more than 320 km per charge

7.
United States Environmental Protection Agency
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The EPA was proposed by President Richard Nixon and began operation on December 2,1970, after Nixon signed an executive order. The order establishing the EPA was ratified by committee hearings in the House, the agency is led by its Administrator, who is appointed by the president and approved by Congress. The current administrator is Scott Pruitt, the EPA is not a Cabinet department, but the administrator is normally given cabinet rank. The EPA has its headquarters in Washington, D. C. regional offices for each of the ten regions. The agency conducts environmental assessment, research, and education and it has the responsibility of maintaining and enforcing national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with state, tribal, and local governments. It delegates some permitting, monitoring, and enforcement responsibility to U. S. states, EPA enforcement powers include fines, sanctions, and other measures. The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs. In 2016, the agency had 15,376 full-time employees, more than half of EPAs employees are engineers, scientists, and environmental protection specialists, other employees include legal, public affairs, financial, and information technologists. Beginning in the late 1950s and through the 1960s, Congress reacted to increasing concern about the impact that human activity could have on the environment. Senator James E. Murray introduced a bill, the Resources and Conservation Act of 1959, the 1962 publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson alerted the public about the detrimental effects on the environment of the indiscriminate use of pesticides. In the years following, similar bills were introduced and hearings were held to discuss the state of the environment, in the colloquium, some members of Congress expressed a continuing concern over federal agency actions affecting the environment. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 was modeled on RCA, President Nixon signed NEPA into law on January 1,1970. The law created the Council on Environmental Quality in the Executive Office of the President, NEPA required that a detailed statement of environmental impacts be prepared for all major federal actions significantly affecting the environment. The detailed statement would ultimately be referred to as an impact statement. On July 9,1970, Nixon proposed a reorganization that consolidated many environmental responsibilities of the federal government under one agency. After conducting hearings during that summer, the House and Senate approved the proposal, the agency’s first administrator, William Ruckelshaus, took the oath of office on December 4,1970. In May 2013, Congress renamed the EPA headquarters as the William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building, the EPA is led by an Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. As of 2017 Scott Pruitt is the 14th administrator, each EPA regional office is responsible within its states for implementing the Agencys programs, except those programs that have been specifically delegated to states

8.
Kilowatt hour
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The kilowatt-hour is a derived unit of energy equal to 3.6 megajoules. If the energy is being transmitted or used at a constant rate over a period of time, the kilowatt-hour is commonly used as a billing unit for energy delivered to consumers by electric utilities. The kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy equivalent to one kilowatt of power sustained for one hour. 1 k W ⋅ h = =3600 =3600 k J =3.6 M J One watt is equal to 1 J/s. One kilowatt-hour is 3.6 megajoules, which is the amount of energy converted if work is done at a rate of one thousand watts for one hour. The base unit of energy within the International System of Units is the joule, the hour is a unit of time outside the SI, making the kilowatt-hour a non-SI unit of energy. The kilowatt-hour is not listed among the non-SI units accepted by the BIPM for use with the SI, although the hour, an electric heater rated at 1000 watts, operating for one hour uses one kilowatt-hour of energy. A television rated at 100 watts operating for 10 hours continuously uses one kilowatt-hour, a 40-watt light bulb operating continuously for 25 hours uses one kilowatt-hour. Electrical energy is sold in kilowatt-hours, cost of running equipment is the product of power in kilowatts multiplied by running time in hours, the unit price of electricity may depend upon the rate of consumption and the time of day. Industrial users may also have extra charges according to their peak usage, the symbol kWh is commonly used in commercial, educational, scientific and media publications, and is the usual practice in electrical power engineering. Other abbreviations and symbols may be encountered, kW h is less commonly used and it is consistent with SI standards. This is supported by a standard issued jointly by an international and national organization. However, at least one major usage guide and the IEEE/ASTM standard allow kWh, One guide published by NIST specifically recommends avoiding kWh to avoid possible confusion. KW·h is, like kW h, preferred with SI standards, the US official fuel-economy window sticker for electric vehicles uses the abbreviation kW-hrs. Variations in capitalization are sometimes seen, KWh, KWH, kwh, the notation kW/h, as a symbol for kilowatt-hour, is not correct. To convert a quantity measured in a unit in the column to the units in the top row, multiply by the factor in the cell where the row. All the SI prefixes are commonly applied to the watt-hour, a kilowatt-hour is 1,000 W·h (symbols kW·h, kWh or kW h, a megawatt-hour is 1 million W·h, a milliwatt-hour is 1/1000 W·h and so on. Megawatt-hours, gigawatt-hours, and terawatt-hours are often used for metering larger amounts of energy to industrial customers

9.
Combined Charging System
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As the plug is a combination of an AC connector with a DC option the resulting connector is also called Combo Coupler and the variant with Type 2 is abbreviated as Combo2. Automobile manufactures that support CCS include, Volkswagen, General Motors, BMW, Daimler, Ford, FCA, the CharIN consortium that controls the CCS standard is working on a charging rate of 350 kW beginning in 2017. In the United States, BMW and VW claim that the East Coast and West Coast corridors have complete CCS networks, competing standards include CHAdeMO and Tesla Supercharger. The revival of interest in electric cars brought about a need for a recharging network, Charging station deployment proliferated to fulfil this need - in the beginning these were accessing the abundant AC mains electricity using a variety of plugs throughout the world. On the 15th International VDI-Congress of the Association of German Engineers the proposal of a Combined Charging System was unveiled on 12, seven car makers have agreed to introduce the Combined Charging System in mid-2012. This defines a single connector pattern on the side that offers enough space for a Type 1 or Type 2 connector along with space for a two pin DC connector allowing up to 200 Ampere. The prototype implementations for up to 100 kW were shown on the EVS26 in Los Angeles in May 2012, specifications for DC charging in the IEC 62196-3 draft give a range up to 125 A with up to 850 V. The seven auto manufacturers have agreed to use HomePlug GreenPHY as the communication protocol. The prototype for the plug has been developed by Phoenix Contact with the goal to withstand 10,000 connect cycles. The standardization proposal has been sent to the IEC in January 2011 and this is competing with the CAN Bus proposal from Japan and China and notably none of their car manufacturers has signed up to the Combined Charging System so far. China had been involved in early stages of the development of the extra DC pins however, two weeks later BMW has opened its first CCS rapid charge station in support of the upcoming BMW i3. In Germany the Charging Interface Initiative e. V. was founded by car makers and suppliers to promote the adoption of the Combined Charging System. They noted in a release that the majority of cars can not charge with more than 50 kW. The next step was the standardization of charging stations with 150 kW output that they showed in October 2015, Tesla Motors joined CharIN in March 2016. Lucid Motors joined June 15,2016, faraday Future joined in June 2016. Toyota joined CharIN in March 2017, the Chevrolet Bolt/Opel Ampera-e uses this CCS standard for 50 kW quick charging. Maximum charge rate for Renault Zoe will be 100 kW, as part of the settlement of the Volkswagen emissions scandal, VW will spend $2 billion in the U. S. over the next 10 years on CCS and other charging infrastructure. In November 2016, Ford, Mercedes, Audi, Porsche and BMW announced building a 350 kW charge network with 400 stations in Europe, beginning in 2017, and priced at €200,000 each

10.
Plug-in electric vehicle
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In China, plug-in electric vehicles are called new energy vehicles. Plug-in cars have several benefits compared to internal combustion engine vehicles. They have lower operating and maintenance costs, and produce little or no air pollution. Plug-in hybrids capture most of these benefits when they are operating in all-electric mode, despite their potential benefits, market penetration of plug-in electric vehicles has been slower than expected as adoption faces several hurdles and limitations. The global market share of the light-duty plug-in vehicle segment achieved 0. 86% of total new car sales in 2016, up from 0. 62% in 2015 and 0. 38% in 2014. However, the stock of plug-in electric cars represented just 0. 15% of the 1.4 billion motor vehicles on the roads by the end of 2016. As of December 2016, plug-in electric vehicles are more expensive than conventional vehicles, as of December 2016, there are over 60 models of highway capable plug-in electric passenger cars and light-duty utility vans available for retail sales in the world. Cumulative global sales of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and light utility vehicles achieved the 2 million unit milestone in December 2016, the global ratio between the stock of all-electrics and plug-in hybrids was 61,39 at the end of 2016. Global sales of electric cars and vans achieved the 1 million milestone in September 2016. The Tesla Model S has been the top selling plug-in car for two years in a row,2015 and 2016. As of December 2016, China has the worlds largest stock of highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles with cumulative sales of more than 645,000 plug-in electric passenger cars. Among country markets, the United States ranks second with more than 570,000 plug-in electric cars sold through December 2016, Japan is the worlds third largest plug-in car country market with about 147,500 plug-ins sold through December 2016. More than 637,000 light-duty plug-in electric passenger cars have registered in Europe up until December 2016. China is the leader in the plug-in heavy-duty segment, including electric all-electric buses. The stock of new vehicles sold in China totaled more than 950,000 units through December 2016. As of December 2015, China was the worlds largest plug-in electric bus market with a stock of almost 173,000 vehicles, Plug-in electric vehicles are also sometimes referred to as grid-enabled vehicles and also as electrically chargeable vehicles. In some European countries, particularly in France, electrically chargeable vehicle is the term used to designate the vehicles eligible for these incentives. A battery electric vehicle uses chemical energy stored in battery packs as its only source for propulsion

11.
Exhaust gas
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Exhaust gas or flue gas is emitted as a result of the combustion of fuels such as natural gas, gasoline, petrol, biodiesel blends, diesel fuel, fuel oil, or coal. According to the type of engine, it is discharged into the atmosphere through an exhaust pipe, flue gas stack and it often disperses downwind in a pattern called an exhaust plume. A2013 study by MIT indicates that 53,000 early deaths occur per year in the United States alone because of vehicle emissions. According to another study from the university, traffic fumes alone cause the death of 5,000 people every year just in the United Kingdom. The largest part of most combustion gas is nitrogen, water vapor, and carbon dioxide, Exhaust gas temperature is important to the functioning of the catalytic converter of an internal combustion engine. It may be measured by an exhaust gas temperature gauge, EGT is also a measure of engine health in gas-turbine engines. During the first two minutes after starting the engine of a car that has not been operated for several hours, inefficient catalytic converter under cold conditions, Catalytic converters are very inefficient until up to their operating temperature. This time has much reduced by moving the converter closer to the exhaust manifold. The small converter handles the start-up emissions, which enough time for the larger main converter to heat up. Further improvements can be realised in many ways, including heating, thermal battery, chemical reaction preheating, flame heating. The requirements were phased in beginning with 2004 vehicles and all new cars, in spark-ignition engines the gases resulting from combustion of the fuel and air mix are called exhaust gases. The composition varies from petrol to diesel engines, but is around these levels, The 10% oxygen for diesel is likely if the engine was idling and it is much less if the engine is running under load. People exposed to it should wear a gas mask, in aircraft gas turbine engines, exhaust gas temperature is a primary measure of engine health. Typically the EGT is compared with an engine power indication called engine pressure ratio. For example, at full power EPR there will be a maximum permitted EGT limit, once an engine reaches a stage in its life where it reaches this EGT limit, the engine will require specific maintenance in order to rectify the problem. The amount the EGT is below the EGT limit is called EGT margin, the EGT margin of an engine will be greatest when the engine is new, or has been overhauled. For most airlines, this information is monitored remotely by the airline maintenance department by means of ACARS. In jet engines and rocket engines, exhaust from propelling nozzles which in some applications shows shock diamonds, Flue gas Flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion In steam engine terminology the exhaust is steam that is now so low in pressure that it can no longer do useful work

12.
Greenhouse gas
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A greenhouse gas is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range. This process is the cause of the greenhouse effect. The primary greenhouse gases in Earths atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, without greenhouse gases, the average temperature of Earths surface would be about −18 °C, rather than the present average of 15 °C. In the Solar System, the atmospheres of Venus, Mars, human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution have produced a 40% increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, from 280 ppm in 1750 to 400 ppm in 2015. This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a portion of the emissions by various natural sinks involved in the carbon cycle. Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions come from combustion of fuels, principally coal, oil. Greenhouse gases are those that absorb and emit infrared radiation in the range emitted by Earth. The proportion of an emission remaining in the atmosphere after a time is the airborne fraction. The annual airborne fraction is the ratio of the increase in a given year to that years total emissions. Over the last 50 years the annual airborne fraction for CO2 has been increasing at 0.25 ±0. 21%/year, therefore, they do not contribute significantly to the greenhouse effect and usually are omitted when discussing greenhouse gases. Some gases have indirect radiative effects and this happens in two main ways. One way is that when they break down in the atmosphere they produce another greenhouse gas, for example, methane and carbon monoxide are oxidized to give carbon dioxide. Oxidation of CO to CO2 directly produces an increase in radiative forcing although the reason is subtle. The peak of the thermal IR emission from Earths surface is close to a strong vibrational absorption band of CO2. On the other hand, the single CO vibrational band only absorbs IR at much higher frequencies, where the ~300 K thermal emission of the surface is at least a factor of ten lower. Oxidation of methane to CO2, which requires reactions with the OH radical, produces a reduction, since CO2 is a weaker greenhouse gas than methane. As described below this is not the story, since the oxidations of CO. In any case, the calculation of the radiative effect needs to include both the direct and indirect forcing

13.
Petroleum
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Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earths surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation and it consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock, Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a variety of materials. Concern over the depletion of the earths finite reserves of oil, the burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming. The word petroleum comes from Greek, πέτρα for rocks and Greek, the term was found in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China, early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production. The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, Pechelbronn is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century. In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century, both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil, Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. The production of oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E. W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian, the worlds first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz. The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America, edwin Drakes 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well

14.
Green Car Vision Award
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The Green Car Vision Award is an annual award granted by the Green Car Journal. Vehicles that are part of a fleet or other program that finds them regularly driven by people other than employees of their manufacturer may also be considered. Nominees may also include a modification of an existing vehicle model, the Green Car Vision Award was created in 2008, and the winners were announced at the Washington Auto Show. In 2013 the award was changed to Green Car Technology Award,2008 —Chevrolet Equinox Fuel Cell hydrogen fuel cell vehicle. 2009 —Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid car, the other 2009 nominees were the Fisker Karma plug-in hybrid, the Honda FCX Clarity hydrogen fuel cell car, the Mini E all-electric car, and the Mitsubishi i MiEV all-electric car. 2010 —Nissan Leaf battery electric car, the other 2010 nominees were the Coda electric sedan, the Ford Focus BEV electric car, the Mercedes-Benz F-Cell hydrogen fuel cell vehicle, and the Toyota Prius PHV plug-in hybrid. 2011 —Ford Focus Electric battery electric car, the four 2011 finalists were the Honda Fit EV, Mitsubishi i MiEV, Toyota RAV4 EV, and Volvo C30 DRIVe Electric. 2012 —Ford C-Max Energi plug-in hybrid, the four 2012 finalists were the Tesla Model S and the BMW i3 electric cars, the Cadillac ELR plug-in hybrid, and the Mercedes-Benz B-Class F-Cell hydrogen fuel cell electric car. The winner was announced on January 26 at the 2012 Washington Auto Show, Green vehicle Green Car of the Year

15.
European Car of the Year
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The european Car of the Year award was established in 1964, by a collective of automobile magazines from different countries in Europe. The current organisers of the award are Auto, Autocar, Autopista, Autovisie, LAutomobile Magazine, Stern, the voting jury consists of motoring journalists from publications throughout Europe. Representation from each country is based on the size of the car market. There are no categories or class winners — the stated objective is to find a single, the 2017 ECOTY was announced on March 6,2017, at the Geneva Motor Show in Geneva, Switzerland, the winner being the Peugeot 3008. Eligible cars are new models released in the months prior to the award. The award is not restricted to European cars, but nominees must be available in at least five European countries, nominees are judged on the following criteria, design, comfort, safety, economy, handling, performance, functionality, environmental requirements, driver satisfaction and price. Technical innovation and value for money are also important factors, a shortlist of seven cars is selected by a simple vote. For the final round of voting, each member has 25 points to distribute among the finalists. The points must be distributed to at least five cars, with no more than ten to any one car, the voting is open, and each jury member provides published justification for their vote distribution. Under these rules, the decisiveness of the victory has varied greatly, in 2010 the Volkswagen Polo won by a mere 10 points, received maximum points from twenty-five jurors, and was the top choice of 59. The Renault Clio, Volkswagen Golf, and Opel/Vauxhall Astra, are the cars to have won the award more than once. In November 2010, the Nissan Leaf was the first electrically powered vehicle to be awarded Car of the Year, British carmakers produced the first two winners of the award. The Rover 2000 saloon was the winner in 1964 while the Austin 1800 was victorious in 1965. The Rover won over another British contender, the rear-engine Hillman Imp, the Renault 16 was the worlds first production hatchback car and unsurprisingly won the award for 1966, having been launched at the beginning of 1965. A year later, the award went to the Fiat 124, which won more than twice as many as voted as its nearest competitor, the BMW1600. Fiat missed out the year, however, when its 125 was pipped to the award by the revolutionary new NSU Ro80. Peugeot claimed the accolade for the first time with the 1969 award, which was won by its 504 saloon, the Fiat 128 was the next winner of the award, while a year later the innovative new Citroen GS family saloon won the award. Fiat became the first manufacturer to win the award for a time when its 127 supermini won the 1972 title

16.
World Car of the Year
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The World Car Awards is an automobile award selected by a jury of 48 international automotive journalists from 22 countries. Cars considered must be sold in at least five countries, on at least two prior to 1 January of the year of the award. The contest was inaugurated in 2003, and officially launched in January 2004 and this was as a unified award, similar to many of the continent, and nation-specific Car of the Year awards already given. Since 2006, awards for performance, green cars, and car design have also been given, in 2013, an award for luxury design was inaugurated. 2005 Ten finalists were reduced to three, before the winner was selected at the Canadian International AutoShow in Toronto, the Audi A6, Porsche 911, and Volvo S40/V50 were the top–three finalists. 2006 For 2006, in addition to the WCOTY award, the performance, green, and design categories were added, the BMW 3-Series, Mazda MX-5, and Porsche Cayman were the top–three finalists. 2007 The Lexus LS, MINI, and Audi TT were the top–three finalists, the winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show. 2008 The Mazda2 / Demio, Ford Mondeo, and Mercedes-Benz C-Class were the top–three finalists, the winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show. 2009 The Volkswagen Golf, Ford Fiesta, and Toyota iQ were the top–three finalists, the winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show. 2010 The Volkswagen Polo, Mercedes-Benz E-Class, and Audi A5 were the top–three finalists, the winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show. 2011 The Nissan Leaf, Audi A8, and BMW5 Series were the top–three finalists, the winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show. BMW3 Series, and Porsche 911 were the top–three finalists, the winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show. 2013 The Volkswagen Golf, Mercedes-Benz A-Class, Porsche Boxster and Subaru BRZ/Toyota GT-86 were the top–four finalists, the winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show. 2014 The Audi A3, Mazda3 and BMW4 Series were the top–three finalists, the winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show. 2015 The Mercedes-Benz C-Class, Volkswagen Passat and Ford Mustang were the top–three finalists, the winner was announced at the New York International Auto Show. Official website List of winners Cars of the year

17.
Car of the Year Japan
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The award has been presented since 1980. The recipient of the award, for 2016–2017, is the Subaru Impreza The Japan car of the year 2016-2017 nominate cars are schedule to announce on October 31,2016. One unique event that happened, was that the Jeep Cherokee made the list of the Top 10 Cars In Japan and this was the first time an American car ever made that list. The supervisory board is made up primarily of Japanese automotive journalists, the award is not associated with the more recent Automotive Researchers & Journalists Conference RJC Car of the Year award, which has been issued since 1992

18.
Nissan Cube
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The Nissan Cube is a mini MPV produced by Japanese carmaker Nissan since 1998. Initially sold only in Japan, the Cube has been sold in North American and European markets since 2009, in Japan, it is exclusive to Japanese Nissan dealerships called Nissan Red Stage locations. It is a larger load carrying alternative to the Nissan March hatchback. Since 2014, the Cube has once again sold only in Japan. The first generation of the Cube, designated Z10, was introduced in 1998 and it shared the same platform as the Nissan Micra, as well as the same 1.3 L engine. A continuously variable transmission and four-wheel drive were optional, the Cube covered the gap in the Nissan lineup between the March and the Sunny. The second generation of the Cube was released in 2002 with a larger interior than the previous model, the combination of angled and curved surfaces was based on the third generation of the March, powered by a 1.4 L I4 engine. The model included the system as an option, which transfers power to the rear wheels when the front wheels spin via a small electric motor on the rear underside of the floor. The electrically powered system allows for reduced drag in FWD mode. A CVT was optional, and was available in a version with seven seats. With a CVT, the steering wheel controls and the sport wheel button on the dash panel are located next to the hazard flasher switch. In mid-2005, the cube had an upgrade with the new HR-series 1.5 L engine from the Nissan Tiida. All Cube models have optional extras including an Ion filter for cleaning the air, other options include a sunroof,12 different styles of front grill and satellite navigation. Other specific models also have different styles of bodykits and fender flares and they come with optional 14 or 15 inch wheels and the Autech version with chrome stylings and a vinyl style of seat covering. The third generation Nissan Cube was revealed for the first time at the Los Angeles International Auto Show and it was the first generation of the Cube to be officially exported beyond Japan, including to the European and North American markets. The Cube went on sale in Japan on November 19,2008, the updated model has more rounded and curved styling in the rear bumper area, in the asymmetrical rear window which wraps around to the passenger side, and in the driver and front passenger windows. The tailgate is side-hinged to swing open like a door, rather than upward like a hatch, the hatch hinge is on the right side for countries with left-hand traffic such as Japan and the UK, on the left side for right-hand traffic markets such as North America. According to Nissan designers, the interior is inspired by the curves of a jacuzzi to promote a comfortable

19.
Prototype
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A prototype is an early sample, model, or release of a product built to test a concept or process or to act as a thing to be replicated or learned from. It is a used in a variety of contexts, including semantics, design, electronics. A prototype is used to evaluate a new design to enhance precision by system analysts. Prototyping serves to provide specifications for a real, working system rather than a theoretical one, in some design workflow models, creating a prototype is the step between the formalization and the evaluation of an idea. The word prototype derives from the Greek πρωτότυπον prototypon, primitive form, neutral of πρωτότυπος prototypos, original, primitive, from πρῶτος protos, first and τύπος typos, a Working Prototype represents all or nearly all of the functionality of the final product. A Visual Prototype represents the size and appearance, but not the functionality, a User Experience Prototype represents enough of the appearance and function of the product that it can be used for user research. A Functional Prototype captures both function and appearance of the design, though it may be created with different techniques. A Paper Prototype is a printed or hand-drawn representation of the interface of a software product. In some cases, the final production materials may still be undergoing development themselves, process - Mass-production processes are often unsuitable for making a small number of parts, so prototypes may be made using different fabrication processes than the final product. Differences in fabrication process may lead to differences in the appearance of the prototype as compared to the final product, verification - The final product may be subject to a number of quality assurance tests to verify conformance with drawings or specifications. These tests may involve custom inspection fixtures, statistical sampling methods, prototypes are generally made with much closer individual inspection and the assumption that some adjustment or rework will be part of the fabrication process. Prototypes may also be exempted from some requirements that apply to the final product. Engineers and prototype specialists will attempt to minimize the impact of these differences on the role for the prototype. Engineers and prototyping specialists seek to understand the limitations of prototypes to exactly simulate the characteristics of their intended design and it is important to realize that by their very definition, prototypes will represent some compromise from the final production design. Due to differences in materials, processes and design fidelity, it is possible that a prototype may fail to perform acceptably whereas the design may have been sound. In general, it can be expected that individual prototype costs will be greater than the final production costs due to inefficiencies in materials. Prototypes are also used to revise the design for the purposes of reducing costs through optimization and it is possible to use prototype testing to reduce the risk that a design may not perform as intended, however prototypes generally cannot eliminate all risk. As an alternative, rapid prototyping or rapid application development techniques are used for the prototypes, which implement part

20.
Battery electric vehicle
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A battery electric vehicle, battery-only electric vehicle or all-electric vehicle is a type of electric vehicle that uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs. BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines for propulsion and they derive all power from battery packs and thus have no internal combustion engine, fuel cell, or fuel tank. BEVs include bicycles, scooters, skateboards, rail cars, watercraft, forklifts, buses, trucks, cumulative global sales of highway-capable light-duty pure electric vehicles passed the one million unit milestone in September 2016. PHEVs with a series powertrain are also called range-extended electric vehicles, such as the Chevrolet Volt, in China, plug-in electric vehicles, together with hybrid electric vehicles are called new energy vehicles. The concept of electric vehicles is to use charged batteries on board vehicles for propulsion. Battery electric cars are becoming more and more attractive with the advancement of new technology that have higher power and energy density. BEVs include automobiles, light trucks, and neighborhood electric vehicles, two of these buses were used for the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. A similar bus was operated in Napa Valley, California for 14 months ending in April,2004, the 2008 Beijing Olympics used a fleet of 50 electric buses, which have a range of 130 km with the air conditioning on. They use Lithium-ion batteries, and consume about 1 kW·h/mi, the buses were designed by the Beijing Institute of Technology and built by the Jinghua Coach Co. Ltd. The batteries are replaced with fully charged ones at the station to allow 24-hour operation of the buses. In France, the bus electric phenomenon is in development, PVI, a medium company located in the Paris region, is one of the leader of the market with its brand Gepebus. In the United States, the first battery-electric, fast-charge bus has been in operation in Pomona, the Proterra EcoRide BE35 uses lithium-titanate batteries and is able to fast-charge in less than 10 minutes. In 2014, the first production model all-electric school bus was delivered to the Kings Canyon Unified School District in California’s San Joaquin Valley, the bus was one of four the district ordered. This battery electric bus, which has 4 sodium nickel batteries, is the first modern electric school bus approved for student transportation by any state. The same technology is used to power the Mountain View Community Shuttles and this technology was supported by the California Energy Commission, and the shuttle program is being supported by Google. The buses will also be built in the United States and Finland, Tindo is an all-electric bus from Adelaide, Australia. The Tindo is made by Designline International in New Zealand and gets its electricity from a solar PV system on Adelaides central bus station, rides are zero-fare as part of Adelaides public transport system. Proterras EcoRide BE35 transit bus, called the Ecoliner by Foothill Transit in West Covina, California, is a duty, fast charge

21.
Nissan Tiida
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The Nissan Tiida is a small car produced by the Japanese manufacturer Nissan since 2004, spanning two generations. For the first generation of Tiida manufactured between 2004 and 2012, the series is designated C11 and was sold as a five-door hatchback and this model straddled the subcompact and compact car segments. It retailed in North America as Nissan Versa, in parts of South America as Dodge Trazo, therefore, depending on the market, the C11 replaced different models and engrossed different segments. For example, in Japan the Tiida replaced the Nissan Sunny in Nissans lineup as the smallest sedan, the G10/N16s successor, the Bluebird Sylphy G11 was not widely sold outside Japan. The C11 started to be phased out in China first, during 2011 when partially replaced by the larger, in 2012, the C11 began to be withdrawn from more markets as its main production bases ceased manufacture. The C11 was also replaced by the subcompact Nissan Note or Versa Note hatchback, and on the fronts, by the subcompact Almera/Latio/Sunny/Versa. Nissan introduced a generation of Tiida, the five-door hatchback C12 series in 2011 to the Chinese market. Starting in 2013, sales began in Thailand, then Australia, the C12 represents a departure from the C11, increasing its dimensions to comfortably occupy the compact class. The C12s development was anchored with the Nissan Pulsar/Sylphy/Sentra which is effectively the sedan version of the C12, Nissan revealed the C-Note concept car in 2003 to preview the styling of the upcoming Nissan Tiida. It is a hatchback based on the same platform of the Renault Megane. It included bright beige color interior, the vehicle was unveiled in 2003 Tokyo Motor Show. The Tiida hatchback and the Tiida Latio sedan debuted in 2004 in Japan and it is based on a stretched-wheelbase variant of the Nissan B platform, and was manufactured as a five-door hatchback and a four-door sedan. The engine range included 1. 5-,1. 6- and 1. 8-litre gasoline engines, in January 2008, Nissan introduced facelifted versions of both the hatchback and the sedan. The exterior features a new grille, front bumper, headlamps, taillights, rear bumper, the interior sports a more modern look as well as better visibility and usability, new instrument cluster design and metallic-finish dash panels. Engines include a 1. 5-litre or 1. 8-litre four-cylinder engine, there are also two optional dealer packages, the Nismo S-tune Aero Package and Nismo Performance Package. Asia In mainland China, the Tiida is produced by the Dongfeng Motor Company, in Taiwan it is produced by Yulon. In Singapore, the Tiida and Tiida Latio were initially sold alongside the older and cheaper Sunny N16, in Indonesia, the Tiida 1.8 hatchback was marketed for private use, while the 1.6 sedan was for taxi fleet only. In Hong Kong, the Tiida was used as a car by the Hong Kong police

22.
Nissan R'nessa
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The Nissan Rnessa is a station wagon manufactured by Nissan from 1997 to 2001. According to Nissan, the name derives from packaging renaissance for versatile and it was produced by Nissan from October 1997 to July 2001, and competed with the Toyota Opa and the Honda Avancier. Powering the 2WD models was the SR20DE engine, The X and G models with a 4WD specification were fitted with the KA24DE engine, the GT Turbo model came with the SR20DET engine and was AWD. In Japan, it was exclusive to Nissan Satio Store Japanese dealerships, the batteries were installed beneath the floor. The Nissan Altra was a car produced by Nissan Motors between 1998 and 2002. The Nissan Altra was introduced at the Los Angeles International Auto Show on 29 December 1997, Nissan described the Altra as a combination of a sedan, SUV, and minivan. It was mainly used as a vehicle for companies such as electric utilities. Only about 200 vehicles were ever produced and it used the bodystyle of the Nissan Rnessa. Technologically, the Altra was significant as being the first production vehicle to use a lithium-ion battery battery. Nissan called this a third-generation battery and chose li-ion primarily for its power density and it was managed by a passive system, ensuring the batteries never reach charge levels outside their recommended zones. The Altra had a permanent magnet motor, controlled by a 32-bit RISC computer. It had other more typical features, such as entry, power mirrors and windows, a 4-wheel anti-lock braking system. According to Nissan, the Altra had a range of 120 miles. The Environmental Protection Agency reported that the 2000 version had an adjusted mileage of 117 mpg‑US the city, and 130 mpg‑US on the highway

23.
LA Auto Show
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The Los Angeles Auto Show is an annual auto show held at the Los Angeles Convention Center in mid-to-late November. The LA Auto Show is an OICA sanctioned international exhibition and also endorsed by the Greater Los Angeles New Car Dealers Association and it is open to the public for ten days each year, filling 760,000 square feet of exhibit space. Starting in 2016, the show kicks off with AutoMobility LA, four days full of activity for journalists, designers, in 2014, the show had a record number of debuts with more than 65 World and North American debuts. The Los Angeles Auto Show began in 1907 with ninety-nine vehicles on display at Morley’s Skating Rink, in 1910, the event was held under a canvas big top at Fiesta Park. As the auto industry grew, the show changed venues four times throughout the 1920s to accommodate the growing needs of vendors. In 1926, it place at the corner of Hill. During the 1929 show, a circuit in one of the airplane exhibits caught fire causing the entire show to go up in flames ending in more than $1 Million in damage. With the help of the community, the show re-opened one day later at the Shrine Auditorium, the show continued to prove successful throughout the 1930s, but took a down turn during the Second World War and went on hiatus from 1940 through 1951. In 1952, the show re-opened at the Pan Pacific Auditorium with 152 vehicles on display, in 2006, the show moved its dates from early January to late November/early December, thus resulting in two shows during the year 2006, the second marking the 100 year anniversary show. For 2016, AutoMobility LA will also include the events, AutoMobility LA, four days of networking. Press days and vehicle debuts took place on November 16 and 17, the 2015 Los Angeles Auto Show was held from November 20 through November 29,2015. Press days and vehicle debuts took place on November 18 and 29, the 2014 Los Angeles Auto Show was held from November 21 through November 30,2014. Press days and vehicle debuts took place on November 19 and 20, the 2013 Los Angeles Auto Show was held from November 22 through December 1,2013. Press days and vehicle debuts took place on November 20 and 21, the 2013 Connected Car Expo was held on November 19–21. 56 total vehicles debuted at the 2013 show, with 22 of them being world debuts, the following below are production models that debuted. The 2012 Los Angeles Auto Show was held from November 30 through December 9,2012, Honda also announced the 2014 Accord Plug-In Hybrid will be available starting January 15,2013 in California and New York. The 2011 Los Angeles Auto Show was held from November 18 through November 27,2011, the Sneak Preview Night was held on November 17,2011. The 2010 Los Angeles Auto Show was held from November 19 through November 28,2010, the Sneak Preview Night was held on November 18,2010

24.
Fleet vehicle
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This page refers to a collection of vehicles with a single owner. For other uses of the fleet, see Fleet. Fleet vehicles are groups of vehicles owned or leased by a business. Typical examples are operated by car rental companies, taxicab companies, public utilities, public bus companies. In addition, many businesses purchase or lease fleet vehicles to deliver goods to customers, in the United States, Federal Vehicle fleets refers to the federal governments vehicles. Fleet leasing in the UK is very much the same as in the USA, Fleet leasing is popular with much larger businesses with the ability to get great deals and discounts on multi leasing vehicles. Carsharing Fleet card Fleet management software Fleet Management System Fleet Special General Services Administration Take-home vehicle Vehicle remarketing

25.
Nissan Hypermini
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The Hypermini is a two-seater electric car produced by Nissan Motors. It is a two-passenger EV that can go 100 km/h and travel about 115 kilometres on a single charge, the Hypermini won the fourth annual New Energy Grand Prize. The prize is sponsored by the New Energy Foundation which is associated with Japans Ministry of International Trade & Industry and it was introduced in a limited way in Japan in 1999. Sales were targeted principally at national government offices and agencies, local government bodies, Nissan claims the Hypermini consumes a quarter the energy of a typical car. It features a space frame chassis made of extruded aluminium pipe, aluminium stampings. The front Suspension has independent struts, the suspension has independent parallel-link struts. Brakes are ventilated discs with anti-lock system, stock Tyres are of the run-flat type, measuring 145/65 R14 at the front and at the rear, 165/60 R14. Its turning circle is 7.8 metres and its drag coefficient is 0.30 and it came with an electric automatic air-conditioner with pre-cool and pre-heat enabling the driver to get the cabin temperature to the desired level before climbing behind the wheel. Its lithium-ion batteries are located under the floor and are recharged inductively, the non-contact charging system utilizes a plastic paddle with a built-in coil that generates a high frequency magnetic field. A portable battery charger can be stored on board, enabling batteries to be charged anywhere an ordinary electric outlet can be found, Nissan estimated that Hypermini could be operated at one-fifth the cost of a gasoline-powered vehicle. According to Nissan, a total of about 300 were made, production versions were trialed in the Japanese cities of Kyoto, Yokohama, Ebina, Tokyo, and in California at University of California, Davis and the city council of Pasadena. 15 small Nissan Hypermini vehicles went into service 7 November 2001 in a program at the University of California. Nissan was involved in three car-sharing programs using Hyperminis in Japan, about 120 Hyperminis had been sold to support these programs in the cities of Kyoto, Ebina and Yokohama. City officials and private citizens were using the vehicles, Nissan took 11 Hypermini August 2006 vehicles back from city council of Pasadena, California after leases expired, stating Nissan says it no longer makes the Hypermini and cant maintain the cars. Publicly owned examples can sometimes be found for sale in Japan, Nissan Motors Hypermini page Nissan Press release announcing sale In Aichi Pref

26.
Electric motor
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An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric motors magnetic field and winding currents to generate force within the motor, small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use, the largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, perhaps the first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices created by the Scottish monk Andrew Gordon in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind production of force by the interactions of an electric current. The conversion of energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed, when a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in experiments, brine substituting for toxic mercury. Though Barlows wheel was a refinement to this Faraday demonstration. In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils, after Jedlik solved the technical problems of the continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices electromagnetic self-rotors. Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three components of practical DC motors, the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings. His motor set a record which was improved only four years later in September 1838 by Jacobi himself. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river and it was not until 1839/40 that other developers worldwide managed to build motors of similar and later also of higher performance. The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832, following Sturgeons work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American inventor Thomas Davenport, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same battery power cost issues, no electricity distribution had been developed at the time

27.
Lithium-ion battery
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A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Li-ion batteries use an intercalated lithium compound as one electrode material, the electrolyte, which allows for ionic movement, and the two electrodes are the constituent components of a lithium-ion battery cell. Lithium-ion batteries are common in home electronics and they are one of the most popular types of rechargeable batteries for portable electronics, with a high energy density, tiny memory effect and low self-discharge. Beyond consumer electronics, LIBs are also growing in popularity for military, battery electric vehicle, for example, lithium-ion batteries are becoming a common replacement for the lead–acid batteries that have been used historically for golf carts and utility vehicles. Chemistry, performance, cost and safety characteristics vary across LIB types, handheld electronics mostly use LIBs based on lithium cobalt oxide, which offers high energy density, but presents safety risks, especially when damaged. Lithium iron phosphate, lithium ion manganese oxide battery and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide offer lower energy density, such batteries are widely used for electric tools, medical equipment and other roles. NMC in particular is a contender for automotive applications. Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide and lithium titanate are specialty designs aimed at particular niche roles, the newer lithium–sulfur batteries promise the highest performance-to-weight ratio. Lithium-ion batteries can pose unique safety hazards since they contain a flammable electrolyte, an expert notes If a battery cell is charged too quickly, it can cause a short circuit, leading to explosions and fires. Because of these risks, testing standards are more stringent than those for acid-electrolyte batteries, there have been battery-related recalls by some companies, including the 2016 Samsung Note 7 recall for battery fires. This article covers just the topics and general principles of lithium-ion batteries. Nearly all facets have elements that are impacted by currently very active development or research, a cell is a basic electrochemical unit that contains the basic components, such as electrodes, separator, and electrolyte. In the case of cells, this is the single cylindrical, prismatic or pouch unit. In this regard, the simplest battery is a cell with perhaps a small electronic circuit for protection. In many cases, distinguishing between cell and battery is not important, however, this should be done when dealing with specific applications, for example, battery electric vehicles, where battery may indicate a high voltage system of 400 V, and not a single cell. The term module is used as an intermediate topology, with the understanding that a battery pack is made of modules. In electrochemistry, the anode is the electrode where oxidation is taking place in the battery, i. e. electrons get free, however, this happens on opposite electrodes during charge vs. discharge. Historically, for lithium cells, which started as single use discharge cells and this is true on discharge, but with a rechargeable system, the negative electrode chemically becomes the cathode while charging

28.
Automotive navigation system
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An automotive navigation system is part of the automobile controls or a third party add-on used to find direction in an automobile. It typically uses a navigation device to get its position data which is then correlated to a position on a road. When directions are needed routing can be calculated, on the fly traffic information can be used to adjust the route. Automotive navigation systems represent a convergence of a number of diverse technologies many of which have available for many years. Limitations such as batteries, display, and processing power had to be overcome before the product became commercially viable, etak made an early system that used map-matching to improve on dead reckoning instrumentation. Digital map information was stored on cassette tapes. 1966, General Motors Research was working on a non-satellite-based navigation, after initial tests GM found that it was not a scalable or practical way to provide navigation assistance. Decades later, however, the concept would be reborn as OnStar,1980, Electronic Auto Compass with new mechanism on the Toyota Crown. 1981, navigation computer on the Toyota Celica,1987, Toyota introduced the Worlds first CD-ROM-based navigation system on the Toyota Crown. 1990, Mazda Eunos Cosmo became the first car with built-in GPS-navigation system 1991,1991, Mitsubishi introduced GPS car navigation on the Mitsubishi Debonair. 1992, Voice assisted GPS navigation system on the Toyota Celsior, bitMAP attends Comdex in Las Vegas the same year, but doesnt manage to market itself properly. 1994, BMW7 series E38 first European model featuring GPS sat nav, the navigation system was developed in cooperation with Philips. 1995, Oldsmobile introduced the first GPS navigation system available in a United States production car,1995, Device called Mobile Assistant or short, MASS, produced by Munich-based company ComRoad AG, won the title Best Product in Mobile Computing on CeBit by magazine Byte. It offered turn-by-turn navigation via wireless connection, with both GPS and speed sensor in the car. Street names or numbers and house numbers are encoded as geographic coordinates so that the user can find some desired destination by street address, points of interest are stored with their geographic coordinates. Formats are almost uniformly proprietary, there is no standard for satellite navigation maps, although some companies are trying to address this with SDAL. Map data vendors such as Tele Atlas and Navteq create the map in a Geographic Data Files format. GDF is not a CD standard for car navigation systems, GDF is used and converted onto the CD-ROM in the internal format of the navigation system

29.
Mobile phone
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A mobile phone is a portable telephone that can make and receive calls over a radio frequency link while the user is moving within a telephone service area. The radio frequency link establishes a connection to the systems of a mobile phone operator. Most modern mobile telephone services use a network architecture, and, therefore. Mobile phones which offer these and more general computing capabilities are referred to as smartphones, the first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing c.4.4 lbs. In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available mobile phone. From 1983 to 2014, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to seven billion, penetrating 100% of the global population. In first quarter of 2016, the top smartphone manufacturers were Samsung, Apple, a handheld mobile radio telephone service was envisioned in the early stages of radio engineering. In 1917, Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt filed a patent for a pocket-size folding telephone with a thin carbon microphone. Early predecessors of cellular phones included analog radio communications from ships, the race to create truly portable telephone devices began after World War II, with developments taking place in many countries. These 0G systems were not cellular, supported few simultaneous calls, the first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing c.4.4 lbs. The first commercial automated cellular network was launched in Japan by Nippon Telegraph and this was followed in 1981 by the simultaneous launch of the Nordic Mobile Telephone system in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. Several other countries followed in the early to mid-1980s. These first-generation systems could support far more simultaneous calls but still used analog cellular technology, in 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone. In 1991, the digital cellular technology was launched in Finland by Radiolinja on the GSM standard. This sparked competition in the sector as the new operators challenged the incumbent 1G network operators, ten years later, in 2001, the third generation was launched in Japan by NTT DoCoMo on the WCDMA standard. This was followed by 3. 5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G enhancements based on the high-speed packet access family, allowing UMTS networks to have data transfer speeds. By 2009, it had become clear that, at point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications. Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized fourth-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to ten-fold over existing 3G technologies

30.
Data center
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A data center is a facility used to house computer systems and associated components, such as telecommunications and storage systems. It generally includes redundant or backup power supplies, redundant data communications connections, environmental controls, large data centers are industrial scale operations using as much electricity as a small town. Data centers have their roots in the computer rooms of the early ages of the computing industry. Early computer systems, complex to operate and maintain, required an environment in which to operate. Many cables were necessary to all the components, and methods to accommodate and organize these were devised such as standard racks to mount equipment, raised floors. A single mainframe required a deal of power, and had to be cooled to avoid overheating. Security became important – computers were expensive, and were used for military purposes. Basic design-guidelines for controlling access to the room were therefore devised. During the boom of the industry, and especially during the 1980s, users started to deploy computers everywhere. However, as information technology operations started to grow in complexity, the advent of Unix from the early 1970s led to the subsequent proliferation of freely available Linux-compatible PC operating-systems during the 1990s. These were called servers, as timesharing operating systems like Unix rely heavily on the model to facilitate sharing unique resources between multiple users. The use of the data center, as applied to specially designed computer rooms. The boom of data centers came during the bubble of 1997–2000. Companies needed fast Internet connectivity and non-stop operation to deploy systems, installing such equipment was not viable for many smaller companies. Many companies started building very large facilities, called Internet data centers, New technologies and practices were designed to handle the scale and the operational requirements of such large-scale operations. These practices eventually migrated toward the data centers, and were adopted largely because of their practical results. Data centers for cloud computing are called cloud data centers, but nowadays, the division of these terms has almost disappeared and they are being integrated into a term data center. Standards documents from accredited professional groups, such as the Telecommunications Industry Association, well-known operational metrics for data-center availability can serve to evaluate the commercial impact of a disruption

31.
Powertrain
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In a motor vehicle, the term powertrain or powerplant describes the main components that generate power and deliver it to the road surface, water, or air. This includes the engine, transmission, drive shafts, differentials, more recently in hybrid Powertrains the battery, the electric motor and the control algorithm are also seen as elements of the Powertrain. Usually powertrain is used to refer to simply the engine and transmission, a motor vehicles driveline or drivetrain consists of the parts of the powertrain excluding the engine and transmission. It is the portion of a vehicle, after the transmission, in a wider sense, the power-train includes all of its components used to transform stored energy into kinetic energy for propulsion purposes. This includes the utilization of power sources and non–wheel-based vehicles. The most recent developments in powertrain are driven by the electrification of it in multiple components, electrical energy needs to be provided, usually this leads to larger batteries. Electrical engines can be found as isolated component or as part of other elements, in hybrid Powertrains the torque generated by the combustion engine and the electric motor have to be brought together and distributed to the wheels. The control of process can be quite involved but the reward are greatly improved acceleration values as well as much better emissions. Powertrain development for diesel engines involves the following, exhaust gas recirculation, changes also include new fuel qualities to allow new combustion concepts. So-called combined combustion systems or diesotto cycles are based on synthetic fuels, bEVs, FCEVs and PHEV powertrains are expected to reach parity with ICE powertrains in 2025. The manufacturing of components and systems is important to industry, including the automotive. In turn these requirements have led to designs involving higher internal pressures, greater instantaneous forces, the resulting designs in turn impose significantly more severe requirements on parts shape and dimension, and material surface flatness, waviness, roughness, and porosity. Quality control over these parameters is achieved through metrology technology applied to all of the steps in powertrain manufacturing processes, in automotive manufacturing, the frame plus the running gear makes the chassis. Later, a body, which is not necessary for integrity of the structure, is built on the chassis to complete the vehicle. Commercial vehicle manufacturers may have only and cowl and chassis versions that can be outfitted with specialized bodies. These include buses, motor homes, fire engines, ambulances, the frame plus the body makes a glider. The final drive is the last in the set of components which delivers torque to the drive wheels, in a road vehicle, it incorporates the differential. In a railway vehicle, it incorporates the reversing gear

32.
Development mule
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A development mule in the automotive industry is a testbed vehicle equipped with prototype components requiring evaluation. They are often camouflaged to deceive competitors and thwart a curious automotive press, mules are necessary because automakers must assess new aspects of vehicles for both strengths and weaknesses before production. Mules are drivable, often pre-production, vehicles, sometimes away from realization. If no comparable vehicle is available in-house or an external benchmark is being used mules may be based on another manufacturers model, development mules are often used very heavily during testing and scrapped. Occasionally they are acquired by members of the engineering team or executives overseeing the design process. Automotive design Pre-production car Vehicle glider

33.
Yokosuka, Kanagawa
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Yokosuka is a city in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. As of June 2012, the city has an population of 414,960. The total area is 100.7 km2, Yokosuka is the 11th most populous city in Greater Tokyo, and the 12th in the Kantō region. Yokosuka occupies most of Miura Peninsula, and is bordered by the mouth of Tokyo Bay to the east, kanazawa-ku, Yokohama Miura Hayama Zushi The area around present-day Yokosuka city has been inhabited for thousands of years. Archaeologists have found tools and shell middens from the Japanese Paleolithic period and ceramic shards from the Jōmon. During the Heian period, local warlord Muraoka Tamemichi established Kinugasa Castle in 1063 and he became the ancestor of the Miura clan, which subsequently dominated eastern Sagami Province for the next several hundred years. The Miura clan supported Minamoto no Yoritomo in the foundation of the Kamakura shogunate, following the defeat of the Late Hōjō clan at the Battle of Odawara, Toyotomi Hideyoshi transferred Tokugawa Ieyasu to take control over the Kantō region, including Yokosuka in 1590. The adventurer William Adams, the first Briton to set foot in Japan, in 1612, he was granted the title of samurai and a fief in Hemi within the boundaries of present-day Yokosuka, due to his services to the Tokugawa shogunate. A monument to William Adams is a landmark in Yokosuka. During the Edo period, Yokosuka tenryō territory controlled directly by the Tokugawa shogunate, due to its strategic location at the entrance to Tokyo Bay, the Shogunate established the post of Uraga Bugyō in 1720, and all shipping into the bay was required to stop for inspection. The Kanrin Maru sailed from Yokosuka in 1860 with the first Japanese diplomatic embassy to the United States in 1860, Yokosuka Naval Arsenal became the first modern arsenal to be created in Japan. The construction of the arsenal was the point of a global modern infrastructure. Modern buildings, the Hashirimizu waterway, foundries, brick factories, Yokosuka Village was elevated to town status in 1878 and was made the capital of Miura District. In 1889, the Yokosuka Line railway was opened, connecting Yokosuka to Yokohama, Yokosuka was elevated to city status on February 15,1907. Yokosuka Naval Arsenal also continued to expand in the early 20th century, and its production included such as Yamashiro. Smaller warships were constructed at the privately owned Uraga Dock Company, Yokosuka Naval District was the home port of the IJN 1st Fleet. The Great Kantō earthquake of 1923 caused severe damage to Yokosuka, the city continued to expand in 1933 with the annexation of neighboring Kinugasa Village and Taura Town in 1933 and Kurihama Village in 1937. In 1943, the city annexed the neighboring towns and villages of Uraga, Kitashimoura, Okusu, Nagai and Takeyama

34.
Smyrna, Tennessee
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Smyrna is a town in Rutherford County, Tennessee. Smyrnas population was 39,974 at the 2010 census and 43,063 in 2013, in 2007, U. S. News & World Report listed Smyrna as one of the best places in the United States to retire. The town of Smyrna has its European-American roots in the early 19th century and it was important during the Civil War because its railroad station lies between Nashville and Chattanooga. He was captured November 20,1863, and was hanged by Union forces on November 27 of that year, the Sam Davis Plantation, located on 160 acres of well-maintained farmland, is the towns most important historical site. Smyrna was originally incorporated in 1869 but its charter was rescinded by the several years later. In 1915, the town re-incorporated and adopted a form of government. In 1941 during World War II, Sewart Air Force Base was established here and served as a B-17 Flying Fortress, during the 1950s and 1960s, the military personnel and dependents totaled more than 10,000 persons stationed at the base. The base was scheduled for closing in 1971, most of the property was divided among the State of Tennessee, Rutherford County, and the Metropolitan Nashville Airport Authority. On its portion, the opened and operates a Tennessee Army National Guard base. Much of the land was developed as the Smyrna/Rutherford County Airport Authority in 1990. During the 1970s, many new industries moved to the area, the city began a period of growth stimulated by production of such companies as Better Built Aluminum, Cumberland Swan, and Square D building plants. In the early 1980s, planning began to build a Nissan Motors manufacturing plant and, in 1983, the first vehicle was produced. The Nissan plant now employs around 8,400 workers, has a capacity of 640,000 vehicles annually. In 2012, Smyrna began manufacturing Nissans electric car, the Nissan Leaf, on March 14,2000, the mayor and board of commissioners adopted a new charter. The city now operates under the city form of government. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 23.0 square miles. Portions of the Percy Priest Lake reservoir lies within the town limits, the two main waterways are Stones River and Stewarts Creek. As of the census of 2000, there were 25,569 people,9,608 households, the population density was 1,119.8 people per square mile

35.
City of Sunderland
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The City of Sunderland is a local government district of Tyne and Wear, in North East England, with the status of a city and metropolitan borough. It is named after its largest settlement, Sunderland, but covers a far larger area which includes the towns of Hetton-le-Hole, Houghton-le-Spring, Washington, and it was granted city status in 1992, the 40th anniversary of the Queen Elizabeth IIs accession. The city had a population of 275,300 at the time of the 2011 census, the Sunderland Built-up Area is quoted alternatively as having a population of around 335,000. The metropolitan borough was granted city status in 1992, the 40th anniversary of the Queens accession, at the Queens Golden Jubilee the city petitioned to be allowed a Lord Mayor, but was unsuccessful. Although the city does not have a Cathedral, as it is located in the Diocese of Durham, between 1939 and 1945 the Wear yards launched 245 merchant ships totalling 1.5 million tons, a quarter of the merchant tonnage produced in the UK at this period. Competition from overseas caused a downturn in demand for Sunderland built ships toward the end of the 20th century, the last shipyard in Sunderland closed in 1988. HMS Ocean, the Royal Navys biggest warship, is Sunderlands adopted ship, in March 2004 it was granted the freedom of the City. St Benedict Biscop was adopted as the Citys Patron Saint in March 2004, like all metropolitan authorities, the city is divided into a number of wards or electoral districts. Each has three councillors elected for a four-year term, the City has 25 such wards. When the boundaries of these wards were set in 1982, each ward had an equal population. By 2004 there had been a shift in population. In particular, the east and south east – the old parish of Sunderland, as a result, the boundaries were redrawn, Sunderland lost one ward and Washington gained one. The 2004 election for all 75 councillors was held on 10 June 2004, the Local Government Act 1972 created two different two-tier systems for local administration, with different division of functions. As a metropolitan authority, Sunderland retained responsibility for collection, although disposal of the garbage was a county function. Sunderland has not had a police force since 1967, when the Borough of Sunderland Police merged with Durham Constabulary. The City is now part of the Northumbria Police Force area and this force was set up in 1974, and covers the whole of Tyne and Wear plus the much larger but much less densely populated county of Northumberland. The city is unparished, except for Hetton-le-Hole which is a parish. The City has had a Labour controlled council since 1974, after the elections of May 2003 the political structure was 63 Labour,9 Conservative, and 1 independent

36.
Nissan Motor Manufacturing UK
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Nissan Motor Manufacturing Ltd, or NMUK, is a car manufacturing plant in Sunderland, Tyne and Wear, England. It is owned and operated by the European division of Japanese car manufacturer Nissan and it has been active since 1986. It was built upon the former RAF Usworth, Nissan Motor Manufacturing UK is located in Sunderland, Tyne & Wear, in North East England. Its built on the former Usworth Aerodrome, a19 and A1231 Sunderland Highway trunk roads. The factory is adjacent to the UK Nissan Distribution Centre and has a number of on-site suppliers. The landscaped NMUK site incorporates conservation areas, such as ponds, lakes and woodland, the site is located 5 miles from Port of Tyne where international distribution is based. Nissan had been importing cars from its native Japan to the UK since 1968, in February 1984, Nissan and the UK government signed an agreement to build a car plant in the UK. The following month a 799-acre greenfield site in Sunderland, Tyne, as an incentive the land was offered to Nissan at agricultural prices, around £1,800 per acre. The high unemployment this caused meant Nissan had a large, eager, the established company became known as Nissan Motor Manufacturing Ltd, or NMUK. A ground breaking took place in July, and work began on the site in November 1984. One of Nissans more controversial demands during the talks was that the plant be single-union and this was unprecedented in UK industry. In April 1985, an agreement was reached with the Amalgamated Engineering Union, critics argue that this means the plant workforce is weakly represented. In December 1985, McAlpine handed over the factory building to Nissan for the installation of machinery and factory components. Phase 1 of the plant construction was completed in July 1986, consisting of a body, paint, the first Bluebird was produced shortly after and is on display at the Sunderland Museum and Winter Gardens. Official opening of the plant by then Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and this would prove to be a landmark year for the plant, with the introduction of the P10 Primera, the first model to be wholly built at NMUK, replacing the Bluebird. By 1991, despite the recession, the plant turned its first profit of £18.4 million, and was awarded British Manufacturer status by the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders. In August 1992, the plant began to produce two models, with the introduction of the highly successful Micra, which was the first car of a Japanese brand to be voted European Car of the Year, the Micra proved particularly popular with British and continental buyers. A fourth body style for the plant was introduced with the Micra C+C after the introduction of a new Micra hatchback towards the end of 2002

37.
Automobile layout
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In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production

38.
Front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout
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In automotive design, an FWD, or front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout places both the internal combustion engine and driven roadwheels at the front of the vehicle. Historically, this designation was used regardless of whether the engine was behind the front axle line. Most pre-World War II front engine cars would qualify as front-mid engine, using the front-mid designation and this layout is the most traditional form, and remains a popular, practical design. The engine which takes up a deal of space is packaged in a location passengers. The main deficit is weight distribution — the heaviest component is at one end of the vehicle, car handling is not ideal, but usually predictable. Like the rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout and rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout layouts, it places the engine over the drive wheels, improving traction in many applications. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FWD cars are generally considered superior to RWD cars in conditions where there is low traction such as snow, mud. When hill climbing in low traction conditions RR is considered the best two-wheel-drive layout, the cornering ability of a FWD vehicle is generally better, because the engine is placed over the steered wheels. However, as the wheels have the additional demands of steering, if a vehicle accelerates quickly, less grip is available for cornering. Electronic traction control can avoid wheel-spin but largely negates the benefit of extra power and this was a reason for the adoption of the four-wheel-drive quattro system in the high performance Jensen FF and Audi Quattro road cars. Early cars using the FWD layout include the 1929 Cord L-29,1931 DKW F1, the 1948 Citroën 2CV,1949 Saab 92, in the 1980s, the traction and packaging advantages of this layout caused many compact and mid-sized vehicle makers to adopt it in the US. Most European and Japanese manufacturers switched to front wheel drive for the majority of their cars in the 1960s and 1970s, the last to change being VW, Ford of Europe, Toyota was the last Japanese company to switch in the early 1980s. BMW, focussed on luxury vehicles, however retained the layout in even their smaller cars. There are four different arrangements for this layout, depending on the location of the engine. The earliest such arrangement was not technically FWD, but rather mid-engine, the engine was mounted longitudinally behind the wheels, with the transmission ahead of the engine and differential at the very front of the car. With the engine so far back, the distribution of such cars as the Cord L-29 was not ideal. The 1934 Citroën Traction Avant solved the weight issue by placing the transmission at the front of the car with the differential between it and the engine. Combined with the low slung unibody design, this resulted in handling which was remarkable for the era

39.
Car platform
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It is practiced in the automotive industry to reduce the costs associated with the development of products by basing those products on a smaller number of platforms. This further allows companies to create models from a design perspective on similar underpinnings. Platform sharing is a development method where different products and the brand attached share the same components. The purpose with platform sharing is to reduce the cost and have a more efficient product development process, the companies gain on reduced procurement cost by taking advantage of the commonality of the components. However, this limits their ability to differentiate the products. The companies have to make a trade-off between reducing their development costs and the degree of differentiation of the products, one of the first car companies to use this product development approach was General Motors in 1908. A basic definition of a platform in cars, from a point of view, includes, underbody and suspensions — where the underbody is made of front floor, underfloor, engine compartment. Many vendors refer to this as product or vehicle architecture, the concept of product architecture is the scheme by which the function of a product is allocated to physical components. The car platform strategy has become important in new product development, the finished products have to be responsive to market needs and to demonstrate distinctiveness while — at the same time — they must be developed and produced at low cost. Adopting such a strategy affects the development process and also has an important impact on an organizational structure. A platform strategy also offers advantages for the process of automobile firms. Manufacturers are then able to offer products at a lower cost to consumers, additionally, economies of scale are increased, as is return on investment. In the 1980s, Chryslers K-cars all wore a badge with the letter K to indicate their shared platform, in later stages, the K platform was extended in wheelbase, as well as use for several of the Corporations different models. GM used similar strategies with its J platform that debuted in mid-1981 in four of GMs divisions and they were popular through the 1980s, primarily. Even Cadillac started offering a J body model called the Cimarron, a similar strategy applied to what is known as the N-J-L platform, arguably the most prolific of GMs efforts on one platform. Once more, GMs four lower level divisions all offered various models on this throughout the 1980s. For example, the Lexus ES is essentially an upgraded and rebadged Toyota Camry, after Daimler-Benz purchased Chrysler, Chrysler engineers used several M-B platforms for new models including the Crossfire which was based on the M-B SLK roadster. Other models that share platforms are the European Ford Focus, Mazda 3, differences between shared models typically involve styling, including headlights, tail lights, and front and rear fascias

40.
Synchronous motor
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Synchronous motors contain multiphase AC electromagnets on the stator of the motor that create a magnetic field which rotates in time with the oscillations of the line current. The rotor with permanent magnets or electromagnets turns in step with the field at the same rate and as a result. A synchronous motor is only considered doubly fed if it is supplied with independently excited multiphase AC electromagnets on both the rotor and stator, the synchronous motor and induction motor are the most widely used types of AC motor. The difference between the two types is that the motor rotates in exact synchronism with the line frequency. The synchronous motor does not rely on current induction to produce the magnetic field. By contrast, the motor requires slip, the rotor must rotate slightly slower than the AC current alternations. Synchronous motors are available in sub-fractional self-excited sizes to high-horsepower industrial sizes, in the fractional horsepower range, most synchronous motors are used where precise constant speed is required. These machines are used in analog electric clocks, timers. In high-horsepower industrial sizes, the motor provides two important functions. First, it is an efficient means of converting AC energy to work. Second, it can operate at leading or unity power factor, Synchronous motors fall under the more general category of synchronous machines which also includes the synchronous generator. Generator action will be observed if the poles are driven ahead of the resultant air-gap flux by the forward motion of the prime mover. Motor action will be observed if the poles are dragged behind the resultant air-gap flux by the retarding torque of a shaft load. There are two types of synchronous motors depending on how the rotor is magnetized, non-excited and direct-current excited. In non-excited motors, the rotor is made of steel, at synchronous speed it rotates in step with the rotating magnetic field of the stator, so it has an almost-constant magnetic field through it. The external stator field magnetizes the rotor, inducing the magnetic poles needed to turn it, typically there are fewer rotor than stator poles to minimize torque ripple and to prevent the poles from all aligning simultaneously—a position which cannot generate torque. The size of the air gap in the circuit and thus the reluctance is minimum when the poles are aligned with the magnetic field of the stator. This creates a torque pulling the rotor into alignment with the nearest pole of the stator field, thus at synchronous speed the rotor is locked to the rotating stator field

41.
Transmission (mechanics)
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A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Often the term refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed. In British English, the term refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft, differential. In American English, however, the term more specifically to the gearbox alone. The most common use is in vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping. The transmission reduces the engine speed to the slower wheel speed. Transmissions are also used on bicycles, fixed machines. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios with the ability to switch between them as speed varies and this switching may be done manually or automatically. Directional control may also be provided, single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque of motor output. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, while a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation, automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in conjunction with an ecm. Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft. This means that the shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios, in this case, most of the gear ratios are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque

42.
Electric-vehicle battery
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An electric vehicle battery or traction battery is a battery used to power the propulsion of battery electric vehicles. Vehicle batteries are usually a secondary battery, traction batteries are used in forklifts, electric Golf carts, riding floor scrubbers, electric motorcycles, full-size electric cars, trucks, and vans, and other electric vehicles. Electric vehicle batteries differ from starting, lighting, and ignition batteries because they are designed to power over sustained periods of time. Deep cycle batteries are used instead of SLI batteries for these applications, traction batteries must be designed with a high ampere-hour capacity. Compared to liquid fuels, most current battery technologies have much lower energy. However, metal-air batteries have high specific energy because the cathode is provided by the oxygen in the air. Rechargeable batteries used in vehicles include lead-acid, NiCd, nickel metal hydride, lithium ion, Li-ion polymer. The amount of electricity stored in batteries is measured in hours or in coulombs. The battery makes up a substantial cost of BEVs, which unlike for fossil fueled cars, the few electric cars with over 500 km of range, are firmly in the luxury segment, as of 2015. Since the late 1990s, advances in technology have been driven by demands for portable electronics, like laptop computers. The BEV marketplace has reaped the benefits of these advances, however, Mitsubishi ascribes the price reduction of its 2012 model MiEV, compared to the 2011 model, to a dramatic reduction in the cost of batteries. The cost of vehicle batteries has been reduced by more than 35% from 2008 to 2014. Rechargeable traction batteries are used all day, and fast–charged all night. Forklifts, for instance, are discharged and recharged every 24 hours of the work week. The predicted market for automobile batteries is over $37 billion in 2020. On an energy basis, the price of electricity to run an EV is a fraction of the cost of liquid fuel needed to produce an equivalent amount of energy. The cost of replacing the batteries dominates the operating costs, in 2015, the most used battery type for electric vehicles is Lithium-ion battery. There are two types of lead-acid batteries, automobile engine starter batteries, and deep cycle batteries

43.
New European Driving Cycle
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The New European Driving Cycle is a driving cycle, last updated in 1997, designed to assess the emission levels of car engines and fuel economy in passenger cars. It is also referred to as MVEG cycle, the NEDC, which is supposed to represent the typical usage of a car in Europe, is repeatedly criticised for delivering economy-figures which are unachievable in reality. It consists of four repeated ECE-15 urban driving cycles and one Extra-Urban driving cycle and it is maintained by the UNECE World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations, which also works on its successor, the Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedures. Several measurements are performed along the cycle. The cycle must be performed on a vehicle at 20–30 °C. The cycles may be performed on a road, in the absence of wind. However, to improve repeatability, they are performed on a roller test bench. This type of bench is equipped with a machine to emulate resistance due to aerodynamic drag. For each vehicle configuration, a table is applied, each speed corresponds to a certain value of resistance. This arrangement enables the use of a single vehicle to test all vehicle body styles by simply changing the look-up table. A fan is coupled to the bench to provide the vehicle air intakes with an airflow matching the current speed. Many more tests can be performed during vehicle development with this arrangement than with road tests. The cycle has been designed to represent typical driving conditions of busy European cities, and is characterized by low engine load, low exhaust gas temperature, and a maximum speed of 50 km/h. At 49 s, the car accelerates to 32 km/h in 12 s, cruises for 24 s, slowly brakes to a full stop in 11 s. The cycle ends on 195 s after a distance of 994.03 meters. Total duration is 780 s over a distance of 3976.1 meters. The Extra-Urban Driving Cycle EUDC, introduced by ECE R101 in 1990, has designed to represent more aggressive. The maximum speed of the EUDC cycle is 120 km/h, low-powered vehicles are limited to 90 km/h, at 201 s, the car cruises at 70 km/h for 50 s, then slowly accelerates to 100 km/h in 35 s and cruises for 30 s

44.
Charging station
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Many charging stations are on-street facilities provided by electric utility companies or located at retail shopping centers and operated by many private companies. These charging stations provide one or a range of duty or special connectors that conform to the variety of electric charging connector standards. Charging stations fall into four basic contexts, Residential charging stations, An EV owner plugs in when he or she returns home, a home charging station usually has no user authentication, no metering, and may require wiring a dedicated circuit. Some portable chargers can also be mounted as charging stations. Charging while parked – a commercial venture for a fee or free and this charging may be slow or high speed and encourages EV owners to recharge their cars while they take advantage of nearby facilities. It can include parking stations, parking at malls, small centres, Fast charging at public charging stations >40 kW, delivering over 60 miles of range in 10–30 minutes. These chargers may be at rest stops to allow for longer distance trips and they may also be used regularly by commuters in metropolitan areas, and for charging while parked for shorter or longer periods. Common examples are CHAdeMO, SAE Combined Charging System, and Tesla Superchargers, battery swaps or charges in under 15 minutes. A specified target for CARB credits for a vehicle is adding 200 miles to its range in under 15 minutes. In 2014, this was not possible for charging electric vehicles and it intends to match the refueling expectations of regular drivers. Battery capacity and the capability of handling faster charging are both increasing, and methods of charging have needed to change and improve, new options have also been introduced. The differing needs and solutions of various manufacturers has slowed the emergence of standard charging methods, as of December 2012, around 50,000 non-residential charging points were deployed in the U. S. Europe, Japan and China. As of August 2014, there are 3,869 CHAdeMO quick chargers deployed around the world, as of November 2012, about 15,000 charging stations had been installed in Europe. As of March 2013, Norway, which has the highest electric ownership per capita, had 4,029 charging points and 127 quick charging stations. As part of its commitment to sustainability, the Dutch government initiated a plan to establish over 200 fast charging stations across the country by 2015. In addition to that, the E-laad foundation installed about 3000 public charge points since 2009, as of December 2012, Japan had 1,381 public quick-charge stations, the largest deployment of fast chargers in the world, but only around 300 slow chargers. As of December 2012, China had around 800 public slow charging points, there are two main types of safety sensor, Current sensors which monitor the power consumed, and maintain the connection only if the demand is within a predetermined range. Sensor wires react more quickly, have fewer parts to fail and are less expensive to design

45.
CHAdeMO
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CHAdeMO is the trade name of a quick charging method for battery electric vehicles delivering up to 62.5 kW of direct current via a special electrical connector. It is proposed as an industry standard by an association of the same name. A competing standard, Combined Charging System, has support from more major auto manufacturers, CHAdeMO is an abbreviation of CHArge de MOve, equivalent to move using charge or move by charge. The name is also a pun drawn from O cha demo ikaga desuka in Japanese, referring to the time it would take to charge a car. CHAdeMO can charge low-range electric cars in less than half an hour, CHAdeMO was formed by The Tokyo Electric Power Company, Nissan, Mitsubishi and Fuji Heavy Industries. Toyota later joined as its fifth executive member, three of these companies have developed electric vehicles that use TEPCOs DC connector for quick charging. Most electric vehicles have an on-board charger that uses a circuit to transform alternating current from the electrical grid to direct current suitable for recharging the EVs battery pack. For faster charging, dedicated chargers can be built in permanent locations, in this style of connection, the chargers DC output has no effective limit, theoretical or practical. Such high voltage and high-current charging is called a DC Fast Charge or DC Quick Charging, TEPCO has developed patented technology and a specification for high-voltage high-current automotive fast charging via a JARI DC fast charge connector. It appears this is the basis for the CHAdeMO protocol, the connector is specified by the JEVS G105-1993 from the JARI. In addition to carrying power the connector also makes a connection using the CAN bus protocol. Quick Charge Power of San Diego plans to offer Chademo retrofits for the second generation Toyota RAV4 EV, as of April 20,2016, the CHAdeMO Association web site states that there are 11,291 CHAdeMO chargers installed. These include 6,469 in Japan,3,028 in Europe,1,686 in the USA, the build out of the WCEH began in 2010 with the deployment of CHAdeMO and Level 2 charging stations. There are is now a network with thousands of Level 2 charging pedestals, in the USA, Aker Wade Power Technologies has entered into a licensing agreement with TEPCO to manufacture and market DC fast chargers for electric vehicles. Eaton Corporation has demonstrated a CHAdeMO-compatible DC Quick Charger recharging Mitsubishi iMiEV cars, eCOtality has deployed the Blink DC Fast Charger, which is outfitted with two CHAdeMO-compliant electric vehicle charging connectors, in the Blink Network. AeroVironment offers a line of DC fast chargers including two CHAdeMO certified Quick Charger models. Princeton Power Systems UL-certified bi-directional CHADEMO charger fast-charger is capable of charging and discharging from the Nissan LEAF, the fast-chargers are available in 10 kW,15 kW, and 30 kW sizes. Fuji Electric Corporation of America announced a 25 kW CHAdeMO quick charger integrated with Coulomb Technologies’ ChargePoint® Network, ABB manufactures 50 kW and 20 kW CHAdeMO models with UL certification for the Americas markets

46.
Wheelbase
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In both road and rail vehicles, the wheelbase is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels. For road vehicles with more than two axles, the wheelbase is defined as the distance between the axle and the centerpoint of the driving axle group. In the case of a truck, the wheelbase would be the distance between the steering axle and a point midway between the two rear axles. The wheelbase of a vehicle equals the distance between its front and rear wheels, at equilibrium, the total torque of the forces acting on a vehicle is zero. So, for example, when a truck is loaded, its center of gravity shifts rearward, the amount the vehicle sinks will depend on counter acting forces like the size of the tires, tire pressure, and the stiffness of the suspension. If the vehicle is accelerating or decelerating, extra torque is placed on the rear or front tire respectively, so, as is common experience, when the vehicle accelerates, the rear usually sinks and the front rises depending on the suspension. Likewise, when braking the front noses down and the rear rises, because of the effect the wheelbase has on the weight distribution of the vehicle, wheelbase dimensions are crucial to the balance and steering. For example, a car with a greater weight load on the rear tends to understeer due to the lack of the load on the front tires. This is why it is crucial, when towing a single-axle caravan, likewise, a car may oversteer or even spin out if there is too much force on the front tires and not enough on the rear tires. Also, when turning there is lateral torque placed upon the tires which imparts a turning force that depends upon the length of the distances from the CM. Wheelbases provide the basis for one of the most common vehicle size class systems, some luxury vehicles are offered with long-wheelbase variants to increase the spaciousness and therefore the luxury of the vehicle. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair was given a version of the Rover 75 for official use. In contrast, coupé varieties of vehicles such as the Honda Accord are usually built on shorter wheelbases than the sedans they are derived from. The wheelbase on many commercially available bicycles and motorcycles is so short, relative to the height of their centers of mass, in skateboarding the word wheelbase is used for the distance between the two inner pairs of mounting holes on the deck. This is different from the distance between the centers of the two wheel pairs. A reason for this use is that decks are sold with prefabricated holes. It is therefore easier to use the holes for measuring and describing this characteristic of the deck. A common misconception is that the choice of wheelbase is influenced by the height of the skateboarder, however, the length of the deck would then be a better candidate, because the wheelbase affects characteristics useful in different speeds or terrains regardless of the height of the skateboarder

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA or sometimes U.S. EPA) is an agency of the federal government of …

Same smokestacks in 1975 after the plant was closed in a push for greater environmental protection

Ruckelshaus sworn in as first EPA Administrator.

A bulldozer piles boulders in an attempt to prevent lake shore erosion, 1973 (photograph by Paul Sequeira, photojournalist and contributing photographer to the Environmental Protection Agency's DOCUMERICA project in the early 1970s)

A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Often …

Interior view of Pantigo Windmill, looking up into cap from floor—cap rack, brake wheel, brake and wallower. Pantigo Windmill is located on James Lane, East Hampton, Suffolk County, Long Island, New York.