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Culture and the
Economy in the
Internet Age
— Philippe Aigrain
amsterdam university press
with contribution of Suzanne Aigrain
SHARING
S
H
A
R
I
N
G
Sharing
Sharing
Culture and the Economy in
the Internet Age
Philippe Aigrain
with the contribution of Suzanne Aigrain
Amsterdam University Press
The publication of this book is made possible by a grant from the Open Society
Foundations.
This book is published in print and online through the online OAPEN library
(www.oapen.org). OAPEN (Open Access Publishing in European Networks) is a
collaborative initiative to develop and implement a sustainable Open Access pub-
lication model for academic books in the Humanities and Social Sciences. The
OAPEN Library aims to improve the visibility and usability of high quality aca-
demic research by aggregating peer reviewed Open Access publications from
across Europe.
Cover design: Maedium, Utrecht
Lay-out: JAPES, Amsterdam
isbn 978 90 8964 385 8
e-isbn 978 90 4851 534 9
nur 983
Creative Commons CC BY NC ND
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0
P. Aigrain & S. Aigrain / Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam, 2012
Some rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above,
any part of this book may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise).
To Mireille, Tom, Louise and Jonathan
Acknowledgments
Building upon a book that was published by Philippe Aigrain earlier in French
(Internet & Création: comment reconnaître les échanges sur internet en finançant
la création, InLibroVeritas, October 2008), Sharing: Culture and the Economy in the
Internet Age takes into account comments, criticism and suggestions for improve-
ment received from many readers.
The ideas developed in Sharing could not mature in isolation: they are rooted in
collective environments. Invaluable inspiration and support were provided by
Jérémie Zimmermann and all the participants in La Quadrature du Net, by Juan-Car-
los de Martin and the members of the COMMUNIA Network on the Digital Public
Domain, by researchers in the Berkman Center for Internet & Society and the
NEXA Center for Internet & Society, members of the Forum d’Action Modernités, and
participants in the Free Culture Forum and the Free Culture Research Confer-
ences.
Some of the findings presented in this book would have been impossible with-
out the large-scale data collection and publication efforts conducted by research-
ers such as Frédéric Aidouni, Mathieu Latapy and Clémence Magnien of the Com-
plex Networks team of University Paris 6, and Bodó Balázs and Zoltán Lakatos of
University of Budapest.
Many individuals deserve a special mention: Sharing would not be what it is with-
out Fernando Anitelli, Phil Axel, Raphaël Badin, Maja Bogotaj, Yochai Benkler,
Juan Branco, Paul Branco, Jean-Gabriel Carasso, Aline Carvalho, Mario Ciurcina,
Roberto di Cosmo, Milad Doueihi, Mélanie Dulong-de-Rosnay, Christophe
Espern, William Fisher, Vera Franz, Mayo Fuster-Morell, Volker Grassmuck, Jim
Griffin, Peter Jenner, Gaëlle Krikorian, Hervé Le Crosnier, Olivier Lejade,
Lawrence Lessig, Simona Levi, James Love, Eben Moglen, Francis Muguet†,
Charles Nesson, Jérémie Nestel, François Pellegrini, Valérie Peugeot, Rufus
Pollock, Manon Ress, Marco Ricolfi, Gérald Sédrati-Dinet, Tom Smith, Richard
Stallman, Malte Spitz, Peter Sunde, Félix Tréguer and Laurence Vandewalle. We
remain of course solely responsible for the analysis and proposals developed in
this book.
Mireille, Louise, Tom, Jonathan, and many friends created an environment
without which this book would not exist.
7
Sharing found its home in the publishing world at Amsterdam University Press,
an open access friendly publisher staffed with author-friendly editors. We are
grateful to Saskia de Vries, Jeroen Sondervan, Chantal Nicolaes, Paul Penman
and Alison Fisher for transforming our text into a published book and open ac-
cess monograph.
This book was drafted and laid out using the Lyx, Latex, and JabRef free soft-
ware. Graphical illustrations were produced with the Inkscape and Gimp free
software or from our own software in Python. Our software and datasets can be
downloaded from the book site at http://www.sharing-thebook.net. On the same
site, the reader can also run our models with adjusted parameters and upload
datasets in order to run our algorithms for the study of diversity of attention.
8 sharing
Contents
List of figures 11
List of Tables 13
1 Introduction 15
Setting the scene
2 The Internet and creativity debate 21
3 The value of non-market sharing 27
3.1 Sharing is legitimate 27
3.2 Sharing is useful 31
3.3 The media industry opposition to file sharing 43
4 Sustainable resources for creative activities 49
The Creative Contribution
5 Which rights for whom? A choice of models 59
5.1 Access without rights to share 59
5.2 Compensation schemes 65
5.3 Social rights for all 70
6 Defining rights and obligations 79
6.1 Which works to include 80
6.2 Rights and obligations of users and intermediaries 84
7 How much? 89
7.1 Rewarding the present and financing the future 90
7.2 Rewards 92
7.3 Financing production and the creative environment 100
7.4 Passing copyright-law tests 109
7.5 Is the Creative Contribution socially acceptable? 122
8 Sustainable financing for the commons 127
8.1 Evolution of the Creative Contribution in one country 127
8.2 International aspects 129
8.3 Economy and non-market commons 130
Implementation
9 Organization and complementary policy measures 137
9.1 Principle and essential components 137
9.2 Decision-making processes and democratic governance 139
9
9.3 Additional policy measures 141
10 Usage measurement for equitable rewards 145
10.1 A general usage measurement system 145
10.2 Registration and identification of digital works 149
10.3 Data collection 152
10.4 Performance in one medium 153
10.5 Management costs 155
11 Clarification and counter-arguments 157
11.1 Clarification 157
11.2 Criticisms by opponents 160
11.3 Criticisms by defenders 164
12 From proposal to reality 169
12.1 Grassroots Internet and creative communities 169
12.2 Government policy 172
12.3 Policy-makers 173
12.4 Entertainment players? 174
12.5 Collective management? 175
12.6 The continued role of academic research 177
Appendixes
A Diversity of attention for beginners 181
A.1 From wealth to popularity 181
A.2 Testing and parameter estimation for Zipf's law 186
A.3 Zipf's law and diversity of attention in P2P sharing 189
A.4 A fresh look at the Long Tail theory 191
B The total cost of rewards and their distribution 193
B.1 The model used in chapter 7 193
B.2 Reward functions 197
C Modeling usage measurement 199
C.1 General model 199
C.2 Music singles in the US 201
C.3 Blogs in France 203
C.4 Fraud prevention and detection 204
Notes 207
Bibliography 221
Index 231
10 sharing
List of Figures
3.1 Cumulative access (listening or downloads) to the 5565 music tracks avail-
able on the Musique Libre site in 2006, normalized for how long they had
been on-line [Aigrain, 2006]. p. 38
3.2 Comparison of the cumulated access on the Musique Libre site in 2006,
with the cumulated access that would result from the best-fitting Zipf's
law (see appendix A for technical details). p. 38
3.3 Cumulated attention for extreme observed cases. p. 39
3.4 Comparison between the observed cumulated attention for the 2 million
most popular files in eDonkey sharing and the cumulated attention for a
distribution similar to the one studied by Page and Garland [2009] for
single commercial downloads, adjusted for universe size. p. 41
3.5 Cumulated observed access for film sharing in Hungary (1542 films shared
over 3 months in 2008), data from Balázs and Lakatos [forthcoming].
p. 42
4.1 Cultural and creative activities and their economy. p. 51
4.2 Roles and functions in media. p. 52
7.1 An image from COMBO, a collaborative animation by Blu and David Ellis,
http://vimeo.com/6555161, license CC-By-NC-ND. p. 90
7.2 Various distributions of attention to creators can lead to great differences
in the number of creators who share 90% of the usage credits. p. 95
7.3 Estimate of the 300 highest rewards from the Creative Contribution in the
US, for all media in various hypotheses of distributions. p. 112
9.1 Core components for the organization of the Creative Contribution. p. 138
10.1 General structure of a possible usage measurement system. p. 146
A.1 Share of total wealth held by the 20% richest individuals, depending on the
value of Pareto's law parameter. p. 182
A.2 The number of occurrences of words in a French text of 30,000 words, as
reported by Estoup, reproduced in Petruszewycz [1973]. p. 184
A.3 Number of times each track was listened to for the 1000 most popular
titles on the Musique Libre Creative Commons music streaming platform
in 2006 [Aigrain, 2006]. p. 187
A.4 Share of access to the 80% least popular works under Zipf's law with the
same parameter (c ¼ 1.0) in 100 universes containing between 1000 and
100,000 works. p. 188
B.1 Rewards for the first 20,000 creators among one million rewarded creators
for various reward functions. p. 197
11
List of Tables
7.1 Number of rewarded contributors and total amount of rewards for various
hypotheses on observed diversity or applied reward functions. p. 99
7.2 Estimates of yearly production investment for various media in three coun-
tries. p. 105
7.3 The total financial needs for the Creative Contribution. p. 108
7.4 Yearly household cultural expenditure (2007). p. 123
A.1 Best-fit Zipf's law parameter, corresponding KS distance for different sub-
sets of the Aidouni et al. [2008] data set. The last two columns give the
range of ranks for which the observed access is higher than the best-fitting
Zipf's law prediction. p. 190
13
1 Introduction
This book is about file sharing
1
for creative, expressive or informative works in all
media. More specifically, it is about file sharing between individuals and without
profit motive. File sharing is the act of making a file available to other individuals
by putting it on-line, by sending a copy, or by rendering it accessible through a
file sharing software. We defend the view that sharing without direct or indirect
monetary transaction – or “non-market” sharing – is legitimate. We also claim
that sharing is socially and culturally valuable and will play a key role in the future
of our culture and the creative economies. Furthermore, this book proposes a
means to strengthen and exploit the synergy between file sharing and creativity,
for the general benefit of society and the enrichment of the cultural economy.
Underlying the entire book is an exercise in modeling and empirically studying
the popularity of different works in different conditions. How much is this atten-
tion concentrated on a limited set of works, or spread over many? We use this
analysis to demonstrate the positive impact of non-market sharing for cultural
diversity, to reflect on different reward and financing models, to estimate their
initial global scope and speculate about their evolution, and to understand how
precise the measurement of usage must be for rewards to be fair and respectful of
diversity. The analysis and the related models are meant to provide a toolkit for
cultural and media studies, usable regardless of whether one agrees with our pro-
posals. Three appendices provide an introduction to these models, explaining
their mathematical basis in simple terms, presenting our assumptions, and the
empirical studies that support some of our claims.
The book is structured in three parts. The first part sets the general scene.
Chapter 2 provides an introduction to the heated debates that surround the
issue of file sharing, and presents the central ideas of the book:
– The non-market sharing of digital works is valuable and must be recognized
as a legitimate activity (chapter 3).
– New financing schemes are needed to turn the potential of a many-to-all crea-
tive world into a reality (chapter 4). In such an environment, all will have
access to works, the right to share them and the technical means to produce
new works. Many will build new capabilities in informing others, expressing
oneself, and creativity. They will catch the interest of some, and some – more
numerous that today – will attract the interest of many.
15
The second part presents and discusses the principles of the Creative Contribution, a
proposal to enable the recognition of file sharing by setting up a new system of
rewards for the creators of works that are the object of non-market sharing. The
proposal also incorporates support for the production of future works and an
environment that nurtures creativity. The idea of linking financial rewards based
on contributions by Internet users with the recognition of sharing is not new: it
has been the basis of many proposals since 2003. Our proposal is distinguished
from them in that it defines both the rewards and the recognition of sharing as
social rights, among a society-wide community of contributors who manage the
digital cultural commons together. Where others focused on solving a problem
facing the cultural industries (the so-called “piracy”), we ask ourselves how could
one best enable cultural and expressive activities in a world where non-market
sharing is recognized as legitimate.
Chapter 5 compares various models for the development of our digital culture:
some which do not recognize the right to share; others which do recognize shar-
ing, but under a copyright-based licensing or tort compensation approach. It then
introduces the social right model underlying our proposal.
Chapter 6 delineates the rights and obligations associated with sharing under
our proposal: which works are included and when? What are the associated ob-
ligations? It discusses the position of those who provide the means to share and
of archival organizations in this new context.
Chapter 7 addresses a central issue: how much? What is the total amount of
money needed to reward existing works? How much should be dedicated to fi-
nancing the production of new works and added-value editorial activities ? How
can creative activities be allowed to grow at a rate which is not constrained by the
growth rate of the monetary transaction-based economy? Our choice of approach
makes answering this question particularly challenging: we must evaluate both
needs and possibilities without the relative comfort of measuring torts or losses
of revenues to be compensated. We present models which enable us to set the
level of financial rewards and of support to the production of new works directly.
We discuss the acceptability of the corresponding amounts to be financed by
households from a social and economic viewpoint. In one section, we address
the compatibility of our proposal with copyright law requirements, in particular
with regards to economic rights. This section exploits recent empirical fact find-
ing on the impact of file sharing on various components of the cultural economy.
Chapter 8 discusses the possible future evolution of the Creative Contribution,
and describes its more general relevance as a model for financing the conditions
of existence of common goods to which all can contribute, and from which all
benefit.
Part III addresses two issues that are central to the implementation of our pro-
posal: how it can be organized (chapter 9) and the critical aspect of usage mea-
surement, which sets the basis for rewards (chapter 10). In both cases, the solu-
16 sharing
tions we outline are based on empowering individuals in the governance of the
system and the production of the necessary data. We evaluate to what degree this
approach can meet the necessary precision for the rewards to be equitable, and
for the prevention of fraud. We discuss the respective roles of government, non-
governmental organizations, providers and citizens.
Chapter 11 lists and discusses key questions and criticisms which have been
raised in response to previous versions of our proposal. It is presented as a list of
Frequently Asked Questions for brevity’s sake.
In the concluding chapter, chapter 12, we consider by which paths a proposal
such as ours can become a reality.
introduction 17
Setting the scene
2 The Internet and creativity debate
(1) Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the com-
munity, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its bene-
fits.
(2) Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests
resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the
author.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 27
Great historical changes, whatever their importance, take place over a relatively
long period. Seventy years after the first developments of computer science, and
thirty years after the birth of the first world-wide information exchange networks,
we are still very far from having a real grasp of their consequences. It takes dec-
ades for these technologies to disseminate, and their implications only reveal
themselves as humans appropriate them. Many analysts apply outdated models
to new activities, analyzing Internet use with tools that were appropriate to study,
for example, the impact of photocopying on book publishing. They thus reduce
the use of computers to the action of copying. A similarly misleading viewpoint
consists in treating Internet merely as a new distribution channel. Both ap-
proaches ignore the new ways of interacting with information, which the Internet
opens for everyone. These lead to new practices: listening, viewing, annotating,
recommending to others, re-using, tailored programming (as in programming a
radio or a TV), remixing, and creation. The Internet, coupled with widespread
access to computers, provides an environment in which new cultural practices
are developed and appropriated by the public. Some commentators, on the other
hand, tend to exaggerate the depth of the transformations we are seeing. For ex-
ample, they believe that some essential processes, such as identifying high-quality
items among the abundance of works available, or appropriately allocating re-
sources to creative activities, are now trivial.
This book sets itself the challenging task of being amenable to everyone who
has an interest in the Internet, culture and creative activities; of identifying a com-
mon framework in which, without necessarily agreeing on everything, we may
explore the realms of the possible. However, the reader will have to do some of
the work. If you are sincerely convinced that anyone who makes the digital repre-
21
sentation of a work of art available on a peer-to-peer network is a pirate (i.e.
someone who, by violent means, takes the property of another), and that works
of art “bleed” when they are shared,
1
this book will not require you to shed those
beliefs, but it will expose you to the writings of some, who have another view of
these matters. Consider their proposals carefully, and note the care with which
they attempt to protect what you hold dear, namely: the recognition and reward
to those who partake in creative work; the implementation of channels which
enable certain types of works to exist; the access of all to culture. On the other
hand, if you believe that, in the age of Internet, collective management is no long-
er needed, and that if only universal exchanges were allowed to be truly open,
they would naturally ensure a better distribution of financial means for creators,
reading this book will not require that you change your mind either. But do read
what follows, and ask yourselves whether the proposals which are made therein
are not the guarantee of what matters to you: the development of Internet-enabled
activity, its core freedoms, and the cooperation of all towards a common goal.
Digital technology and the Internet gave us precious resources: new media,
each bringing new types of creative work; a new world of cultural practices which
do away with the clear-cut distinction between creators and their audiences, pro-
ducers and consumers; and old and new intermediaries to enable all to appropri-
ate these new practices, and to promote quality in activities conducted in com-
mon. We have a duty to nurture this potential, to treat it not as a problem, but as
an opportunity.
This book is motivated by a key question:
If we recognize that individuals have a right to share digital works between
themselves, how can we make sure that many will be fairly financed and re-
warded for producing these works?
This question builds upon a long list of earlier works, and at the same time, it
departs from their premises. The idea of associating mechanisms to reward or
fund creation with the right to accomplish certain actions using technology is not
new. In 1985, the potential of the Internet was still very hazy and the Web didn’t
exist. However, legislation was passed in many countries to allow the copying of
works for private use, under certain conditions, for instance the payment of a levy
on blank carriers such as writable CDs. The corresponding laws framed the right
to private copying in a restrictive and narrow manner: they represent an attempt
to reach a compromise between limited rights to use digital works and the gen-
eration of new resources for creative work. As early as 1992, Richard Stallman, the
founder of the free software movement, proposed to use a tax on digital tape
recorders and their magnetic cassette tapes that was being discussed at the time
for a better allocation of funds to artists whose works were copied (Stall-
man 1992).
22 sharing
After the birth of peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing with Napster, and facing a
fierce reaction from the music industry, a number of proposals were made for
collective licensing mechanisms in the US in 2003 and 2004 that would authorize
those paying a monthly fee to freely exchange digital music (Netanel 2003, Von
Lohmann 2003, Von Lohmann 2004). William Fisher’s book Promises to Keep:
Technology, Law, and the Future of Entertainment (Fisher 2004) explored in depth
many possible approaches for the remuneration of creation in the digital world,
and many of the later proposals revolved around his ideas. In 2005, a blanket
license proposal (applying to music and film) was tabled in France under the
name licence globale by the ‘Alliance Public Artistes’,
2
and supported under various
guises by members of the French parliament
3
from all across the political spec-
trum. In both cases, these proposals were drawn up in the context of severe and
pressing threats to the freedom of on-line exchanges, in the form of highly re-
pressive proposed legislation, the application of which was foreseen through me-
chanical technology or automated justice. The blanket licensing proposals were
designed in a hurry, and their main failings, as we will see, were a mixture of
timidity in endorsing sharing and a lack of adaptability to the specifics of certain
types of media. Since then, several writers or public interest organizations have
proposed various flavors of collective licensing mechanisms for peer-to-peer or
other ways of sharing digital works in both Europe and the US.
The thoughts and proposals developed in this book owe a lot to these precur-
sors:
4
they build on their approaches whilst attempting to overcome their limita-
tions. Most of the earlier work was preoccupied with how one could compensate
the music and film industry for the pains of having to operate in a world where
the public can act as a distributor of works in its own right. We ask ourselves a
different question: how can one make sure that cultural production and the
search for quality in all media are sustainable in a world where many more will
engage in it? Authors, performers, and contributors of all kinds will only support
the recognition of the right to share if credible approaches to the sustainability of
cultural activities are on the table.
Actually, gaining this support may not be the most difficult challenge: it might
be at least as difficult to convince every citizen that there is a need to put in place
new financing schemes for creative activities. Over the past 15 years, the public
has been treated as an enemy by a never-ending stream of laws and policies in-
tended to eradicate the unauthorized sharing of files representing copyrighted
works between individuals. This sharing was described as an act of piracy, and
ever more extreme means were put in place to prevent or punish it. The aim of
this book is not to recount all the legal measures, technical devices, new means to
incriminate, or compulsory propaganda in favor of some business models
adopted in this period, nor to describe the generalized confusion between justice,
police, administration and private stake-holders which they have installed.
5
None-
the internet and creativity debate 23
theless, even parties that cannot be suspected of anti-copyright extremism have
expressed strong warnings against the dangers of the war against sharing.
This happened, for instance, after a handful of multinationals of music and
film led a world-wide campaign to introduce three-strike approaches, under
which people alleged to have shared digital works without authorization are
banned from the Internet after two warnings. The best-known examples of imple-
mentation of three-strike approaches are the two laws on “Création and Internet”,
also known as HADOPI laws, adopted in 2009 in France.
6
After the first was
adopted by the French parliament, it was challenged in the Conseil Constitutionnel
(CC 2009) as being contrary to fundamental rights. This court, officially recogniz-
ing that access to the Internet is a necessary condition for the freedom of expres-
sion and communication which is essential to democracy, declared that this ac-
cess can only be restricted following a decision by a court of law, while the bill
entrusted this sanction power to an administrative authority. The second law cir-
cumvented this by instigating a semi-automated justice system based on penal
ordnances. In 2011, the UN Rapporteur for freedom of opinion and expression
(LaRue 2011) clearly condemned the principle of sanctions that deprive people of
access to the Internet. He also expressed concern about the latest trend in anti-
piracy: making intermediaries that provide access to information liable for the use
of their services to share copyrighted works.
Another example is the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA). This
text, negotiated between 2008 and 2010 among “like-minded countries”, was pre-
sented as a trade agreement, but it contains provisions for criminal sanctions for
copyright piracy. It is widely regarded as a circumvention of democracy for the
benefit of a limited interest group. Steward Baker, who was Assistant Secretary
for Policy in the US Department of Homeland Security in 2008, described (Ba-
ker 2011) his concerns at the time as follows: “It seemed as a sweetheart deal for
a few intellectual property owners, who’d get free government enforcement of
their private rights, potentially to the detriment of security and traditional cus-
toms enforcement. Worse, the sweetheart deal would be written into interna-
tional treaty, putting it beyond Congress’s reach if the risks we foresaw actually
came to pass.” Finally, data protection authorities such as the European Data
Protection Supervisor (EDPS 2009, EDPS 2010) have issued repeated warnings
about the risks of anti-piracy measures for privacy.
Without lingering on what could be a very long list, one must take stock of the
hurdles that this “war on piracy” has created for the acceptance by citizens of new
proposals for a society-wide financing of creative activity. There is a widespread
perception among citizens that laws and policies are adopted for a benefit of a
few; that, as individuals, they are stigmatized for conducting acts that they do not
see as harmful; and that the rights of authors are invoked to protect a few cor-
porations or interests such as heirs of deceased artists whose contribution to the
future of culture is disputable. The present schemes of collective management of
24 sharing
royalties or fees are seen as opaque and unfair to most contributors to creative
works. As a result new proposals for financing schemes are scrutinized with a
justified caution.
Some think that there is no need to do anything, and are reluctant to impose
new financial burdens on individuals. They argue that sharing will go on, as it is a
natural thing to do once the possibility arises, and impossible to prevent when
close to two billion people have the technical means to copy and exchange works.
Artists themselves will increasingly permit those who like their works to share
them with others. As we have done with this book, they will for instance put their
works under Creative Commons licenses that authorize users to copy and redis-
tribute digital works. As we will see, this laisser faire attitude may be too optimistic.
For some media, a few companies and organizations have such a hold on the
promotion and distribution of works that they are able to dissuade creators from
authorizing sharing. More generally, making sharing a crime will not stop it, but
it might prevent it from achieving its cultural potential. Certainly, staging a war
between creators and the public – two increasingly intermingled categories – will
not help in building a new social contract under which all contribute to the cul-
ture of tomorrow.
There is potentially a high price to pay if we let interest groups and organiza-
tions without democratic control define the environment of creativity on the Inter-
net: by delaying the construction of the many-to-all cultural society, we risk being
dispossessed of our common future. As citizens or as stakeholders, we would do
better to debate our future ourselves, and on our own terms. Policy-makers will
then be in a position to have an informed discussion on how to amend the law
and policies, in order to recognize the best of today’s practices and possibly turn
some of our proposals into reality.
the internet and creativity debate 25
3 The value of non-market sharing
3.1 Sharing is legitimate
Sharing used to be beyond the copyright arm
We are all accustomed to a dogmatic view of copyright, which is more about for-
bidding certain things than ensuring certain outcomes. For those who promote
this view, the idea of allowing people who are neither the authors nor the copy-
right holders of a piece of work to share it with other individuals is tantamount to
heresy. Article 27.2 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (quoted earlier)
should serve as a reminder that this has not always been the dominant view. To
interpret this article in its fullest sense, we must take into account any means of
promoting the material and moral interest of the authors of works, not just the
control of copies. With this open approach in mind, is it so obviously wrong to
transmit or to make available a cultural product in a non-profit way? Just how
could this harm culture itself, or those who contribute to it?
When works could only be distributed on a physical substrate, the first sale doc-
trine
1
(also known as the exhaustion of rights doctrine) acknowledged that, after
the sale of a cultural good, the person or organization acquiring it was free to
transmit it to another person. This doctrine was actually just codifying a long-
standing principle: copyright (or author rights for that matter) was not concerned
with what individuals who have entered into possession of a work such as a book
do with it. It was easier to adopt this view in past times because the carrier and
the information it carried could not be easily separated. Nonetheless, the usage
this enabled was far from insignificant: it led to the development of many useful
activities – lending or giving books and records to friends, but also creating loan
libraries for books and other media, or videocassette and DVD rental centers.
Activities such as reproducing extracts in notebooks, or cutting and pasting them
in the physical sense, were widely practiced in the Renaissance and classical peri-
ods (Blair 2010). Twenty years ago, when a few lobbies started their great cam-
paign to enforce the scarcity of works in the information domain, they were all
too aware of the dangers that these past practices posed to their theories. They
thus proceeded to attack them, targeting for example loan libraries in Europe.
The economic effects of lending books are limited or inexistent, but these lobbies
wished to erase all precedent of a right to share works without their permission.
27
Information technology and non-market exchanges
Today, information and communication technology (ICT) can be used for
activities which, previously, required the creation, manipulation or trans-
port of a physical object, or that were simply impossible. One can now cre-
ate a piece of work, share it with others, annotate it, comment on it, by
exchanging only information. This change concerns not only the artistic or
cultural domain, it also affects scientific and technical practices, manage-
ment, machine design, inter-personal communication, public expression
and the media.
Most disagreements on intellectual rights can arguably arise from differ-
ent takes on the changes introduced by ICT. What the latter allow, first and
foremost, are exchanges and collaboration on a very large scale, with mini-
mal transaction costs. ‘Transaction costs’ include costs linked to monetary
transactions, contracts or any other type of agreement, but also the cost of
detecting the necessary skills for a project, or of reaching the public inter-
ested by a given content. These extraordinary benefits are only realized,
however, if information exchanges are ‘free’ (i.e. not subjected to prior
agreements, transactions, authorizations or pre-use controls). It is thus in
the ‘non-market’ sphere that the advantages of the information revolution
are most evident: access to works and knowledge and evaluation of their
interest, distributed co-operation towards the production of informational
tools such as software, collaborative media, etc.
Nowadays, the true disagreement no longer concerns the radical nature
of the changes introduced by ICT, but rather the acceptance of their effects.
Some consider it desirable to impose, in the information domain, the scar-
city and degree of control which were unavoidable in the sphere of physical
carriers. They argue that this is needed in order to preserve certain func-
tions which existed in the latter sphere (investment into the production of
certain contents, remuneration of the authors, sign-posting of interesting
content). It is our intention to demonstrate that, on the contrary, freeing up
non-market exchanges between individuals can have a generally positive
impact on culture and the creative economy.
Computers and the Internet have made it possible to exchange works on a much
larger scale, without depriving the original owner of access to them. Thus, an
activity widely recognized as useful – sharing a work of art or opinion with some-
one else – becomes possible on a much greater scale. Does that suddenly make it
harmful? In terms of providing a channel for access to culture and knowledge, it
can only be an improvement. However, some parties adamantly reject sharing,
28 sharing
equating it with criminal activities such as stealing and piracy. They must have a
reasonable motive for doing this. Just what does sharing harm in the modern
sense of sharing information or files? What it really threatens is exclusive control
of the supply of works. The conflicts surrounding culture and the Internet inten-
sify around one issue: in tomorrow’s world, who will determine which cultural
works reach the public and how? In the era of large, centralized cultural indus-
tries, it was not authors and other contributors, but large publishers and distribu-
tors, who had an almost exclusive control on distribution. To understand how
this situation is likely to evolve and what challenges this evolution might imply,
we must first explore in more depth what sharing is.
The potential afforded by the sharing of information has been largely realized
in certain areas, such as the open Web in general, public expression in blogs and
collaborative media. We owe it a major regeneration of democratic processes. In
other domains, such as photography, music and video communities, we have live
experiments in voluntary sharing of works by their authors, using Creative Com-
mons or similar licenses. Finally, we have a giant file sharing laboratory, using
dozens of tools and technologies, for commercially distributed copyrighted
works, but also for the on-line archiving of public radio and TV programs, or the
provision by members of the public of rare or orphan works.
2
So large a flow of
cultural exchanges between individuals is unprecedented, and hence it is worth a
closer look.
File sharing
Accessing and sharing contents
The publishing industry thinks in terms of access to contents: will people
download digital works? Will they access them through streaming (a tech-
nology that enables users to listen to or view contents stored in a central
server without downloading a copy)? For the industry, sharing is just an-
other way of accessing contents without their permission. However, sharing
between individuals leads to very different practices in comparison to
downloads or streaming from centralized sites: when individuals decide
what to make available to others (and this could be all the documents they
have in digital form), what they share directly reflects their preferences. By
contrast, on centralized sites, there is a bias towards specific contents
which are made more visible than others, either through advertising or be-
cause many other people are accessing them.
There are many ways to share contents beyond peer-to-peer file sharing.
Swapping USB keys, for instance, is a popular way of sharing digital works
today. At first sight, it suffers from the same limitations as sharing physical
books did in the past: the USB key has to travel physically from one individ-
the value of non-market sharing 29
ual’s computer to another. However, this exchange is quite efficient in prac-
tice, because USB keys now have large capacities, enabling them to hold
large sets of works, and because just about everyone in developed countries
(and soon elsewhere) is equipped with them. The old practice of making
contents one likes available on a personal website has become less fre-
quent, because of the risk of being charged with copyright infringement.
Newsgroups, which are a form of email list servers whose messages are
sent to subscribers, existed well before the Web, but remain a very efficient
way to obtain some contents “on request” among communities interested
in specific contents, which often are no longer accessible easily on the com-
mercial market.
At the end of 1998, a young student called Shawn Fanning started developing
Napster, a system to share MP3 music files among individuals. Napster started
operating in June 1999. At its peak, the system had more than 25 million users
and 80 million files.
3
Works in various media were shared using the Internet long
before Napster,
4
but Napster was responsible for making file sharing – as an ex-
pression and as a practice – popular amongst the general public. The importance
of Napster lies both in its architecture and its philosophy. Napster had some
flaws, which made it an easier target for law suits. For instance, it was based on a
single central register of which users hosted which file. However, it was a true
sharing tool, where access to a file was obtained by an individual from other
individuals, a principle that came to be known as peer-to-peer file sharing, or
P2P for short.
5
Napster launched the idea of personal music library pooling sys-
tems, where users have access to the music libraries of all other users. Pooling
libraries is an old dream, already present in antiquity. The Ptolemies implemented
it in a somewhat centralized and confiscatory manner: every ship landing in Alex-
andria was required to hand over any papyrus scrolls on board to the Library of
Alexandria, where they were kept, the original owners receiving only a copy (Phi-
lips 2010). The Renaissance humanists practiced it in a more civilized manner by
exchanging copies between themselves. As for modern libraries, some countries
have revived a softer version of the ancient rule, by requiring a legal deposit of a
copy of all published works in one or more libraries. However, the need to move
or store objects physically is a significant hindrance for centralized or pooled li-
braries. Digital technology and universal information networks have now re-
moved this limitation. At the time of writing, the Comparison of File Sharing Applica-
tions page
6
on Wikipedia lists some 60 applications (not all active at present), but
these only represent some of the many ways to share digital works. If the non-
market sharing of digitally published works is recognized as legitimate, other
ways of sharing files between individuals that are presently too risky in terms of
30 sharing
prosecution will become possible again, such as simply putting digital works on-
line on a personal website.
7
More generally, file sharing practices will no longer
occur in a semi-clandestine fashion, their practitioners will no longer be called
bad names or be subject to surveillance and pursuit by private police organiza-
tions. The information sphere will no longer be polluted by fakes in the name of
the war on peer-to-peer networks.
We must thus analyze not just what sharing is today, but what it could be in a
different situation, where more people are able to work towards quality in shar-
ing: quality of the digital representation of works, of their attribution to authors
and contributors, of the tools available to search for them, to identify those with
interesting content and flag them. Of course, not everyone is interested in contri-
buting to quality improvement, but it is enough that a few are, and are able to
work openly: new services and intermediaries emerge, and reputations are made.
Fakes
Fakes are files purporting to contain a given work, whereas their content is
in fact different (for example a short excerpt that is looped over and over).
Most fakes are deliberately injected on behalf of publishers, who call upon
the services of specialized companies to wage this war on peer-to-peer net-
works (this practice is called P2P warfare). If non-market exchanges were
recognized, files which mask one content with another would probably
continue to exist (for example to disseminate pornographic content), but it
would be much easier to detect and avoid them. Far from fighting this latter
type of abuse, those who oppose file sharing currently exploit it in order to
discredit what they object to. Unfortunately for them, MediaDefender, a
market leader for the injection of fakes on behalf of the major companies,
was caught red-handed running a parallel business in fakes which redir-
ected users to its own paying pornographic sites (Salliou 2008).
3.2 Sharing is useful
The information age is one where many more people engage in producing con-
tents in various media and expressing themselves towards an open public than
ever. As we will see in section 7.2, 11 to 20% of the population older than 15 in
developed countries engage in producing contents for sharing on the Internet,
and this proportion is constantly on the increase. A reasonable cultural policy
must endeavor at making a many-to-all cultural society sustainable, at ensuring
that each human being can contribute to and participate in such a society, accord-
the value of non-market sharing 31
ing to their wishes and abilities.
8
Sharing is useful because it contributes to this
perspective in many ways.
Sharing as cultural empowerment
The first useful quality of sharing is obvious, though it is often forgotten even by
its advocates: sharing is not the same thing as access. If its adversaries do not
speak of sharing, but rather of piracy or illegal/unauthorized downloading,
streaming and access, it is because they are well aware that a direct attack on
sharing would be easy to criticize. Sharing is an act of making something avail-
able to others, just like – in a more minor way – recommending a work to some-
one or – in a more involved way – re-using one in a creative process. This is why,
even when one is not the author of a digital work, sharing it with others is a step
towards cultural empowerment. This step is particularly important, because it can
be practiced by all, at a very limited entry cost.
How much sharing with how many people?
Curiously, little attention was paid to the fact that uploading or making
works available to others through a P2P network requires resources. A full
music album, compressed using the FLAC lossless compression codec pop-
ular among demanding file sharers, represents 340 megabytes. A decent
quality MP3 version represents 140 megabytes. Assuming a bandwidth of
512 kilobits per second (a realistic estimate of the true upload bandwidth
available on average to broadband Internet subscribers in developed coun-
tries), it takes 19 to 45 minutes to upload such an album once. Even if a
broadband connection is used only for this, only 1000 to 2250 albums can
be uploaded per month. In practice, P2P networks allow the user to limit
the upload bandwidth they consume. A typical choice for a “good sharing
citizen” is 40 kilobits per second, corresponding to a maximum of 80 to
200 music albums uploaded per month (and far fewer movies). Of course,
future technological advances will raise these limits, but the idea of one
person directly making millions of files available remains a complete fan-
tasy. Note that this reasoning also applies to protocols such as BitTorrent,
which allow users to obtain different parts of a file from different sources:
the compound upload time remains the same. We will see that some proto-
cols are favorable to cultural diversity, while others are less so. Using the
diversity-prone protocols, many people can – together – share a very large
common library, but each shares only some works with some people. This
also explains why USB key swapping, despite its physical location limits,
remains an attractive way of sharing files.
32 sharing
File sharing is fundamentally different from streaming, because through the for-
mer, one comes into possession of a copy of the works. This copy can be
searched, read, listened to, or viewed ad lib, with whatever tools one chooses.
This is not just a matter of convenience, it also enables specific activities: compar-
ison, analysis, criticism, or re-use. Most significantly perhaps, sharing empowers
Internet users by enabling them to act as a distributor, as a relay for the dissemi-
nation of a work. This is so important to them that many are prepared to devote
significant money and time resources to sharing.
Cultural diversity
Cultural diversity has many dimensions: how diverse are the works that are pro-
duced? How many creators contribute to them? By how many channels are they
distributed? How many languages are represented and to what extent? Some of
these dimensions are difficult to assess, not least because the diversity of works
cannot be reduced to an objective measure. Others can be misleading: the in-
crease in the number of television channels has not necessarily increased the di-
versity of sources of contents, because the contents that receive the most attention
actually come from a limited number of sources, for instance companies such as
Endemol that design “formats” of shows that are then “customized” for given
countries. In this book, we focus only on two dimensions of cultural diversity:
the range of works that are accessible to users in practice, and the diversity of
attention given by users to works in various media.
Sharing contributes to cultural diversity first by enlarging the set of works that
are made accessible to the public at a given time in a given geographic area. To
take stock of the immense changes that have already happened in this arena, it is
useful to distinguish between 4 types of on-line cultural, informational or expres-
sive contents:
– material that is de facto shared voluntarily by authors without explicit licenses,
where non-commercial sharing by individuals carries no practical risk of
copyright litigation;
– material that is explicitly submitted to licenses that authorize at least non-
commercial sharing;
– material that is orphan, is no longer or never was distributed commercially, or
was produced by public organizations, and which is shared by individuals
without authorization;
– commercially distributed material shared by individuals without authoriza-
tion.
Legally inclined readers might find the distinction between the last three cate-
gories surprising: all three cover copyrighted material, and sharing it without
authorization constitutes a copyright infringement, unless some fair use, fair
the value of non-market sharing 33
dealing, exception or limitation applies.
9
However, our purpose here is to chart
different forms of sharing of digital works as they developed on the Internet. If
certain practices have been accepted or tolerated by authors, or treated leniently
by judges when possible, this might indicate that they are perceived as useful.
10
De facto sharing without explicit licenses was the first large-scale form of shar-
ing on the Internet. The success of the Web as an information and knowledge
sharing platform was based on the fact that people put on-line huge amounts of
valuable material, in forms that allowed for it to be easily linked to, copied,
pasted, sent to others by email, and often reproduced on the Web itself. As de-
scribed in (Benkler 2006), this gave birth to a giant non-market sphere of infor-
mation and knowledge activities. The world-wideWebSize site
11
computes on a
daily basis the number of Web pages indexed by search engines, which generally
means that their contents can be easily copied. At the time of writing, the figure
for Google is of the order of 30,000 million. Of course, not all of these web pages
can be considered to be shared de facto, but a significant proportion certainly is. It
is interesting to note than their number is probably of the same order of magni-
tude as the number of Internet users… or the number of human beings.
During the first years of development of the Web, the media industry largely
ignored it. Retrospectively, it seems that it simply did not fit their world view,
precisely because of its non-market character. Hollywood, for instance was ob-
sessed with digital technology at the time, but in form of DVDs and their copy
protection systems.
12
The industry lobbied to obtain a legal protection against
circumvention of anti-copying technology – making it illegal to work around
copy-prevention technology in order to do the copying. This was first met by a
rebuttal from FCC in 1994, but the Clinton administration then pushed it through
the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), where it was included in the
1996 WIPO copyright treaties.
13
Meanwhile, the first license explicitly authorizing
sharing at least for non-commercial use, the Open Content License, was released
in July 1998,
14
soon followed by the GNU Free Documentation License
15
in March
2000, the Licence Art Libre (Free Art License) in July 2000, and the Creative Com-
mons Licenses
16
in December 2002. As we have already mentioned, the unauthor-
ized sharing of copyrighted material underwent something of an explosion in the
same period with the birth of Napster.
For media where it was widely adopted, voluntary sharing greatly increased the
number of works made accessible to the public, under terms that authorize copy
and redistribution, and often free re-use with properly signaled modifications, for
non-commercial or even commercial purposes. On the Flickr site
17
alone, more
than 175 million photographs are shared under Creative Commons licenses, 115
million of which can be reused with modifications. Even if a judgment on quality
is always difficult, particularly on such a large scale, a significant fraction of these
photographs seem to be of real quality and interest, even though the site’s policy
leads to many images being available only at resolutions up to 1024 by 768 pixels.
34 sharing
The interested reader might experiment by searching for photographs on any gi-
ven subject on the Creative Commons part of the site.
18
Blog posts, scientific pub-
lications, and on-line encyclopedias such as Wikipedia are other examples of do-
mains in which voluntary sharing has considerably extended the range of
accessible contents. Overall, there are several hundred million on-line documents
under free sharing licenses: a 2010 estimate reported 350 million works for Crea-
tive Commons licenses alone (Cronin 2010).
The situation is different for some media that preexisted the Web, in particular
recorded music and moving image, and more recently books. There, certain
players have such a degree of control over the commercial distribution, promo-
tion and revenue sources that they can dissuade many artists or producers from
practicing voluntary sharing. In some cases, dissuasion is replaced by prohibi-
tion: collecting societies for music in Europe almost always require their mem-
bers to give an exclusive management mandate for all rights on all works. This
effectively forbids authors from explicitly authorizing non-commercial sharing of
their works between individuals. In these domains, unauthorized sharing, in par-
ticular P2P, plays a key role in extending the range of works that are accessible to
the public. In the data collected by (Aidouni et al. 2009) regarding sharing traffic
on an eDonkey server during 10 weeks in 2008, no fewer than 275 million files
were made available by users. Most of them are likely to be music, as moving
image sharing had already moved largely to BitTorrent sharing at that time. Not
all of them are shared without authorization: P2P networks are used to share
government data, free software… or self-published books. It is not easy to know
how many different works these files represented. During the 10 weeks of the
study, users obtained 40 million different file identifiers in answer to their
queries, 12 million were actually downloaded more than once. A safe estimate is
that no fewer than 10 million different music tracks (songs) were made available
for sharing.
19
Thus, this form of sharing alone made more tracks available than
the compound commercial offers at the time.
20
Unauthorized or tolerated sharing is of particular importance for orphan and
out-of-publication works, categories that cover a very significant share of our cul-
ture. A great proportion of copyrighted works are orphan or out-of-publication
works: these represent an estimated two-thirds of books, for instance (Brant-
ley 2009). The proportion is lower for recorded media such as music, moving
image documents being in an intermediate situation.
21
Though this may seem
strange, some public organizations have also turned a large part of our public
domain cultural heritage into a new form of property: heritage organizations
such as libraries, museums and archives, often totally or predominantly funded
by the public, claim exclusive rights on the digitized versions of these works, and
fail to give access to them under conditions that respect the rights of everyone
towards the public domain. Though there are recent public policy efforts to en-
sure a better accessibility to orphan, out-of-publication and public domain works,
the value of non-market sharing 35
the various forms of sharing can be credited with important successes in these
matters. Volunteers and not-for-profit projects have scanned, OCR-ed, or re-typed
and formatted significant collections of public domain works in the Internet Ar-
chive OpenLibrary project,
22
WikiSource
23
and Project Gutenberg.
24
Many more
orphan or out-of-publication works are accessible on file sharing networks, in
proportions that vary significantly depending on the sharing protocol (see below,
page 42). The wide diversity of contents available in file sharing has led to prac-
tices that are not possible in commercial contexts: comparison between numer-
ous performances for songs or classical music, constitution of specialized perso-
nal music collections.
We now need to investigate another facet of sharing: if many works are avail-
able, is the actual access to these works truly diverse?
Attention diversity
The popularity of works has been studied for various media for as long as a cen-
tury. To do so, researchers measured the popularity of works, for example, the
number of times a given book was requested in a library. They then plotted this
number, ranked by decreasing popularity, showing the most popular on the left,
and the least popular on the right. In large real-world situations, popularity dia-
grams of this type are not readable, as the curve becomes very close to the axis. To
see what is going on, one has to use logarithmic scales, or even better, to plot the
cumulative popularity. The cumulative popularity expresses the number of re-
quests for access for works down to a specific popularity rank. We coined the
expression “diversity of attention” (Aigrain 2006) to designate a property of ac-
cess to or usage of works that had long been recognized as important: how much
is the attention that people give to works spread over many works or concentrated
on a few? If the diversity of attention is large, the cumulative popularity curve
increases gradually throughout the range of popularity ranks. On the other hand,
if attention is concentrated almost exclusively on the most popular works, the
cumulative popularity curve rises sharply at first, then flattens off. In recent years,
the focus has shifted towards studying the diversity of attention to digital and on-
line works, though the methodology remains similar.
Traditional publishing of books, records, video tapes or disks selects a limited
number of works and tries to maximize their commercial distribution. However,
the digitization of all media and the spread of the Internet have strongly de-
creased the effort and cost of producing and distributing copies of works. This
has given birth to the decentralized sharing of works between individuals, and
has also led to new commercial publishing models (on-demand publishing, com-
mercial download sites, streaming) both legal and illegal. How do these various
models affect the diversity of attention? We started studying this issue in 2005,
focusing first on the comparison between voluntary sharing communities on the
Internet and the commercial distribution of books, records and DVDs that were
36 sharing
predominant at the time. Figure 3.1 illustrates the key aspect of these studies: they
are concerned with how much the works of intermediate popularity, those that do
not belong to the 1 to 5% most popular titles, but rather to the following 30%,
receive attention. In the example of figure 3.1, the music tracks in the [4%-34%]
most popular titles range receive close to 43% of the total access, a figure that is,
as we will see, very high, indicating a very diverse attention. The idea here is that
the titles that are not the most popular but did receive some attention (and thus
are likely to be of some interest at least for some users) are the reservoir of cultur-
al diversity.
25
Of course, our choice of 4% and 34% is somewhat arbitrary. To avoid such
arbitrary choices, researchers have long tried to characterize the shape of popu-
larity distributions by a single parameter that would provide an objective estimate
of the diversity of attention. An historic advance was made in the 1930s when
George Zipf (Zipf 1935), a Harvard linguist interested in the study of the fre-
quency of words in languages, formulated a law that was found to apply to many
real-world popularity distributions. Zipf’s law can be formulated as the level of
access of n
th
most popular work being proportional to
1
n
c
where c is a parameter
that can vary. Similar laws have been found to apply in many domains, such as
the wealth held by individuals or the size of cities. In appendix A, we provide a
comprehensive historical and technical background on these models that are at
the heart of debates on the so-called Long Tail theory proposed by Chris Ander-
son (Anderson 2004, Anderson 2006, Anderson 2009), for instance. Fascinat-
ingly, in many real-world situations the parameter c was found to be close to 1,
which led to a – false – popular belief that it is always the case, and that in any
form of cultural access, the 20% most popular works always receive more or less
80% of the attention (which became known as “the 20/80 rule”). In our example
of figure 3.1, the 20% most popular musical tracks receive only 46% of access.
As one can see in figure 3.2, the best-fitting Zipf law is not always a perfect
approximation of a popularity distribution. The exact reasons why popularity dis-
tributions and other ranked distributions follow Zipf’s law, or deviate from them
slightly, are still an object of speculation: see appendix A for our own tentative
explanations. Many factors combine to generate the observed spectrum of access
to works.
In the many types of commercial distribution or non-market sharing schemes
we have studied, we have found that the best-fitting Zipf laws had parameters
ranging from 0.5, for voluntary information sharing communities such as the
Musique Libre site mentioned above, to 1.41 for the sales of albums published by
the music majors in France in 2004 or 2005 (Moreau et al. 2006). These figures
correspond to extreme differences in diversity of attention, as illustrated in figure
3.3.
the value of non-market sharing 37
Fig. 3.1. Cumulative access (listening or downloads) to the 5565 music tracks available on the
Musique Libre site in 2006, normalized for how long they had been on-line (Aigrain
2006).
Fig. 3.2. Comparison of the cumulated access on the Musique Libre site in 2006, with the
cumulated access that would result from the best-fitting Zipf law (see appendix A for technical
details).
38 sharing
For advertising-funded commercial sites or commercial sales, the full distribution
of access to works is not made public, as it is considered to be sensitive commer-
cial information. As a result, only very partial information is available to research-
ers. One of our key policy recommendations is that the publication of the distri-
bution data for rights collected by collecting societies from each type of source
should be required by law. Until such a policy is in place, researchers have to
work with partial information, occasionally made available under the form “x%
of works represents y% of sales” or “the N most popular works received y% of
access”. From this data and information about the size of the universe of works,
one can estimate the corresponding Zipf’s law parameter and derive the full dis-
tribution of attention curve. This is of course an approximation, but in our opin-
ion it is a decent one, and one that will hopefully be validated further in the
future.
Fig. 3.3. Cumulated attention for extreme observed cases
For the on-line commercial distribution of works, where the number of titles is
much larger than for published CDs, the available information on the diversity of
attention is even scarcer. Will Page, the Chief Economist of PRS for Music, the
music collecting society in the UK, and Eric Garland, CEO of the music industry
journal BigChampagne published a curve for an unstated “legal single downloading
site” in which 5% of works generate 90% of revenues among a set of 1.5 million
the value of non-market sharing 39
titles (Page-Garland 2009). We derive from it a cautious estimate that the distri-
bution of sales would correspond to a Zipf law of parameter 1.1:
26
more diverse
than sales of CDs by the majors, but still very concentrated.
What about full-scale file sharing? Thanks to a remarkable data collection and
publication effort conducted by Mathieu Latapy and his colleagues at Université
Paris 6 (Aidouni et al. 2009), we were able to study the diversity of access to files
in a large segment of P2P sharing. They collected data exchanges through one of
the eDonkey servers during a 10-week period in 2008. No fewer than 90 million
users were involved in sharing using this server in this period, and 12 million files
were downloaded at least once. Analyzing this data from a diversity of attention
point of view faces three challenges:
– Several files, each characterized by a file identifier, can correspond to the
same work. In a later study on the BitTorrent P2P file sharing of movies in
Hungary, Bodó Balázs (Balazs-Lakatos 2010) “crowd-sourced” the huge task
of mapping files to works: he called for volunteers to share the workload and
obtained the complete results in only a week. However, this was possible only
because his study was focused on film, and considered only a few tens of
thousands of files. Two useful lessons can nonetheless be drawn from Bodó
Balázs’ study: the average number of files per work was around 5, and the
observed distribution of attention for files and for works was relatively similar.
– The eDonkey data have been rendered anonymous, in a way that makes it
impossible to select only works in a given medium, such as music.
– eDonkey file sharing is heavily polluted by fake files (Aidouni et al. 2009, Lee
et al. 2006), which results in Zipf’s law being quite a poor fit to the distribu-
tion of access, except when considering only a few hundred thousand most
popular files.
More details of our analysis are given in appendix A. We have chosen to focus on
the 2 million most popular files in the eDonkey sharing. These files received 94%
of all access, and they are likely to contain a high proportion of music (as film,
video and TV sharing had already switched to BitTorrent by the time, see Ober-
holzer-Strumpf 2010, p. 12). The average number of files per work is probably
lower than for film, as there are no duplicates due to language versions, and users
quickly select the best quality file for a given work. In figure 3.4, we compare the
observed distribution of attention in P2P file sharing with the distribution men-
tioned above for commercial single downloads. The diversity of attention distri-
bution presented here for P2P is only an approximation of the one for only indi-
vidual music works.
27
However, the huge difference in attention for intermediate
popularity works (60% of all access versus 10%) leaves no room for doubt: even if
our estimates are revised in later studies, the strongly increased diversity of atten-
tion in this type of P2P file sharing compared to commercial downloads will still
40 sharing
hold. These findings are consistent with those reported in a study using inter-
views of sharers (TNO 2009). However, we will see below that not all forms of
sharing have so positive an effect on the diversity of attention to works: BitTorrent
sharing appears to lead to a more concentrated access to works.
Once sharing is recognized legally, the diversity of attention in sharing will be
subjected to contradictory trends. On one hand, it will become higher, because
sharing will no longer be clandestine: when one can expect the sharing commons
to remain accessible without risk, it makes sense to make rare works available,
and to expect others to do the same, whereas at the moment the stigmatization
and repression of sharing focus it on high-demand works. On the other hand,
commercial players will come to realize the importance of being visible in file
sharing, will aim their promotion at it, and this could lead to a greater concentra-
tion of attention in some of the related channels.
Fig. 3.4. Comparison between the observed cumulated attention for the 2 million most popu-
lar files in eDonkey sharing and the cumulated attention for a distribution similar to the one
studied by (Page-Garland 2009) for single commercial downloads, adjusted for universe size.
Attention diversity varies with forms of sharing
There are important differences between the different ways of sharing digital
works in terms of their impact on cultural diversity: studies show that eDonkey/
eMule P2P file sharing using the eMule protocol leads to a greater diversity of
the value of non-market sharing 41
attention than sharing using BitTorrent tracker sites. In their study of music,
(Page-Garland 2009) also studied sharing through a peer-to-peer protocol which
they didn’t specify, but that appears to be BitTorrent. From the curve they pre-
sented, the distribution of access has a level of diversity similar to a Zipf law with
parameter around 1 for a universe of 1.5 million works: the 95% least popular
works get only 24% of access. (Envisional 2011) recently studied sharing for all
media on the PublicBT BitTorrent tracker. This study raises some methodological
questions: for instance, they studied one single day of sharing. Their study leads
to similar concentration estimates: among the 1,481,479 torrents that were down-
loaded at least once, those which were downloaded more than 100 times, that is
0.439%, account for 30.4% of all access. This corresponds to a Zipf law para-
meter of approximately 1.04. (Balazs-Lakatos 2011), in their aforementioned study
of BitTorrent film sharing in Hungary during 3 months in 2008, collected high
quality anonymized data to which they gave us access.
28
Figure 3.5 plots the cu-
mulated distribution of access for this data. The 95% least popular films obtain
41.2% of access. At first sight, this might seem much more diverse than the re-
sults from (Page-Garland 2009), but we are here in a much smaller universe of
1542 films, where this corresponds to a Zipf law with parameter 0.965.
29
It seems
indeed that BitTorrent sharing leads to a significantly stronger concentration of
attention than other forms of P2P sharing.
Fig. 3.5. Cumulated observed access for film sharing in Hungary (1542 films shared over 3
months in 2008), data from (Balazs-Lakatos 2011)
42 sharing
Researchers have proposed explanations of why BitTorrent is less favorable to
diversity of attention. Bodó Balázs and Zoltán Lakatos noted that: “Unlike
DC++
30
file sharing hubs that usually prescribe a minimum amount of data to be
offered in a shared library, BitTorrent trackers require that a user balances his/her
upload/download ratio around 1.0. This technical setup has serious implications
on how content is distributed and consumed on each network. Users around
DC++ form large, searchable archives, where the amount of data shared is a
source of pride and recognition. BitTorrent, on the other hand discourages the
emergence of large individual shared libraries as such large libraries offer little
reward in terms of the valuable upload ratio.” (Oberholzer-Gee-Strumpf 2010,
note 16) commented in another study: “The concentration of movie downloads
in part reflects the current BitTorrent technology. Index sites, which list the files
available for download, typically de-list a title when no one is sharing
31
a com-
plete copy for some length of time. As a result, less popular movies become often
unavailable, as are older movies since the number of shared copies tends to de-
cline over time.”
Though it is hard to obtain reliable information about schemes such as USB
keys, downloading from personal sites, or access through newsgroups, we expect
them to be strongly favorable to diversity of attention.
3.3 The media industry opposition to file sharing
The overall impact of sharing, and more generally of information and communi-
cation technology, on the cultural economy will be discussed in chapter 4, and
specifically in sections 5.2 and 7.4. Sharing is important for all facets of the cul-
tural and media scene, including books, photographs and new, Internet-native
media. But it is the music and motion picture majors that have started a real war
on sharing.
32
Our purpose here is to list the possible reasons for their fierce op-
position to sharing. The impact of sharing on sales of works cannot be the sole
motivation, as numerous studies are showing that it is limited or nonexistent. It is
thus reasonable to consider a range of other reasons:
– Cultural or ideological factors should not be underestimated. The industry has
assumed for decades that its business rests on a degree of exclusive control
over the production and dissemination of copies of works, so its reaction to
the loss of this control is unsurprising, even though its profits are still healthy.
In particular, large media firms find it hard to relinquish the very attractive
prospect of producing and distributing copies of works for next to nothing,
whilst retaining exclusive control over the process and charging monopoly
prices. They have seen the shimmering mirage of Eldorado and are not ready
to let go of it.
the value of non-market sharing 43
– Just when more titles than ever were published on records and DVDs, the
majors have chosen to restrict their offer: the number of music titles distribu-
ted by major companies has shrunk by a factor 4 or 5 at least. This approach
has arguably been successful, in that they have maintained their profit per
title, but it clearly fails for direct digital distribution (see below). As a result,
large media firms are now trying to install new forms of control on digital
distribution channels, and this is easier to implement in centralized distribu-
tion channels than in the context of decentralized sharing.
– Similarly, a key foundation of their present business models is their ability to
concentrate the public’s attention on a limited set of works. Major companies
have been investing more and more in heavy promotion of a limited number
of titles, with shorter and shorter individual lifetimes. This is clearly at logger-
heads with the trends favored by sharing: increased diversity of attention and
enlarged range of accessible works.
– Quite simply, they are afraid of the unknown. In truth, sharing has had only a
limited effect on them so far. But they fear that if it was recognized legally, it
would turn into a black hole that would swallow the creative economy whole.
After close to 15 years of this “war on sharing”, the large media companies now
know that it is here to stay. But they still hope that they can keep it clandestine,
polluted, and stigmatized. They may be playing for time, trying to install some
control over new channels before they have to live with sharing. In particular, it
makes sense for them to try to push users back into a passive consumption mode.
But although this passivity might be desirable for the cultural industries that
flourished in the pre-digital era, it is not in the public’s best interest, and policy-
makers should not necessarily embrace it.
When digital works are shared clandestinely, the resulting diversity of attention
is lower than when sharing occurs in the open.
33
This is because in a legally
recognized context, one can rely on a degree of longevity and accumulation. Shar-
ing rare works and, in return, obtaining others which one didn’t have access to
become credible propositions. When unauthorized sharing faces repression,
sharers are led to prefer schemes providing a fast access to recent works, such as
BitTorrent. However, even in such situations, attention is still less concentrated
on a few works than in a central publishing model.
Despite many years of “war on piracy”, unauthorized file sharing has already
started to have positive effects on cultural diversity. At the 2010 MIDEM (a yearly
music publishing business fair held in Cannes), SACEM, the French collecting
society for authors and composers of music made an apparently mundane, but in
fact very noteworthy statement (Lefeuvre 2010). The spokesperson for SACEM ex-
plained that the collected rights from digital sales remained very low, adding up
to only ¤6.5 million for the year 2009, but went on to mention a “long tail night-
mare, with the four previous years resulting in 409 million sales spread over 2.6
44 sharing
million titles”.
34
Let us start by addressing the first part of the statement. The
weak development of commercial downloads, slower in Europe than in the US,
may be attributed to many factors. The media publishing industry attribute it to
the “unfair competition” of “piracy”, despite evidence that file sharers buy at least
as much digital music or video as people who abstain from sharing.
35
The indus-
try’s critics see it as a sign of the rejection of outdated commercial models that
fail to recognize user rights or to provide more than just access to a digital file.
Delimiting the non-market sphere
‘Non-market’ doesn’t just mean not having to pay to access a piece of work.
Access to a catalog following a subscription is not ‘non-market’, even if one
does not have to carry out a monetary transaction to access each work. On
the other hand, one might charge for the means to carry out certain activ-
ities without the latter losing their non-market nature. The case of content-
hosting sites which are financed by advertising deserves a separate analysis:
they are nominally used in a non-market way, but since they trade the atten-
tion time of their users with advertisers, for that part of their activity these
sites should be considered as commercial distributors like any others.
‘Non-market’ doesn’t mean administered. On the contrary, the develop-
ment of non-market information-based activities represents a new step to-
wards the realization of the efficient allocation of resources long promised
by market economics. Markets, despite their value, are struggling to deliver
this, due to their practical organization: unequal access to information and
power, control over distribution channels, interdependence between prod-
ucts and technologies. Similarly, ‘non-market’ activities are not outside the
economy. The supply of means to exchange information represents twice as
large a fraction of gross domestic product (GDP) as the sale of information:
see (UNU-MERIT 2006, pp. 123-126). For more explanations of the value of
non-market exchanges and other indirect means to fuel culture and other
information-based activities, see The Wealth of Networks by Yochai Benkler
(Benkler 2006).
Moving to the second part of the statement, the “long tail nightmare”, which
plagues SACEM and the majors, is good news for cultural diversity. It is testimony
to the fact that it is more difficult to concentrate attention on a limited number of
titles in the digital sphere than in physical distribution, at least when complemen-
tary channels such as file sharing exist. The 2009 annual report of SACEM claims
that “one can only note the extreme concentration of sales on a few titles” men-
tioning that “on iTunes, only 10 titles were sold more than 25,000 times, while
the number of titles sold via download only was 20 million” (SACEM 2010, our
the value of non-market sharing 45
translation).
36
We will come back later to the issue of concentration of sales on
iTunes, which is indeed strong in comparison to P2P file sharing. But the stated
figures do not imply a stronger concentration than for record sales, quite the
contrary: the key difference lies in the number of titles made available and the
low level of average sales. What SACEM actually means is that few titles generate
copyright revenues at levels which they can efficiently manage. Our thesis is that
the increased diversity of attention can give rise to new resources to enable crea-
tive activity and a manageable and equitable distribution of funding and income.
What remains to be seen is whether the collecting societies (where they exist) and
the majors everywhere can adapt to this new world. Up to now, they have focused
on preventing it from becoming a reality.
In the last few years, P2P sharing, whose protocols consider each individual as
both a distributor and receiver, is said to have declined in favor of authorized or
illegal streaming servers. Streaming services give access to a wide variety of con-
tents, and thus few commentators have noted that this partial replacement of P2P
networks by streaming servers is far from being good news. The business models
of the operators of streaming services such as Deezer or Spotify are based on
advertising, subscriptions, and content producers paying for the promotion of
their contents. The fact that the 4 major phonographic companies have taken a
participation in Spotify (Redwood 2010), while allowing it to provide access to
their catalog, should act as a warning. This behavior can be seen as an effort to
retain, in this new channel, the same strong control over which works reach the
attention of the public that they have in classical publishing.
37
Furthermore, if
streaming becomes the dominant form of access to works, individuals would be
turned into passive receivers.
If and when file sharing is recognized as a legitimate activity, it will become
possible for users to choose technology and services based on their merits and
properties, and not just because it is less risky to use one than the other. This
would transform the current situation not because of the existence of file sharing,
whose already massive scale would increase yet further, but because of the official
legitimacy of exchange practices. It would result in a wider attention to creative
works and a better recognition of their authors. The diversity of works able to
reach a significant audience would vastly increase. The quality of the digital repre-
sentation of shared works would be much improved. New services would emerge
to support these exchanges. Creators and producers would compete to set up the
most productive relationships between individuals and the other cornerstones of
the creative economy, namely on-line artistic communities, services such as con-
certs, teaching or projection in theaters, or new forms of publishing on carriers
such as collector sets and mixed-media publishing.
If exchanges of files containing creative works without specific authorization
are useful, one may ask why we advocate recognizing only those that are non-
46 sharing
market. There are two reasons for this, which we develop in the following chap-
ters:
– the need to maximize the benefits that these exchanges yield (see box on the
specific benefits of non-market exchanges in the information sphere above on
page 28);
– the need to ensure that these exchanges co-exist as harmoniously as possible
with other cultural activities, particularly those which lead to monetary trans-
actions and help fund creative activities.
the value of non-market sharing 47
4 Sustainable resources for creative
activities
There exists a caricatural view of the Internet, which prevents a constructive re-
flection on financial resources for creative activities and culture. Those who adopt
this view see the development of on-line non-market sharing as a black hole that
would swallow up the cultural economy whole, and with it culture itself. They
also imagine that the Internet could become an Eldorado for new cultural indus-
tries to flourish in, as long as the scarcity of copies of works which is the rule in
the realm of physical carriers would also be enforced in the digital sphere. Ms.
Christine Albanel, the former French Minister for Culture, expressed this view in
its purest form in the explanatory memorandum for her 2008 “Internet & Creation”
bill: It is now possible to turn digital networks, for the benefit of consumers, into a true
dematerialized goods distribution tool, particularly in the cultural arena. This will only be
possible, however, if intellectual property rights are respected. Yet, at the same time, the condi-
tions for the creation of these works have never been more threatened. In 2006, billions of
pirated files containing musical and audiovisual works were exchanged in France.
1
We ad-
dress this view in further detail in Chapter 11.
The reader will by now have understood that we view the notion of maintaining
the scarcity of copies as not only impossible, but downright harmful, as it seeks
to dispossess individuals of the capabilities which are crucial for the construction
of a shared culture. As for the black hole scenario, it is factually erroneous: what-
ever negative impact results from the development of non-market sharing will be
limited, and will affect only certain forms of cultural economic activities and
sources of income for authors, whilst others will be affected positively. Before
detailing how we would propose to finance a file sharing compatible creative eco-
system, let us briefly take stock of the state of fact-finding on the impact of file
sharing. This will clarify further why we do not view it as a problem to be re-
moved, but as a vital part of the creative economy of the future.
Of the commentators who are still proclaiming that cultural creativity is being
bled dry, most use music as their preferred example. However, independent
research studies focused on music show that increased sharing does not de-
crease the income from a given work (Oberholzer-Strumpf 2007, Oberholzer-
Strumpf 2010) or decreases it only to a limited
2
and varying degree (Andersen-
Frenz 2008). The market for recorded music has indeed shrunk, however, a fact
that other studies impute to file sharing (Liebowitz 05). This apparent contradic-
49
tion probably arises from a change in the supply pattern. Major publishers have
reacted to their inability to enforce their exclusivity on the distribution of digital
works by restricting supply and focusing marketing on a small number of titles.
This has so far enabled them to maintain and even increase per-work profits, but
at the cost of a reduction in the overall size of the market and of the resulting
income for all but a few artists. This reduction is partly compensated by the grow-
ing supply from independent producers and individuals, but their activity remains
fragile as long as they stay dependent on centralized distribution and promotion
channels. Despite this, the overall economy of music has never stopped growing,
if one considers not just the market for recorded music, but also concerts, teach-
ing and instruments (see below section 7.4).
Studies regarding film and audiovisual material (Marsouin 2008, Martikai-
nen 2010) lead to the same conclusion: non-market file sharing has an excellent
synergy with theater ticket sales, and even sales of DVD or commercial downloads
are affected little, if at all, by non-market sharing.
Judges themselves have often expressed their skepticism towards the claims of
publishers, according to whom any unauthorized exchanges imply lost profits.
That is one of the reasons why the corresponding lobbies pushed for the Anti-
Counterfeiting Trade Agreement – whose ratification is raising a lot of debate at
the time of writing – to rubber stamp their viewpoint and dispense them from
having to prove their losses (KEI 2008).
The debate will no doubt go on, but on the basis of presently available evi-
dence, our primary reason for creating new financing sources for creative activ-
ities is not the supposedly adverse economic impact of non-market file sharing.
There is another, much more compelling reason to seek new resources to finance
creative activities, and that is to take advantage of an historical opportunity. Shar-
ing opens the perspective of a many-to-all cultural society, in which everyone has
access to creative, expressive and informative works and has the means to con-
tribute to their creation. In such a society, many will produce works that deserve
the attention of some, and quite a few – many more than today – will obtain the
attention of many. We call it a many-to-all cultural society because it transforms
the previously stark distinction between producers and consumers – those who
create works and those who access them – into a continuum. It puts them all into
a position to benefit from the cultural commons, provided that the process can be
sustained via proper reward and financing mechanisms.
The transition to a many-to-all cultural society raises great challenges. In the
information era, cultural practices are growing at an unprecedented rate, pre-
cisely as a result of the fact that they are, for the most part, non-market. These
new activities cannot be financed only by traditional means. This applies in parti-
cular to capability building: if many of us are to take part in new creative activities
and produce output that is of interest to others, we need time and money to be-
come better at it. Financing mechanisms will serve their purpose only if they can
50 sharing
be put in place without creating excessive transaction costs for users, and without
restricting the very freedoms which enable the activities in question to take place.
In addition, we have to finance a much wider domain of creative activity, whilst
the contribution of some of the existing sources (television, sales of physical car-
riers) is bound to decrease.
3
We must thus devise new financing means, able to
grow with cultural and artistic activities and to contribute to the recognition of
quality among their products. The question is: how?
Fig. 4.1. Cultural and creative activities and their economy.
We must first define the range of activities concerned, as different stakeholders
tend to place emphasis on different components of culture and creative activities.
The debate on the financing of creative activities has mostly arisen in the context
of a very narrow vision, focused on the private consumption of the products of the
cultural industry, the economic performances of the companies producing or dis-
tributing these products, and to a lesser extent the royalties collected by collecting
societies. Figure 4.1 sets these domains in much wider context, enabling us to
take stock of the challenges facing us.
Let us dispel a few widely held notions. Of the copyright revenues and asso-
ciated royalties distributed by publishers or collecting societies to those who con-
tribute to creative activities, only a very small fraction – except for books – arises
from the private consumption of cultural goods, whether physical or digital (the
sustainable resources for creative activities 51
Business-to-Consumers or B2C part of figure 4.1). Similarly, the economy of cul-
tural goods represents only a small part of the artistic and cultural economy,
which is in fact dominated by the support of non-market activities (UNU-MER-
IT 2006, pp. 123-126) and the provision of services, whether for profit or not
(education, live performance, theater projection, ...). (Benhamou-Sagot-Duvaur-
oux 2007) showed that artists draw only a relatively minor and rapidly decreasing
portion of their income from copyright. More generally, the fraction of artists’
income arising from the sale of cultural goods such as musical recordings is de-
creasing in domains such as music (SACEM 2010).
Fig. 4.2. Roles and functions in media.
52 sharing
These remarks should not lead us to disregard the very complex chains of activ-
ities that are necessary for the health of a creative ecosystem. As shown in figure
4.2, a creative economy developing in a context of widespread sharing of digital
works is not free of intermediaries, quite the contrary. Here, the third column
presents an extreme scenario, where authors and artists distribute their works
directly for sharing on the Internet, and commercial players either serve this ac-
tivity or do ex-post publishing. We do not believe this will be the unique scenario,
but it is already very much present and helps us to reflect on the functions that are
needed in the digital creative ecosystem. Many of the traditional added-value
functions that exist in classical publishing or broadcast are still needed, though
they take place at different stages. New functions are also needed, to perform
searches for example. Others now have to be practiced in considerably more chal-
lenging situations: the detection of valuable works, their editorial selection in
view of publishing, the critical space without which there is no cultural scene
must all address considerably larger sets of works.
So we have great opportunities and great challenges. To address them, we ex-
plore a wider range of solutions to promoting a flourishing, sharing-compatible
cultural economy. Existing schemes such as market sales of goods and services,
copyright revenues from commercial reuse, or public subsidies
4
will remain es-
sential. New schemes such as voluntary resource pooling between individuals to
finance specific projects are emerging, and they are proving relevant to address
some financing challenges in digital media, for instance for investigative report-
ing or documentary movie production. However, the degree to which these
schemes can scale up is somewhat unclear. This led us to seek solutions that
directly tackle the scale of financing needs in a many-to-all cultural society. In the
rest of this book, we analyze the needs and potential of large scale mutualization
organized by law. The term mutualization (organized pooling of resources be-
tween parties having a common interest) is not frequently used in English, where
it designates mostly the process by which a stock exchange company turns itself
in a co-operative. In the 19th century, mutualism grew – in particular in France
and Italy – as a political and social movement, organizing co-operatives in all
forms of production, commerce and social services. It promoted contributory
schemes to pool resources in domains where everyone is a producer and a user
of products and services. Mutualism competed with socialism and has a renewed
relevance in the Internet age. We consider in this book, in addition to voluntary
resource pooling, a mutualized financing scheme for cultural and expressive ac-
tivity, based on a statutory (compulsory) financial contribution. We call this
scheme Creative Contribution.
Even for readers who do not view the idea of a compulsory contribution for
financing the cultural commons as necessary or relevant, most of what is devel-
oped in the following chapters should be of interest nonetheless. These chapters
contain: a discussion of the rights that are essential for all participants in culture;
sustainable resources for creative activities 53
a detailed modeling of the rewards to creators of valuable cultural products; an
analysis of the global needs for new creative projects; proposed designs for mea-
surement systems which ensure the fair reward of contributors without intruding
into the privacy of users; and a discussion of democratic governance for large-
scale mutualized financing systems. All of these topics are relevant to any system
that would address the sustainability challenges of digital culture.
Nonetheless, statutory contribution schemes such as the creative contribution
have specific advantages, which are why they are currently emerging as a key out-
come of close to ten years of debates on financing mechanisms associated with
the right to non-market sharing between individuals. In the last few years, they
have been discussed in many circles, from parliaments to free culture commu-
nities, from artist collectives to Internet freedom advocacy groups. These debates
helped identify some key questions which needed to be explored further:
5
Who
should contribute? To which parts of our ‘galaxy’ of creative and economic activ-
ities should users be expected to contribute? Where should mutualization stop,
lest it become a kind of opportunistic tax, collected wherever possible, without
clearly laid out rights for all? The framework we propose in chapters 5 to 8 an-
swers these questions in detail, but let us lay down the fundamentals of this re-
sponse straight away:
6
1. Everyone who has access to broadband Internet benefits, or will benefit, from
the digital cultural commons, of which sharing is a key enabler. It is thus
legitimate to ask everyone to contribute to the existence of the works that
populate these commons, to their quality and to the recognition of this qual-
ity. This contribution must come with cleared stated rights, and each contri-
butor must have effective powers to choose how this contribution will be
used.
2. The first aim of this contribution is to reward creators and other contribu-
tors
7
to works. In practice, it will more than compensate for any possible
impact that the recognition of a right to share may have on their other
sources of income, but the primary motivation of this contribution is not
compensatory: it is based on newly formulated social rights of all participants
to the cultural commons.
3. It is also legitimate to ask the users of an Internet where non-market sharing
is free to contribute to the production of digital works whose creation re-
quires upstream investment. However, this contribution must bear a relation
to the extent to which these works are targeted to or used on the Internet. It is
also important for Internet users to contribute to types of creation which are
not easy to realize in a market context, such as personal artistic projects,
investigative reporting or photo-reporting. The allocation of funds for sup-
port to production can be entirely based on contributor preferences.
54 sharing
4. Finally, it is also important to support an environment where interesting
works can be detected and recognized. This calls for numerous actors and
functionality enabling the users to find, recognize, and construct quality in a
sea of works. Some of this functionality is presently sustained or can be sus-
tained via subscriptions, donations or indirect advertising revenue. Others
require a more global mutualized financing to be sustainable.
To conclude the introductory part of this book, we should recall that implement-
ing a mutualized (societal) financing mechanism for creative activities, in re-
sponse to a new technological situation, would not in fact represent such a break
with the past. Since culture has been considered as a specific domain, creative
activities and their authors have been financed via a combination of mechanisms.
Indirect mechanisms (sponsorship, public funding of certain statuses and activ-
ities, fiscal incentives, or mutualized financing via fees, levies and donations)
have always dominated over the direct sale of cultural goods. The advantage of
new forms of mutualized financing is that, thanks to information technology,
they take place in a cultural society of peers. They create additional links between
creators, their works and their users, without necessitating intrusive surveillance
of individual usage.
What should we reasonably expect from a mutualized financing such as the creative
contribution?
– a strong increase in actual cultural diversity: see figure 3.2;
– a real reward arising from digital non-market usage, for a vast number
of creators and contributors, but mostly at the level of a supplementary
rather than primary income;
– a contribution to mechanisms which help produce and maintain quality
in various media, including emergent media: see section 7.3.
What should we not expect from it?
– that it should act as the sole source of income for all creators, or finance
an entire production chain;
– that it should save commercial models which never had any credibility,
such as the large-scale on-line sale of digital cultural products at mono-
polistic prices without added-value functionality (see entry 12 in the FAQ
of chapter 11).
sustainable resources for creative activities 55
We will now consider a key decision: on which foundations should we build the
new proposed mechanisms? Should we consider them as the organization of the
cultural and media market? As a particular form of copyright law implementation
reforming it from the inside? Or as a new social pact based on new formulations
of rights? Of course, the answer will not be one or the other, but will include
some aspects of each. What we recommend in the next chapter is a new balance
between these three approaches.
56 sharing
The Creative Contribution
5 Which rights for whom? A choice of
models
A number of models have been proposed over the past few years to move beyond
the repression of file sharing. In this chapter, we analyze them and complement
them with our own proposal. We discuss the benefits and drawbacks of the var-
ious models, and obstacles which must be overcome before they can be imple-
mented in reality.
A major distinction between different models is which rights they give to
whom. Do they give actual usage rights to individuals? On which basis do they
plan to reward creators? Starting with models that do not recognize the right of
individuals to share contents, analyzing some limits of copyright-based and other
compensatory approaches to the legalization of sharing, we will progressively
sketch out the key characteristics of a new model, based on social rights. Our
goal is to formulate a model that can provide a perennial source of finance to a
creative economy where non-market sharing of digital works between individuals
is recognized as legitimate.
5.1 Access without rights to share: commercial download or
streaming licenses
The media industry dilemma
In 1997, we published an article in First Monday, a peer-reviewed on-line journal
on Internet research. Attention, Media, Value and Economics (Aigrain 1997) was a
contribution to a debate on the “attention economy” launched a few months ear-
lier by (Goldhaber 1997) and (Ghosh 1997). Based on earlier work (Ai-
grain 1996), the paper analyzed how much people are willing to pay for one hour
of interaction with music or video, for instance. The answer depends on the cir-
cumstances and the form of interaction. Unsurprisingly, in the cultural domain,
people are ready to pay considerably more per hour if they experience the unique-
ness of a live performance,
1
or even when an event merely establishes a relation-
ship with other members of an audience (for instance the projection of a movie in
a theater). This live experience does not apply to recorded contents or broadcasts,
but there are still great differences between forms of access and usage. What
matters then is what people can do with contents. To date, people still pay more
59
for recorded music or video than for radio and TV, even accounting for indirect
payment in the form of advertising.
2
This is because owning recorded contents
allows the user to carry out a number of actions, not least copying. In fact, recent
history shows that users simply won’t buy contents if they are prevented from
copying them, as demonstrated by the strong rejection by consumers of copy-
protected CDs and digital contents with technical protection measures that are
not easily circumvented.
3
This evidence has faced the media publishing and distribution industry for
close to 15 years. In the digital world, it must make a choice. Either the industry
reinvents itself, to become a producer of quality contents, facilitating fan-artist or
fan-fan relations, and helping people to find contents they like, or it tries to re-
main a gatekeeper, selling access to copies of works, or renting usage rights at a
monopoly price.
Not all media companies pursue only the latter option. The Hollywood film
industry, for instance, maintains a strong investment in high-budget movies
(such as Lord of the Rings, Avatar, etc...), on the premise that these extremely ex-
pensive movies will become premium contents that everyone wants to see, be-
cause of their quality or, ironically, because of their fabulous cost. It is also ex-
ploring new ways to derive income from merchandising or product placement.
Similarly, TV series producers have understood that on-line video sites originally
designed for user-generated contents could become an alternative distribution
channel for TV, compensating for the loss of TV viewing time. They did not fron-
tally oppose the copying of their contents, but instead threatened the operators of
these sites with lawsuits in an attempt to force them to negotiate commercial
agreements.
4
On the other hand, the music industry majors originally clung to the mirage of
retaining their oligopoly on the sale of musical recordings, or on the licensing of
listening rights to consumers, an even more attractive game where people pay
each time they listen. This is only partly successful, however: people do pay for
contents, but preferably when there is no exclusive control on copies, i.e. no digi-
tal rights management systems to prevent them from copying them or conducting
other unauthorized acts. They use streaming, either on unauthorized sites or on
sites funded by advertising or subscriptions, whose long-term sustainability re-
mains uncertain.
Despite having started off in different directions, the audiovisual and music
industry are gradually converging towards the same basic ideas. The general in-
tention is to offer users access to a wide range of works, without giving them the
right to share it with others. Can the Internet become a giant on-demand TV
system? The appeal of such a solution for media companies is double: they might
derive some income from selling the right to give access to contents to intermedi-
aries, but more importantly, they retain the ability to concentrate attention on a
few works by controlling a limited number of distribution channels on which
60 sharing
promotion and advertising can be targeted. This is their deeper reason for oppos-
ing sharing: when hundreds of millions of individuals have the right to share,
they become a distribution medium of their own. As we have seen in chapter 3,
some works still receive much more attention than others, but much less so.
Worst of all for the large media industry, it is harder to predict which ones will.
Oligopoly
The term oligopoly refers to a small group of companies that, together,
control the supply of certain goods and are thus able to determine which
are made available to the public and at what price. Oligopolies currently
exist in the record industry, where over 75% of publishing and 90% of dis-
tribution are controlled by 4 multinationals. Oligopolies also exist for mo-
tion picture production in the US and for distribution to theaters in many
countries. For concerts, there is a quasi-monopoly of LiveNation for the
global concert tours. In France, although there is a quasi-monopoly in the
book industry, the fact that some publishing brands remain independent in
defining their editorial policy and the survival – even if fragile – of indepen-
dent bookshops, ensure a reasonably diverse supply of books. For console-
based computer games, oligopolistic control applies more to the consoles
themselves than to the content. In all areas, this control is now strongly
challenged in the digital networked world. However, attempts to centralize
on-line access and marketing are now starting to emerge, which may result
in a new form of control on the supply of works to the public. For instance,
Apple holds a strong position in the distribution of digital recordings with
iTunes, reinforced by the fact that Apple also manufactures devices and
runs proprietary application stores (AppStores). Apple tries to leverage this
position into other media, while other players try to emulate Apple, for in-
stance, Amazon with its Kindle eBook reader. Google tries to use its domi-
nant position in search engines into other domains. It has a more open
approach to devices (the Android platform for mobile devices) and App-
Stores than other players, but the evolution of its contents-related sites and
services (YouTube, GoogleBooks) and the exclusive agreements signed with
publishers and libraries have raised concerns. Preventing the potential of
the Internet from being hijacked by a limited set of interests is one of the
challenges of the present debate.
Flavors
The core component of this “access without sharing” model is the granting of
commercial licenses to intermediaries, allowing them – and only them – to offer
which rights for whom? a choice of models 61
contents for streaming or download. People may access works free-of-charge on
advertising-funded sites, or may have to make unit or subscription payments, but
in all cases the exchange of contents between users is prohibited. This idea comes
in many flavors, which we briefly describe below because they illustrate the power
play between media corporations, telecoms companies, new intermediaries, and
collecting societies where they exist. We designate the various flavors according
to the relationship between various types of players: vertical integration, distribu-
tor monopoly, right holders cartel, and collective management under a legal li-
cense.
Vertical integration is already on the market. The idea is simple, and consu-
mers in many countries will have seen it advertised in various forms: in 2009 it
was “buy a Nokia phone, a subscription to your preferred mobile communication
operator, and get access for one year to (most of) the Universal Music catalog”. As
all mobile operators and mobile phone suppliers would like to be on board, the
majors organize an auction to decide who will get their catalog. This leads to a
segmented contents market, where people have to choose which catalog they will
have access to. It also causes the contents owned by the majors, particularly the
leading one, to receive a preferential treatment. It would be truly appalling if it
worked, but fortunately the limited success of these offers shows that consumers
do not accept being restricted to one content-provider catalog.
Distributor monopoly is a more successful model, because it provides a wider
access, though with an even stronger integration of power in the hands of one
player: buy an iPhone or iPad, and get access to its manufacturer-controlled list
of authorized applications for access to contents, as well as a subscription to the
mobile phone company selected by the same manufacturer in your country.
5
This
has better chances of success, because the control is less visible, and is in the
hands of a player that offers something real (a device), and on the surface appears
to allow certain acts (such as developing and sharing applications and content) …
until it decides that your preferred content is bad for its image. The true strength
of this model is that it professes to limit sharing, but actually does not care as
long as the sharing will mostly occur within its realm of operation.
6
This ap-
proach offers more value, but at the cost of a locking-in effect: it creates a large
club of dependent customers. These consumers provisionally ignore the bound-
aries of the realm in which they are confined.
As mentioned above,
7
in 2009, the 4 musical majors took a participation in the
Swedish company Spotify, a significant provider of streamed music. At the same
time, they jointly gave a license for streaming of most of their catalogs to Spotify
in a then unexpected gesture. As a result, the value of their share in Spotify in-
creased significantly. When rumors surged in April 2011 that Google was inter-
ested in buying Spotify, its value was estimated at $1,000 million, representing a
giant added value (vanBuskirk 2011). It is worth noting that the majors would not
have to distribute a cent of this added value to creators, as it does not constitute
62 sharing
licensing income. Meanwhile, their share in the capital gives them power to pro-
mote their own contents, which of course will benefit creators … or at least some
of them. However, this model is limited in economic terms: users like streaming
as long as it is a free radio, but will pay little for the limited value it delivers. The
reader will find an interesting discussion about this value (or lack of) in (Hil-
lage 2009): in answer to the manager of a record label, who complains of having
received only $6.70 for 33,983 stream plays of their contents, a commentator
points out that this is probably as much as the income one would expect from
one broadcast on a radio with this number of listeners. Even if they do not resell
their participation, and despite the uncertainty on the ultimate success of Spot-
ify’s business model that is increasingly based on paying subscriptions, it is far
from obvious that the major companies will come to regret their investment:
keeping control of distribution channels remains their main concern.
Methodological note on currencies
In the rest of this book, and in particular in chapter 7, we discuss macro-
and micro-economic figures and various financing schemes for creative ac-
tivities on the Internet. Most of these figures come from statistical aggre-
gates whose latest available value can range from 2004 to 2010. During this
period, the Euro to US dollar exchange rate has fluctuated widely, between
1.18 and 1.58. These fluctuations were driven by the currency markets and
are not explained by related changes in purchasing power parities (PPS). To
avoid confusing the reader, all statistical aggregates are reported in local
currency, that is, for the key cases under study, in Euro for France and Ger-
many and in US dollars for the US. The sign $ should always be interpreted
as US $. Some figures are design choices in our proposals, for instance the
minimum amount which we consider a “significant” reward for a contribu-
tor to works. To allow for comparisons between the various countries under
study, we have set these figures using a somewhat arbitrary currency rate of
$4 = ¤3 corresponding more or less to the average rate over the last 5 years.
The Music Match agreement between Apple and two music majors, announced in
2011, signals another possible merger between vertical integration and the domi-
nant position of a distributor. Under this agreement, Universal Music and EMI
accepted an offer from Apple to allow it to offer, for $25 per year, subscriptions
to a service whose users can obtain high quality copies of any piece of music that
is on their hard drives, whatever its origin. Commentators have described this
service as a form of “piracy laundering” where users could obtain a legal copy of
files originally downloaded without authorization, and they expressed surprise at
the fact that the majors agreed to this. However such a scheme is indeed profit-
which rights for whom? a choice of models 63
able to both parties: it creates a combined monopoly of contents, distribution and
devices. The net result, if such a scheme is allowed to proceed, would be to limit
the ability of creative works, services and devices that are not included in the deal
to reach consumers or obtain revenues. In all logic, such a scheme should be even
less able to withstand legal scrutiny than the GoogleBook settlement (Efraty-
Trachtenberg 2011).
Finally, we turn to the collective management flavor. In this scheme, a law
creates a compulsory collective license to offer contents for streaming or down-
load, but without the right to share. This means that the operator of a streaming
or download platform does not have to negotiate for the permission to provide
works. Either this license would be obtained by Internet Service Providers against
payment of a flat-rate per user, or it would follow the statutory licensing scheme
that exists for radio in many countries: any intermediary would know in advance
that it will cost so much per play or per download.
8
The flat-rate approach was
advocated for music by Laurent Petitgirard, former President of SACEM, the col-
lecting society for music authors and composers in France.
9
It received little en-
dorsement: rights holders did not like it because it created a preferential system
for ISPs while it did not please advocates of the right to share because it did not
grant that right.
The Zelnik Committee, created in 2009 by the French government and chaired
by the head of the Naïve record label and president of the IMPALA European
lobby group of record labels, advocated a compulsory music streaming or down-
load license for commercial offers by ISPs or other intermediaries. Large indepen-
dent record labels like this approach because they fear that, without it, their con-
tents will not be represented on streaming and download platforms, the latter
using all their money to obtain the most visible contents from the majors. In fact,
if this approach is applied to all media and associated with the recognition of
non-market sharing, it would be an excellent idea, avoiding segmentation in the
commercial market. But if it is implemented in the context of a continued war on
sharing, it will have only a limited benefit. The ability of the majors to concentrate
attention on a small number of titles will be weakened to a certain degree because
suppliers are guaranteed a theoretical access to all titles, but attention will remain
much more concentrated than if sharing were recognized. A more serious worry
is that the major corporations would have sufficient lobbying power to enforce a
high licensing cost per download or per play. The value delivered without right to
share would remain low. As a result, only the largest intermediaries (such as
Google or some telecommunication companies), who can afford huge invest-
ments to capture the attention of people, would be in a position to license a large
number of titles. The major flaw of licensing contents to ISPs or other intermedi-
aries, instead of recognizing sharing rights to individuals, is that it gives an extra-
ordinary amount of power to the licensees. In particular, the risk is that they will
64 sharing
be able to emulate large distributors of consumer goods, selling products to con-
sumers and product placement to content providers.
As described above, the value of access to digital contents is highly dependent
on what one can do with it. By offering access but restricting the most elementary
actions – copying and transmitting to other individuals – one limits the value of
the offer to users, and consequently their willingness to pay. This does not mean
that access to contents has no value in itself, it simply reflects the fact that it is not
a scarce resource in the digital world. However, while insisting that it is access
which one should pay for, the media industry does nothing towards the provision
of true added-value services, such as helping people to locate what they like in an
ocean of contents, facilitating the relationship between artists and the public or
between fans, or adding value directly to the experience of listening, viewing and
re-using.
Legal licensing for commercial offers also faces a number of legal and policy-
making challenges. It would necessitate the creation of a new exception to the
exclusive right to make works available to the public,
10
and hence a modification
of the European legal framework (see also page 74). The media industry will also
object strenuously if it is not allowed to implement differential pricing for its pre-
mium contents, although one can argue the large number of unit payments for
plays or downloads, each of which comes at no extra cost to the right holders,
should be more than sufficient to reward the “premium quality” of these con-
tents. If a political will to implement legal licensing for commercial offers exists,
these challenges are not impossible to address, and it can be a useful comple-
ment, provided that the right to share is recognized.
If the non-market sharing between individuals is recognized as a legitimate
activity, and we acknowledge the need for new means of financing creative activ-
ities, on which basis should we design the latter? How much of the collected
sums should be used to reward existing works, and how much to finance the
production of new works? Should the reward mechanisms be thought of as com-
pensation for a form of harm, as copyright licensing, as remuneration for work
done, or as a reward for a socially useful achievement? These questions are de-
bated in a context of great confusion, because they touch on a complex mix of
legal, economic and policy issues. We propose to distinguish between two main
approaches: compensation schemes on one side, and social rights to economic
and cultural benefits on the other side.
5.2 Compensation schemes
One of the motivations of the initial proposals (Von Lohmann 2003, Alli-
ance 2005) for a flat-rate contribution by Internet users to reward the creators of
works shared over the Internet was to stop the “war on piracy”. The fight against
file sharing launched by the large media industry and, in Europe, collecting socie-
which rights for whom? a choice of models 65
ties was leading to ever more surveillance, ever more repression, and a climate of
legal uncertainty for individual users and providers of technology. It threatened
the very existence of the Internet as an open space for the exchange of informa-
tion. It seemed as though personal information technology platforms would soon
cease to be under the control of the person owning them. The idea of “buying
peace” by compensating creators and distributors was not stated openly, but it
was on the minds of many.
There are various legal bases for a compensation-based reward: for example, it
could take the form of licensing of copyright for specific activities, or of liability
compensation for the inability to enforce an existing exclusive right. The home
copying laws for phonorecords and video recordings are often described as liabi-
lity compensation. The existing laws on book photocopying in France license the
reproduction right to a collecting society that can enter into agreements with
users, while setting that the collected sums will be distributed half to the publish-
ers and half to authors.
11
Most proposals for the legalization of file sharing so far
have used this licensing approach, and we initially followed the same path (Ai-
grain 2008).
William Fisher proposed another approach, recognizing that copyright, in the
strict sense of control over copying, cannot be enforced in the digital world. He
proposed to put in place “government-administered rewards” for works shared
on the Internet. However, the overall amount of these rewards is still designed to
reflect a compensation. In chapter 6 of his book Promises to Keep, William Fisher
outlines various possible ways of defining a system to reward the usage of works
on the Internet. He expresses doubts about the possibility of defining a fair re-
ward directly, and suggests that “we could use the new reward system to compensate
creators and their assignees for the losses they have suffered – and will likely suffer in the
immediate future – as a result of being deprived of their ability to enforce their copyrights in
the new technological environment”. He then goes on to specify: “… it could seems wisest,
when replacing the current copyright system with a system of government rewards, to begin by
holding more-or-less constant the aggregate amount by which creators are currently compen-
sated…”
There are pros and cons to each type of compensation scheme. Liability torts
simply compensate right holders for their inability to enforce their exclusive right
in the private sphere. They do not create a right for individuals to share works,
but only a tolerance. Rights holders are likely to interpret this as being subject to
review each time a new surveillance or control technology suggests that copyright
could become enforceable in the digital sphere. Copyright licensing to individuals
does grant users a true usage right, but it opens the door to a permanent re-
negotiation of the rate at which it is licensed. Government-administered rewards
bypass this problem by moving the management of rewards out of the copyright
system … once they are established. However, given that their amount is based on
compensation, there is a risk that their introduction would give rise to an ava-
66 sharing
lanche of compensation claims. Furthermore, as we will see below, a compensa-
tion-based reward system is intrinsically unable to handle Internet-native media
and to reward works which their creators share on a voluntarily basis.
Recently, developments in our knowledge of the creative economy and debates
among the promoters of alternative reward systems have led us to consider mod-
els which depart from compensatory approaches. In a sense, our proposal is a
natural successor to William Fisher’s, one step further removed from copyright-
based reasoning.
Several years after the publication of his pioneering book in 2004, our under-
standing of the effects of file sharing on various sources of revenue for creative
activities has progressed significantly, though it remains imperfect. In the inter-
vening years, file sharing and other forms of unauthorized access or exchange
have flourished, leading the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) to
multiply copyright infringement suits and damage claims against file sharers.
12
A
macroeconomic examination of the revenues of creators and media between 2004
and 2007 must go beyond the copyright economy, because copyright licensing
and usage right sales (based on copyright) account for a small part of the overall
cultural, artistic and entertainment economy. Of course, other sources of revenue,
without taking the form of copyright royalties, may depend on the existence and
enforcement of copyright. However, while the media and related industries cry
out that file sharing (so-called “piracy”) is devastating them, this is simply not
true if one looks at the overall bottom line. All indicators are green, except for the
investment of the musical majors in publishing new titles. In the US, the overall
personal consumption expenditures for recreation (including all cultural or media
products, plus sports and amusements, but not information services) grew by
44% from $586,000 million in 2000 to $841,000 million in 2007.
13
The motion
picture and video industries, which constitute one of the most vocal copyright
interest groups, saw their turnover grow from $72,000 million from 2004 to
$82,000 million in 2007.
The music industry, however, is often said to be suffering. Certainly, in this era
of strong unauthorized file sharing and transition to carrier-less digital record-
ings, the sales of musical records grew “only” from $9,800 million to $11,100
million, over the same period. Let us take an honest and detailed look at consu-
mer usage and spending: from 2004 to 2007, the average time spent listening to
recorded music in one year went down from 199 to 177 hours, an 11% decrease.
The average spending per person in the year went down from $52 to $44.7, a 14%
decrease. How can these apparently contradictory figures be reconciled? Exports
did well, and the population increased, whilst the shrinking production of the
majors led to a decreased per capita consumption. If more evidence as to the good
health of music creation is needed, the combined revenue of recording studios
went up by 25% from 2004 to 2007. These findings are confirmed by Felix Ober-
holzer-Gee and Koleman Strumpf (Oberholzer-Strumpf 2010). Furthermore, their
which rights for whom? a choice of models 67
paper demonstrates that network-based file sharing never stopped increasing in
the US and Europe, and that its impact on sales of musical recordings is at most
responsible for 20% of the decrease of sales, which is much less than was as-
sumed in the proposals for compensatory mechanisms made in 2003-2004.
Is everything fine, then? Not quite. Because the majors concentrate so much of
the publishing and promotion power, the ability of the growing number of artists
who distribute their works on-line to generate the income which they deserve
from it did not progress, and probably regressed.
In 2008, researchers conducted a survey (Bacache et al. 2009) in which they
interviewed 4000 members of ADAMI, the collecting society for lead musical per-
formers in France. ADAMI members are relatively established artists – almost 3/4
of respondents were older than 40 – and are not representative of the much larger
group of young emerging artists, support performers and quality practitioners.
However, most of them are far from earning high incomes: only around 20%
declared having a net income (from all activities) of more than ¤30,000 per year!
Additionally, 50% earned half of their income or more from non-musical activity.
More than 3/4 of those surveyed declared that the Internet (including file sharing)
had has a positive effect on their notoriety. Some 45% estimated that the Internet
had a positive effect on their concert audiences, but only 25% that it increased
revenues from live performance, and 15% that the effect was positive on recorded
music sales. As with any survey, these answers must be assessed with caution.
However, they confirm that we have a situation in which the large media industry
is doing fine,
14
but performers, except for a few, are not. A similar situation is
observed in the US by a Pew study (Madden 2004), quoted in (Oberholzer-
Strumpf 2010): three-quarters of a large sample of interviewed musicians de-
clared having a non-music complementary~job.
Music performers have always been less well treated than composers of music
and authors of lyrics. Nonetheless, similar trends seem to be affecting composers
and authors. The vast majority of music author rights in France are collected by
the SACEM collecting society. Between 2004 and 2007, the total collected rights
rose from ¤725.5 million to ¤759.1 million,
15
though this amount has reached a
plateau since 2005, which translates into a slight decrease when accounting for
inflation. Phonographic rights (royalties collected from the sales of musical re-
cordings) have decreased significantly from their peak value of ¤142 million in
2003 to ¤89 million in 2009, but this was compensated by other sources of in-
come (live performance, television, reuse, and public performance of music, in
particular). SACEM’s annual reports provide no information on the extent to
which the income it transfers to authors is concentrated on a few, or more equally
distributed. However, in a 2005 interview (Axel 2005), SACEM’s president stated
that only 3000 members, i.e. 8.8% of those who collected rights from SACEM in
that year, and 3-4% of all members, received more than the minimal wage. He did
not specify how many were living artists: heirs of deceased artists receive an im-
68 sharing
portant share of rights, since author rights in France last 70 years after the death
of the last author (wartime not withstanding).
Given this, we should be wary of propagating the status quo into a new model,
and thereby locking ourselves into it. Clearly, it was not the intention of the 2003-
2005 proponents of alternative reward systems. They were convinced, as we are,
that the legalization of sharing would generate more diversity of attention and a
more equitable distribution of income, particularly if it was complemented by
adequate competition in various markets such as live performance tours, distribu-
tion to movie theaters, sales platforms and retail distribution of goods. A com-
pensatory reward would indisputably be a positive way out of the war against file
sharing, but it risks building an excessive bias into the reward models of the
future. As we will see below, copyright law is an inescapable part of the policy
landscape, and we cannot afford to ignore it, but this does not mean that copy-
right law or copyright economics are necessarily the model of choice for defining
adequate rewards. It is at least worth exploring another approach, which is to
define the reward directly based on other considerations, and then to check if it
is compatible with copyright law, or can be made so.
Another drawback of compensatory approaches to alternative reward systems,
which is even more important in our opinion, is that they are unable to handle
new IT and Internet-native media in a satisfactory manner. It is not necessarily
easy, but for these new media, the only valid way to design a reward system is to
start from first principles, i.e. to seek distributive justice. We lack any pre-existing
reference, business or rights distribution model, which we could use to determine
how much revenue, if any, is likely to be lost in the event that the right to share is
recognized. Of course, new commercial models are defined every day in this digi-
tally native world. Most of them struggle to reach any form of true sustainability.
For a wide part of the open Web, this is not a problem: Wikipedia or most perso-
nal blogs will keep being produced without further financing mechanisms. But
art, investigative or knowledge projects (including some personal blogs), where
an investment beyond the individual’s free time is needed to produce higher qual-
ity outputs or achieve specific results, need new forms of financing. The interme-
diaries (such as collaborative news media), which provide the environment in
which capability building occurs, desperately need new sources of financing to
become sustainable. For every success story such as Slashdot
16
there are dozens
of deserving collaborative media, free culture or Creative Commons (CC)-based
projects which remain confined to niche activities, even though they are the la-
boratories of our cultural future. In a 2010 conference in the European Parliament
on Financing culture in the digital era (Cronin 2010), Maja Bogotaj, leader of the Slo-
venian Creative Commons project, concluded her talk by stating that there were
350 million CC-licensed digital works on the Web. She went on to note that,
although this number may seem large, it indicates that voluntary sharing alone
remains confined, except for photography and blogs, to levels that are not suffi-
which rights for whom? a choice of models 69
cient for the creation of wide cultural commons. It would be ironic, and terribly
unjust, if the pioneers who recognized the value of user rights from the start went
unrewarded for the success of their works on the Internet. But if they are to be
rewarded, we cannot think of this reward as a compensation for lost income: it
must be viewed as the recognition of a social benefit in its own right.
5.3 Social rights for all
A radically different approach would abandon the quest to create an optimal
pattern of incentives, and would instead strive, through the distribution of
government rewards, to give creators what they deserve. This may have been
what British reformer Robert MacFie had in mind when he urged giving inven-
tors, as an honorarium, what is fair, considering utility, cost of preliminary
trials, originality, probability of others making the same discovery, etc. This
criterion seems unpromising for a different reason. Natural rights theorists,
from John Locke to Robert Nozick, have struggled with little success for cen-
turies to determine the proportion between a person’s efforts and the reward
he or she reaps. It seems implausible that, in designing a reward system to
handle the new technological environment, we could succeed where they have
failed.
William Fisher, Promises to keep, p. 208
Are we hoping to succeed where John Locke and Robert Nozick failed? Fortu-
nately, we do not need to achieve such prowess. Measuring the absolute value of
one’s contribution to culture, or of the effort one has put into it, would be a tall
order indeed.
17
However, a self-consistent measure of the merit of a given work
can be based on an estimate of its relative contribution (compared to that of other
works) to a particular aspect of our society – in the present case, the non-market
cultural commons accessible to all. To recognize this merit financially, we also
need to agree on how much we – as a society – are ready to invest in the contin-
ued existence and growth of these cultural commons. There are many ways to
estimate the relative value of a given work, and our approach (outlined in chapter
10) draws heavily on earlier proposals such as Fisher’s, while adding a model of
the necessary degree of precision. The second requirement is clearly the greater
challenge: can we agree on how much we want to invest – by this particular
means of a contribution by all users – into the existence of cultural commons
that are accessible and sharable by all?
Of course, it is almost impossible to assign a value to this kind of thing intrin-
sically. And yet, in practice, societies have to make this kind of decision every day
on the value of some “invaluable” sphere of rights, activity or benefits. For exam-
ple, they decide which resources they will allocate to public health, who will bear
70 sharing
the costs and what mechanisms will be used to manage these contributions. The
same is true for education, justice, the fight against poverty or excessive inequal-
ity. It extends to the preservation of the environment or other physical commons.
The processes that lead to these decisions are complex, messy, contingent, con-
strained by inertia and by many other decisions. Our role as analysts is to propose
some more solid foundations for these processes.
We suggest starting from one overarching principle and several distinct oppor-
tunities and constraints. The overarching principle is to define two positive social
rights: the right to access the cultural commons of non-market sharing, and the
right to be rewarded for one’s contribution to their enrichment. These rights be-
long to each of us, they do not separate us into two categories, one of creators
and the other of consumers. We call them social because they belong to all mem-
bers of society, but also because each of us must be empowered with the ability to
influence how they are implemented.
How much are people willing to pay for these two rights to be implemented
(together) in practice? If we are discussing a flat rate paid by all Internet subscri-
bers, we must also consider the impact it may have on other common goods or
useful activities. This includes, of course, an impact on future revenues of crea-
tors and industry, but also opportunity costs (what people can no longer buy be-
cause they paid the contribution). What additional value will it create beyond the
cultural commons, such as the sphere of knowledge or capabilities of each indi-
vidual? We are unlikely to be able to put a figure on this, but it is at least as
important as the stability of the profits of a handful of firms that employ very few
people in comparison, which has been the dominant criterion in a large part of
the debate so far. Chapter 7 tries to sketch out a policy framework in which we
can seek, via democratic processes and stakeholder negotiations, to reach a deci-
sion on the question of how much.
Copyright law constraints are part of this policy framework, but they cannot,
and should not, be its only or even its main foundation. A social rights perspec-
tive will enable us to reflect about what is the just relationship between the suc-
cess of a work in the shared cultural commons and the reward it should get. If
copyright royalties grow more than proportionally to sales for physical cultural
goods such as books and CDs, as is often the case, who says that a social reward
can’t grow less than proportionally to usage in the information sphere?
One of the challenges that will face us is the distribution of the collected con-
tribution into shares going to various media and various forms of contribution to
works. There are some tentative ground truths that may help here, for instance
the time budgets for various media-related activities (production as well as access
and usage). But there is clearly room also for collective preferences to express
themselves. It does not seem optimal to favor time-consuming media when time-
consumption is often driven not by the value that people assign to a given
which rights for whom? a choice of models 71
medium but by the associated business models. There also, an approach based on
social rights might open up a better decision space.
One of the key benefits of a social rights framework is that it will enable us to
revisit the implementation of copyright law with a different set of tools.
Back to copyright
First sale doctrine and home copying laws
Historically, two forms of user prerogatives have been defined for copyrighted
material. The first one concerns a sphere of activity completely removed from the
original right holder: the first sale doctrine instigated in 1908 in the US
18
and its
European equivalent (“exhaustion of rights”).
19
The second form of user preroga-
tives is known as fair use in the US, fair dealing in the UK and most of the Com-
monwealth, and exceptions and limitations in Europe and internationally.
20
It pro-
vides for limited rights to accomplish certain acts without authorization and, in
some cases, without compensation of the right holder.
The first sale doctrine states that a good embodying a copyrighted work can be
used by its first buyer and any person to which it is later transmitted as they see fit
(including commercial exchanges such as reselling, and, until 1984 in the US,
renting). This doctrine was clearly designed for works on physical carriers such
as books or records, at a time when the work – more precisely, the information
representing the work – could not easily be separated from the carrier (not with-
out a loss of quality, or without a significant effort). As we already noted in chap-
ter 3, the information revolution has since upset the efficient balance that had
been achieved by the combination of copyright law, the first sale doctrine and, to
some extent, anti-trust law. New user capabilities (such as making many copies of
a work and transmitting them to other persons over a network, without losing the
original) give existing recognized user prerogatives a much wider scope. This may
be considered legitimate and accepted, or deemed unacceptable, implying a se-
vere restriction of user prerogatives in the digital sphere compared to that of phy-
sical carriers. Law-makers on both sides of the Atlantic have struggled with this
dilemma for some years. The US Copyright Act of 1976 extended the scope of the
first sale doctrine by granting the established user prerogatives to any owner of a
lawfully made copy or phonorecord, and not just to the original buyer. In the
1980s, various laws, in both the US
21
and Europe
22
sought a new balance by re-
stricting user rights, but only to some extent, defining a “private sphere” in which
the right to make and exchange copies existed, but now needed to be compen-
sated by the payment of a levy, most commonly on the blank carriers used to store
these copies. Seen retrospectively, these laws seem benign in terms of destruction
of user rights, compared to what has followed since. In some countries, such as
Spain, the “private copy” law was written in a manner that can be interpreted to
make non-commercial file sharing legal.
23
In other European countries, the scope
72 sharing
of authorized copies and exchanges is much more restricted, and, in most cases,
the redistribution of the collected levies is considered extremely unfair.
24
Still,
there is a precedent for salvaging or recognizing user rights by collecting funds
on the scale of an entire society, a fact which was seen by some as inspiring. In
fact, however, the “private copy” laws represent the first step in a key trend: to
regulate the digital world primarily for the benefit of holders of property-like re-
strictive rights, with some protection for providers of digital technology but no
true consideration of the social rights of every individual.
Conditions for exceptions and limitations
Concerning the conditions under which new exceptions and limitations to the
right of reproduction can be created, the Bern Convention, the treaty that regu-
lates copyright internationally, states in its article 9.2:
It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to permit the
reproduction of such works in certain special cases, provided that such repro-
duction does not conflict with a normal exploitation of the work and does not
unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author.
These conditions are known as the three-step test, the first step being that the ex-
ception applies only in special cases, the second that it does not conflict with the
normal exploitation of the work, and the third that it does not unreasonably pre-
judice the legitimate interests of the author. These conditions apply explicitly to
all exclusive rights since the TRIPS agreement of 1994,
25
and were incorporated
verbatim in European and national legislation in some countries. TRIPS strength-
ened and globalized the application of copyright and patents, and critics de-
nounced its provisions as extreme.
26
However, the three-step test, if interpreted
reasonably, as defended by many renowned legal scholars in a 2008 declaration
(Collective 2008), would not prevent the recognition of new usage rights. The
above quotation includes many qualifications that widen the range of conditions
under which the criteria can be deemed fulfilled: “normal”, “unreasonably”, “le-
gitimate”. In addition, it recognizes the sovereignty of legislators in individual
countries to create usage rights, provided they respect certain rules. One can also
doubt that some existing forms of media publishing and distribution clearly con-
stitute “normal exploitation”. Is a form of exploitation in any way “normal” if it
survives only by limiting the basic capabilities of human beings in a digital world
(copying files, for instance), by organizing universal surveillance of personal
communications, by criminalizing tools that are also used for legal purposes,
and by threatening individuals with criminal sanctions for conducting activities
that did not aim at personal profit and did not demonstrably hurt anyone?
which rights for whom? a choice of models 73
The creation of a hostile environment
With the development of digital technology, the spread of the Internet and var-
ious related networked applications, we now have close to two billion people
equipped with the means – and in most cases with the capability – to produce or
exchange copies of works as efficiently as the publishing industry. Obviously, this
can only be great news for historians of cultural technology (language, writing,
printing, recorded media) or software developers (someone who encodes knowl-
edge and know-how in information technology), but when will we recognize its
potential benefit for humanity as a whole? How long until we define a legal fra-
mework that regulates cultural industries by incorporating the right to share
(without profit motive) as a boundary condition? Over the last 25 years, the law
has evolved in precisely the opposite direction.
The intellectual rights policy tragedy described by James Boyle (Boyle 2003,
Boyle 2008), Lawrence Lessig (Lessig 1999, Lessig 2001, Lessig 2004), Yochai
Benkler (Benkler 2006) and our book Cause commune (Aigrain 2005) has given rise
to a situation where it seems extremely difficult to modify copyright law in any
fashion tending to recognize new usage rights. The effect of the recent evolution
of copyright law, in the real world, is to concentrate power not in the hands of
authors and artists, but in those of the stock owners of copyright. Interest groups
composed of assignees (producers or publishers) and heirs of deceased artists
have since endeavored to entrench this change through key cases that establish
some jurisprudence precedents and tend to modify the standard interpretation of
important words in their favor. The case law is in reality complex and contradic-
tory, but if one follows the most extreme interpretations of these interest groups,
“normal exploitation” covers whatever business model a copyright holder
chooses. To them, the word “author” means the producer to whom an author (or
other creator) has transferred rights
27
or the grandchild of a deceased author.
Consequently, these persons become the ones whose interests are “legitimate”.
These extreme interpretations have had an excessive influence on the formula-
tion of the European Copyright Directive of 2001,
28
such that the latter lists ex-
haustively, and hence limits, the possible exceptions and limitation to the rights
of reproduction, communication and making available to the public. As a result,
present European legislation severely constrains any adaptation to the new needs
of society: one is simply not allowed to define new exceptions and limitations to
the exclusive rights covered by the directive. Many are of the opinion that pre-
empting the future evolution of law in this manner is incompatible with demo-
cratic policy-making, and the European Commission itself has shown in its 2008
Green Paper on Copyright in the Knowledge Economy
29
that it was aware of a
possible need for new exceptions and limitations.
Unfortunately, the recent evolution has made the situation even worse: the
Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement and some legislative initiatives regarding
the enforcement of copyright (Quadrature 2011) are trying to create an additional
74 sharing
irreversibility in the way exclusive rights are enforced. In summary, for a quarter
of a century during which user rights have been progressively cornered, and indi-
vidual contributors to creation treated increasingly poorly, lawyers who support
copyright reform have been faced with an extremely difficult challenge. They are
bound to work within the framework of existing law and jurisprudence, and
change must be engineered through means available within this realm.
Reform is possible
The US approach to the definition of alternative reward systems tries to do just
this, and it has led to remarkably elaborate proposals. Looking back at the last 6
or 7 years, one is nonetheless forced to admit that we are still very far from put-
ting them into practice. These alternative proposals, together with the consumer
rejection of existing offers, played a role in forcing rights holders into accepting
to make more works available for commercial download and streaming.
Taking a purely consumption-oriented view on the cultural usage of the Inter-
net, one might think that file sharing arose because of a market failure that is
now corrected, and that it is thus no longer needed. This would be a major mis-
take. For one thing, the battle for a more diverse access to cultural works is by no
means over. More importantly, those who reduce culture to the consumption or
passive reception of works misunderstand what is at stake today. The dominance
of the publishing and distribution industries in the representations of culture in
the last century is misleading. Even in this cultural industry era, artistic practice,
the social appropriation of works, the sharing of knowledge, the expression of
citizens in relation to works have always been essential components of our cultur-
al world. But now there is more to this, and ever more to come. The period when
culture appeared dominated by a direct production-to-reception flow will soon be
remembered as a mere interlude, between the time when creative and expression
works were essentially a matter of craftsmanship, and a new era in which they
have become a societal activity. The cultural industry will not disappear, it will
find new paths to serve the public.
Most proponents of the legalization of file sharing adhere to the vision we just
outlined, whereby sharing is one of the first steps on a ladder of cultural empow-
erment. However, although brilliant American scholars have made the best cases
for stopping the war on sharing, the only (significant) concrete step in that direc-
tion in the US was a “proof balloon” proposal from the music industry. Jim Grif-
fin, then a strategist at Warner Music, offered universities a flat-rate license to
make music available with file sharing rights, for a fee of $5 per month and per
student (Orlowski 2008). The other musical majors attacked the idea, while War-
ner distanced itself from the proposal. To implement it, Jim Griffin then founded
the company Choruss but failed to secure access to the needed catalogs.
In Europe and in emerging countries, the situation is different. In several coun-
tries law proposals implementing a flat-rate based legalization of non-market file
which rights for whom? a choice of models 75
sharing were tabled, and/or political parties support the idea. This is the case in
France, Belgium, Germany and Brazil, for instance. In other countries such as
Sweden and Italy, there are efforts towards using voluntary collective rights man-
agement approaches and extended collective licenses to obtain a de facto legaliza-
tion without changes to the law. Extended collective licenses are ones managed by
collecting societies, whose application is extended by law to all authors or rights
holders, even if they are not members of a collecting society. Such a scheme can
be used to legalize file sharing only if the relevant collecting societies volunteer to
apply the scheme, as was the case in Sweden with STIM, and if a law extends it to
all authors by default. The latter is unlikely to happen when major content inter-
ests oppose the scheme.
All these proposals use a compensatory copyright-based reward system. The
debate of the past few years has shown not only that such approaches struggle
with the limitative list of exceptions and limitations allowed in the 2001/29/CE
Directive on Copyright and Neighboring Rights in the Information Society, but
that they are subject to an escalation of compensation requests. This is analogous
to the way in which the “Regulatory takings” doctrine was used by powerful inter-
ests to oppose environmental protection in the 1960s and 1970s in the US, by
claiming it would deprive them of their potential future business.
30
The war on file sharing continues to escalate, but one reality will not go away:
file sharing will not disappear, because many people consider it – rightly in our
opinion – as a basic capability in a modern society.
31
Instead, it is turning clan-
destine, increasingly using cryptography or content slicing (cutting contents in
many small pieces distributed on various computers) to elude detection and pro-
secution. Innovative minds, which could be working to deliver improved creativ-
ity, are wasted thinking up new and clever tools to prevent people from doing
things, or even cleverer workarounds to those tools. A dual digital society devel-
ops, where law-abiding consumers are passive, while creative prosumers lose res-
pect for laws that they view as serving specific private interests.
Our proposal is an effort to get out of this vicious circle. It is based on tabling
the principles for a new social pact:
1. The non-market sharing of digitally published works between individuals is a
legitimate right of all.
2. All who have access to this particular form of cultural commons have a duty
to contribute adequately to its existence through a flat-rate Creative Contribu-
tion.
3. The amount and distribution of this contribution must respect a number of
principles regarding: the revenues of individual creators, the financing of the
production of new works, the equitable character of the distribution in rela-
tion to activities conducted over the Internet, and the impact on the welfare of
all.
76 sharing
The practical implementation of these principles is discussed in chapters 6 to 10.
Nothing in our proposed social pact precludes any particular form of legal basis
for its implementation. As we will see, when principles 2 and 3 are considered
jointly, they ensure compensation in the sense of copyright law, at least if the
latter is interpreted reasonably.
An important point to stress here is that we will be in a much better position to
find a legal basis that is politically viable, if we first assemble a critical mass of
citizens, experts, and practitioners of creativity in support of the social pact. In
France, the Création-Public-Internet coalition
32
has made significant progress to-
wards this goal. This coalition brings together associations and unions of musi-
cians, key film-making figures (producers, directors and actors), the main consu-
mer organization, and Internet user groups. Similar moves are afoot in Brazil,
33
to a certain extent in Germany, and at an international level in the framework of
the Paris Accord
34
meetings organized by the Transatlantic Consumer Dialog
(TACD) and in the Free Culture Forum
35
of Barcelona. It is better to construct or
change the law to achieve valuable and endorsed goals than to allow it to become
a cobweb in which one is entangled by years of failure to address the major civili-
zation change brought to us by information technology.
which rights for whom? a choice of models 77
6 Defining rights and obligations
Implementing a new form of mutualized financing of creative activities and re-
cognizing the non-market sharing of digital works is not something one can do
at the drop of a hat. An in-depth debate between stakeholders, experts, policy-
makers and the public is needed to work through the details. For this debate to
be possible, a structured proposal consistent with the new approach presented in
the previous chapter must be on the table. We now proceed to detail its key com-
ponents: to which works will the right to share apply and when? Which types of
users will be concerned? What will be the rights and obligations of users? How
should the amount of the contribution be determined? Some issues that regard
institutional and technical implementation (the devils in the details) will be left
for discussion in the next part of this book.
Our proposal addresses both the reward of creators for the usage of existing
works, and the provision of funds towards the production of new works, or the
maintenance of a suitable environment for works to be created and disseminated
in. Some authors have proposed financing of artists and projects only, dropping
the reward aspect entirely. This model was proposed as early as 2002 at the Blur
Workshop on Power at Play in Digital Art and Culture organized at the Banff Center for
the Arts, and subsequently elaborated by James Love (Love 2002), now director of
Knowledge Ecology International.
1
Users have to pay a monthly contribution,
which is allocated using a competitive intermediaries model, where various orga-
nizations compete to attract funds from Internet users, on the basis of the re-
distribution policies they publicize. The Blur/Banff proposal was subsequently
elaborated to make it more secure against rigging by persons who would agree to
cross-allocate the collected sums to each other (Toner 2008). Francis Muguet
2
(Muguet 2008) designed a “global sponsorship” scheme where a flat-rate contri-
bution by Internet subscribers would be allocated on the sole basis of individual
preferences, users deciding (for instance on a monthly basis) to allocate parts of
their contribution to various artists and artistic projects. To answer critics who
pointed out that it is difficult for individuals to make such decisions at the level
of individual artists and projects, Muguet and other promoters of global sponsor-
ship added a provision enabling people to delegate this decision, which would be
similar to the “competitive intermediaries” model.
We consider competitive intermediaries to be a key instrument to give individ-
uals direct power over the allocation of funds towards the production of new
works, or to organizations that contribute to a better environment for creative
79
activity, the dissemination of works or the recognition of their quality. However, it
would be a serious mistake, in our opinion, to renounce rewarding the usage of
existing works, or to use explicit decisions of allocation for that purpose. Usage
of works is more serendipitous and more diverse than the memory we have of it
and than our conscious preferences. It would be a cultural loss to abandon ex-
post usage-based rewards.
Internet usage in the non-market sphere is an extraordinary tool for the discov-
ery of new works, precisely because it is not hindered by monetary transactions or
decisions on how to allocate funds. If someone is asked to list all the music titles
they listened to the last month, or even all the movies they saw or the texts they
read, they will typically recall only a very limited proportion of them. For Internet-
based media, where works are even more numerous (short videos, photographs,
blogs), our memory is even more challenged. This means that explicit decisions
or phone polls are not suitable for rewarding the usage of works. Despite this, a
live experiment is still being conducted in France today, where phone polls are
one of the sources of information for the distribution of the funds levied on blank
carriers. This distribution key is as concentrated on a few works (probably those
that are heavily promoted) as radio broadcasting.
3
One of the challenges for the
implementation of our proposal will be to find ways of recording the real-life
diversity of access to and usage of works. We describe a possible way to address
this challenge in chapter 10.
For the time being, let us just note that we plan to use the product of a flat-rate
contribution both for rewarding the usage of existing works, and as one of the
means to enable the production of new works in a satisfactory environment for
creative and cultural practice.
6.1 Which works to include
Our first task is to decide on the range of works falling under the remit of the
proposed device, i.e. which will benefit from the re-distribution of its proceeds,
and officially become freely sharable in the non-market sphere. This choice per-
tains to:
– which types of media are included;
– whether including a particular work in a particular media is mandatory or
optional;
– under which conditions an individual work falling in the above categories is
considered to have been published and hence is included.
Media inclusion
As we already mentioned, many proponents of flat-rate-based legalization of file
sharing designed their proposals for musical and moving image contents only.
80 sharing
William Fisher (Fisher 2004) estimated that the device could later be expanded,
and possibly adjusted, to apply to electronic books and games.
On 20 December 2005, the French parliament took everyone by surprise by vot-
ing an amendment to the Loi sur le droit d’auteur et les droits voisins dans la société de
l’information (DADVSI
4
), which was then under discussion. The amendment cre-
ated a flat-rate-based blanket license (licence globale) for non-commercial file
sharing. It addressed moving image and musical contents. The cinema interest
groups and their spokespersons in various political parties immediately clamored
that this would be the death of the French cinematographic industry. After a few
months of a polemic which was more vaudeville than constructive debate, a new
vote was held, which overturned the original. For many, the idea that blanket
licensing was ill-adapted to the needs of film, video and TV production became
an accepted fact. It is worth noting that a number of movie and audiovisual per-
sonalities and stakeholders have now changed their mind on the subject.
5
When
the next repressive copyright law
6
was debated in 2009, the French Socialist Party
tabled an amendment based on the “creative contribution”, which would have
legalized file sharing, but only for music. Does it make sense to do it only for one
medium?
It does, to some extent, but not really. There is nothing fundamental to prevent
us from applying the principles stated above to a particular medium only. Conver-
gence may blur the boundaries between media and trigger the creation of mixed-
media forms, but the economy of production of works in various media remains
pretty specific. The production of video games is very different from that of
books, for instance. However, only a very small part of the benefits of our propo-
sal would be reaped if it was applied to one medium only. Information technology
and the Internet are not broken in media segments; there are devices specialized
for a given medium (to a certain degree), such as music players, but they work in
conjunction with universal computers and are not at all the only devices used to
access “their” medium. Innovation in one medium derives inspiration and re-uses
ideas from other media. From the point of view of “intellectual property” rights
(IPR) enforcement, the Internet is even less “separable” into separate media. Sur-
veillance squads and fake injection providers may do business with the rights
holders for a given medium, or use detection algorithms that are medium-speci-
fic. However, it is the IPR industry as a whole that pushes for three-strike laws
7
and for compulsory filtering of the Internet to prevent access to sites that play a
role in file sharing. Their attacks on the mere conduit safe harbor of intermedi-
aries, and their efforts to negotiate criminal sanctions for IPR infringements in
international trade agreements without democratic involvement of parliaments
are the joint work of the entire industry, and often encompass domains well be-
yond media and culture.
A one-medium recognition of non-market sharing is unlikely to stop the war on
sharing and its cortege of harmful effects. Fundamental rights such as freedom of
defining rights and obligations 81
expression and communication or the right to privacy would remain at risk and
the maturation of ethics, good practice and supporting technology for cultural
exchange would still be delayed. In (Aigrain 2008), we analyzed the conditions
under which a recognition of sharing and associated financing could be applied
to some media only and still produce sufficiently positive results. We listed the
following conditions:
– Rights holders for media which are not included must recognize that the in-
frastructure of the Internet and digital tools are a common good. They should
not be allowed to skew this infrastructure to fit the needs of the proprietary
model which they wish to preserve, which relies on the scarcity of copies.
They would be free to continue to use access control, usage restriction tools
or watermarking for their own works, but only provided they do not hinder
the use of any other works. None of these tools should become compulsory
over the entire information infrastructure just to serve the interests of those
who chose to opt out of the Creative Contribution.
– Similarly, they should agree that copyright cannot be enforced at the expense
of other, fundamental rights, and that only a judicial procedure can establish
that an infringement occurred and lead to the corresponding sanctions. Pro-
secution can only occur after infringement has been established.
If it was straightforward to obtain agreement to these conditions, this book would
be unnecessary. Rather than dealing with the consequences of some media being
excluded, it is probably easier to convince a wide range of creative players in each
medium to endorse a scheme such as our Creative Contribution. Our proposal is
designed to facilitate endorsement by various media communities. The definition
of the digital cultural commons it incorporates is crafted so as to ensure a better
synergy between digital commons and commercial offers inside and outside the
digital sphere. Specific media may raise specific issues, as we will see in the next
chapter when discussing the case of books, but all deserve the benefit of a rich
cultural commons.
Mandatory or optional character of the inclusion of individual works
Can each author or creator choose whether to allow his or her works to be
shared? This is the case at present: creators are already free to authorize the shar-
ing of their digital works, using Creative Commons licenses for instance. For
some types of contents, such as photographs, blogs (including sound and video
blogs) and scientific publications, this scheme has been endorsed widely. But
there is an important difference: currently, authors and artists who already
choose to grant the right to share do not get any direct benefit from having con-
tributed to the cultural commons. One of the key provisions of our proposal is to
give them the benefit of a reward for their contribution, should they desire it.
8
82 sharing
Many authors will welcome the potential reward which the proposed Creative
Contribution would enable them to get from activities for which, today, they re-
ceive no direct benefit. Some might express legitimate doubts over the amount
they would receive and the degree to which other sources of income would be
affected. However, it is not from creators that we expect the strongest opposition.
Even in countries where copyright is rooted in the right of the author, it is the
producers, collecting societies and distributors who actually have power over
how these rights will be used. Here is a typical example: the French DADVSI law
of 2006 endowed the author with the exclusive right to authorize or forbid the
application of DRM to his or her works. The only practical effect of this provision
was to make the authorization of DRM a standard clause in every media publish-
ing contract: any author who wants a contract has to sign it. Almost every collect-
ing society in Europe forbids its members to use Creative Commons licenses
(even the By-NC-ND version, which forbids commercial uses and derivative
works). In other words, if they want to grant the right to non-commercial shar-
ing, creators currently have to renounce all commercial usage revenues, including
those which fall under statutory licenses such as radio broadcasting of music.
Consequently, some US companies such as Magnatune now run a successful
business by enabling European musicians to circumvent this abusive power at
least partially. Thus, we prefer to allow the entire class of creators to endorse the
Creative Contribution or not, after public debate, rather than promoting a situa-
tion where each individual must make a decision, given that the latter cannot be
shielded from the unequal balance of power between them and publishers or
collecting societies.
There is another, arguably much more compelling argument to reject work by
work or author by author options: an optional system would lead to complete
legal uncertainty for users, with huge transaction costs. The Creative Contribution
would no longer represent a foundation for an enlarged cultural commons, it
would become just another way to manage exclusive rights, making an already
cluttered legal landscape even more complex.
Of course, a proposal for mandatory inclusion would have to be consistent with
copyright law. If – as is likely – it is considered an exception or limitation, it will
have to pass the three-step test. As discussed above, this is difficult only if one
adopts a fundamentalist approach to exclusive rights. It is worth noting that the
schemes that contribute most author rights and copyright revenues today would
also be considered illegal under such an approach. We will cover the third step of
the test (“does not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author”)
when discussing the rate of the contribution. Again, to be consistent, this third
step should also apply to the positions of the majors and many collecting socie-
ties. When they oppose the Creative Contribution and other similar mechanisms,
they are the ones who are unreasonably prejudicing the legitimate interests of the
authors they are supposed to serve and represent.
defining rights and obligations 83
When does a work enter the non-market sharing sphere?
In principle, the recognition of non-market sharing of digital works encompasses
all works that have been the object of digital distribution to the public, whatever
its nature (free or paying). However, this principle must be qualified:
– The mechanism must not hinder the author’s liberty to determine when they
make a work available to the public for the first time: it is automatically ap-
plied only once the work is made public, not before. Similarly, the exchange of
digital copies of a work in private correspondence does not constitute distri-
bution to the public in the above sense: the recipient of a digital copy of a non-
published work received as private correspondence cannot share it with others
under the Creative Contribution.
– Only a form of distribution which actually makes a work reach the public in
digital form counts. For example, showing a film in theaters would not
authorize its cam-cording and later exchange, no more than playing a piece
of music during a concert would allow the audience to record it for later shar-
ing, or the paper publication of a book its scanning and transmission to
others. This saves an essential element of media chronology: the possibility to
schedule the public performance, analogic distribution and digital distribu-
tion at different times. For movies this sequencing between forms of dissemi-
nation of a work currently plays a significant role in the creative economy, in
particular where it is defined by law, such as in France. For books, such se-
quencing might facilitate the transition to an era of digital books. Of course,
authors and artists would remain free to authorize these acts if they wish to do
so, but this would be outside the scope of the Creative Contribution.
The circulation of works which are not public in the sense of the above will re-
main subject to the existing implementation of copyright law. It will be possible
to sue producers and distributors of copies of these works for copyright infringe-
ment. However, rights owners will not be allowed to impose the implementation
of surveillance and control tools in the overall information infrastructure for this
purpose.
6.2 Rights and obligations of users and intermediaries
Scope of rights
Aside from the limitation to non-market exchanges, we have not so far defined
the rights that the mechanism we propose would give to Internet users, nor the
associated obligations. In terms of rights, one can envisage two approaches:
84 sharing
– restrict them to reproduction and communication to the public: each and
everyone can receive works, send them and make them available to others
(and of course read, view and listen to them, etc...)
– also include remix rights to produce modified works based on the works in-
cluded in the mechanism.
The first option tends to restrict the activities of Internet users to the access, inter-
active perception, recommendation and redistribution of works. It has the prefer-
ence of those who fear that authorizing reuse in non-market sharing would face
challenges in countries where moral rights are considered important. One can
also argue that the key obstacles to the recognition of the right to share arise
from the wish of media companies to maintain or install a monopoly on the re-
production and distribution of digital works. Once this obstacle is removed, the
diverse feelings of authors regarding modifications of their works will not block
the exploration of new paths.
However, legal constraints have been proven to be far from incompatible with
authorizing remixes: in practice, many legal provisions authorize transformations
(such as the insertion of advertising in movies) whose effect on the integrity of
works is far from negligible. Even countries with a strong moral right tradition
such as France are submitted to the Directive on Satellite Broadcasting and Cable
9
which de facto transmits the exercise of all rights to collecting societies and distri-
butors. William Fisher’s initial proposals for a flat-rate-based legalization of shar-
ing (Fisher 2004) included remix rights, but commentators pointed that it would
subject the proposal to criticism in moral rights countries, so he later proposed to
let authors choose whether to authorize derivative works and remixes or not.
Creators would be able to lift restrictions on derivative works through use of ade-
quate licenses – for instance those Creative Commons licenses authorizing mod-
ifications,
10
possibly with conditions. They could also condition such acts to ex-
plicit authorization or even payment. This would create a competition between
more liberal and more restrictive models, but minimal rights to share would al-
ways be granted.
Authorizing remixes is motivated by their key role in non-market collaboration,
enabling the creation of new works (annotated versions, reuse in new creative
works, etc.). Of course, the remix rights would be associated with an obligation
to indicate sources and properly signal modifications and their authors. This sec-
ond option would avoid some problems that might arise if non-commercial remix
rights are not granted. For instance, some might claim that advertising inserts are
an integral part of a work, and that it is forbidden to remove them in sharing. One
clearly needs to reject such claims, whatever business model protection reasons
may underlie them. Some people tear off ad pages from magazines before read-
ing them or giving them to others, and it should remain possible to do likewise in
the digital world.
defining rights and obligations 85
There is an impact of allowing remixes on reward systems: a flaw in William
Fisher initial proposal was that it planned for the reward system to track
changes in the form of relative shares of reward to be given to various contribu-
tors. This was clearly a source of damaging complexity for the reward system. A
simpler approach would consider a remix as a new work, eligible for its own
rewards. This means that the remix would have to meet a standard of originality
in order to prevent the opportunistic relabeling of works as being a remix in
order to reap undue rewards. This is a source of another form of complexity,
this time not for the reward system but for verifications and possible opposi-
tions or litigations.
We consider that the choice between the two options cannot be made without
an additional debate and exploration of its modes of implementation. Finally,
media criticism should not be blocked on the basis of the non-authorization of
modifications. The recognition of a right to share is by no means the end of the
debate on the scope of user rights, and fair use rights or exceptions are no less
needed in an environment where sharing is recognized.
User obligations
If the Creative Contribution is put in place, users exerting the right to non-market
sharing will have only two obligations, besides making sure of course that their
usage is not aiming at profit:
– They must respect the right to attribution of works to their authors, as ex-
pressed in the Bern Convention. This right has a validity that goes well beyond
copyright in the narrow sense of control over copies. In practice, the experi-
ence of voluntary sharing under Creative Commons licenses or other free li-
censes has shown that when the right to share is granted, the attribution of
works to their authors is at least as well respected as in proprietary manage-
ment. The Web culture of metadata, linking and referencing favors the respect
of attribution. Even in non-authorized sharing, the ID3 metadata associated to
mp3 files, for instance, is much more readily available than the industry-de-
fined identifiers such as those in CD record publishing.
– Users must also abstain from removing or tampering with the unique identi-
fiers included in files representing works, which are used for the collection of
data needed to reward creators. The principal motivation for such removal or
tampering would be to replace one identifier by another in order to obtain a
financial reward by fraud. Cryptographic integrity checks enable the preven-
tion and efficient prosecution of such fraud, but need specific adaptation to
the case where derivative works are authorized.
11
86 sharing
Intermediaries and commercial services
When an activity is legitimate and legal, providing means to do it must also be
legal, whether it is done free-of-charge or against payment. As any infrastructural
commons, the commons of non-market sharing will need services that maintain
them, ensure they are functioning efficiently, help users to filter or locate con-
tents of interest, ensure long-term conservation, collect statistics about sharing
beyond those that are needed to reward creators, or protect the privacy of users.
Some of these services will be provided by community efforts at no cost. Others
might take the form of paying services. The definition of these useful, lawful
services assisting non-market sharing is not a trivial task, however. If the idea is
to recognize non-market sharing, commercial ventures should not be able to dis-
guise themselves as providers of means to non-market sharing between individ-
uals, when in reality they would do commercial usage of the works themselves, or
of the attention time of users during access to works on a site. This is best illu-
strated by examples:
– Any service that does not give access directly to works, but only points users to
where and how they can obtain them from other individuals, should be recog-
nized as legal, whether it is free-of-charge and advertising-free, or not. For
example, the original implementations of Napster or trackers such as the Pi-
rate Bay would both be legal, provided they respect user privacy, of course.
– Services which use advertising or subscription to give access to contents di-
rectly, whether for download or streaming, are clearly excluded from the ben-
efit of the right to non-market sharing. They would need to negotiate com-
mercial licenses for the corresponding reproduction, communication and
making available (in Europe) rights. Whether one decides to submit these rights
to a collective or statutory licensing is another decision.
12
Between these 2 cases, some limit situations deserve to be studied and debated in
detail and are beyond the scope of this book. What about a blogger who posts an
article giving access to a video or musical recording and receives some advertising
income using technology such as AdSense?
Libraries
Another important question is that of libraries. Bruno Blasselle (Blasselle 2008)
recounts that, in the late Middle Ages, the birth of universities led to an increase
in the demand of copies of texts, bound as codices. This led to the development
of copy craftsmanship outside monasteries, with specialized craftsmen: copiers,
binders, illuminators. With this multiplication of copies went a multiplication of
errors, then unavoidable in texts that were often copies of copies. To prevent such
errors, repositories were created, where a faithful reference copy was stored: the
exemplar. However, the exemplar was not bound as a codex: it remained divided in
defining rights and obligations 87
folios or pieces. What for? At the time, the aim was not to prevent copies from
being made, but instead to encourage them. However, copying was a slow pro-
cess. To speed up the production of copies, separate folios could be lent to differ-
ent copiers: while one copied the first folio, the others could copy other parts of a
text.
13
These repositories of exemplars are the forerunner of an important role for
the libraries of the future.
In future, will book and media libraries give access to everyone on the Internet
to reference copies of all published works, including those still covered by copy-
right and commercially distributed? It will certainly be the case one day: part of
the role of legal deposit libraries or reference libraries will be to “seed” a refer-
ence copy, in the sense of the BitTorrent protocol or – most probably – one of its
successors, that is to initiate the chain by which milliards of people can, if they so
desire, have access to these works. Openly accessible archives and repositories
play this role today in scientific publishing.
However, this will not necessarily happen immediately for domains where pub-
lic or not-for-profit funding plays a more limited role in investment for the crea-
tion of new works. One can imagine a transition period where the role of libraries
will be focused on the public domain in the widest sense as suggested by Robert
Darnton (Darnton 2011). Giving access – under completely free reuse terms – to
digitized public domain
14
documents is already an immense task, essential to the
rooting of our culture in its heritage. Giving access to orphan works and out-of-
print works, which represent the vast majority of works covered by copyright for
books and a significant share for other media, is also an essential rescue task.
There is no sense in charging fees for access to orphan works, so the latter should
become usable under collective licensing without compensation by users, but a
guarantee state fund is needed to protect users against the possible claims of
rights holders who re-appear after a work has been made available. To enable
the republication of out-of-print works, the best approach is to make sure that,
after a short moratorium period, the associated rights are transferred back from
the publishers to the authors. Many publishing contracts have such clauses, but
they must become a legal obligation.
If the Creative Contribution grants a right to non-market sharing between indi-
viduals, an open debate will be needed on the status of non-profit organizations,
and in particular educative and memory institutions. It would be paradoxical if
the recognition of a new non-market sphere restricted the role of existing non-
market organizations. If the Creative Contribution is limited to sharing between
individuals, it must be complemented by a strong fair use doctrine, or by excep-
tions for research, education, libraries and archives.
88 sharing
7 How much?
In this chapter, we embark on our most challenging task yet: to come up with a
proposal for the amount of the Creative Contribution and the manner in which it
will be distributed, as a starting point for future debate. We do this in a way that
has not really been explored before: we consider the potential of on-line sharing
to contribute to the cultural and creative capabilities of each and everyone, and
estimate the needs for rewards and support for the production of new works
from that perspective.
The “how much” question is easily tackled from a compensatory standpoint:
evaluate the losses resulting from the existence of file sharing, then see whether
the resulting figure is acceptable for those who will be asked to pay. This simpli-
city is somewhat deceptive. As we have seen, evaluating the losses to be compen-
sated is far from trivial. First, which alleged losses deserve to be taken into con-
sideration? Should we count present losses, or extrapolate into the future? Are we
to compensate creators only, or also investors? Are losses compensatable only if
they are fatal, in the sense that any exploitation of a creation would be jeopar-
dized, or should we also compensate those who suffer losses because they stick
to a particular mode of exploitation, but might not otherwise?
1
Once the peri-
meter of losses is defined, we must of course discuss their amount. Terry Fisher
did this calculation in (Fisher 2004), estimating the losses to correspond to $5.36
per month and per Internet-subscribing household for music and film. But if one
were to repeat the calculation today, given the experience of the last six years and
the many studies published in the interval, one would find a significantly reduced
figure for the compensation of phonorecord-, film- and video-related losses. Even
agreeing on a new figure would not be the end of it. There are many other forms
of media, some already widespread in the digital sphere, such as photography,
and some only starting to invest it, such as books. Furthermore, as we have al-
ready remarked, there is no reference upon which to base a compensatory reward
on digitally native media: they would be collateral victims of such an approach. In
other words, we would neither reward nor finance those who build the heart of
the digital cultural commons.
We thus propose to define a self-standing system of rewards and upstream
financing for the digital cultural commons, but we have to quantify it on a differ-
ent basis. We need to answer two questions simultaneously: what is the mini-
mum amount of finance needed to enable the cultural digital commons to devel-
op to its full potential, and what are the limits to what households can contribute
89
to this development by means of a flat-rate contribution? How much is enough, how
much is too much?
As a preliminary, we must first justify more explicitly why we propose the Crea-
tive Contribution to be used to finance creative activity and its environment, and
not just to reward the contributors to existing works.
7.1 Rewarding the present and financing the future
There is some symbolic beauty in the idea of balancing rewards for existing works
with the support for the creation of new works. It is also motivated by a rational
analysis: incentives based on ex-post rewards have very different properties from
financing of projects, activities or environments. Both have qualities and draw-
backs. Ex-post rewards account for the – sometimes unpredictable – attention of
the public. From time to time, some perfectly unknown individuals or groups
suddenly grab the attention of a large public, vibrate with its feelings and reso-
nate with its thoughts, and thus embody the spirit of a time. Such moments are
beautiful, and we were lucky to live through several of them in less than two gen-
erations. Each of us is was shaped by the ones they lived through: from the beat
generation to Indian music, from the nouvelle vague to hip hop, and from new
Asian cinema to cyberpunk novels. There are a thousand such moments, because
each of us travels only in a few, though some are visited by so many that they
seem universal. When the fluidity of cultural encounters leads to the recognition
of a work or author, it is only fair that a reward system acknowledges it. Even in
classical cultural circuits, the discovery of new deserving works and creators is
not infrequent. All too often, however, ex-post reward incentives based on copy-
right do not serve the perpetual regeneration of culture, but instead perpetuate
existing or predictable successes.
Fig. 7.1. An image from COMBO, a collaborative animation by Blu and David Ellis,
http://vimeo.com/6555161, license CC-By-NC-ND.
90 sharing
In contrast, a reward system for Internet usage can work on different scales, ac-
knowledging emerging stars as well as creative people with more limited audi-
ences. The French website La boîte verte provides a wonderful introduction to the
nature of encounters one makes in Internet culture.
2
This blog does not produce
creative works itself: it only points to the works of others. Its author explains what
La boîte verte is about in the following terms: “It helps me to store cool stuff that I
don’t want to lose”,
3
and thanks to its existence, we don’t lose the cool stuff
either. At the time of writing, the site points to around a thousand contemporary
and older works. Most of them are remarkable works of art, feats of ingenuity or
pedagogy, or simply great fun. The production of many of them has required
considerable time and effort. All the sources are referenced with care on La boîte
verte. Some, such as the animated wall-painting collaboratively produced by Blu
and David Ellis illustrated in figure 7.1, have been viewed on the Internet more
than 500,000 times.
4
Others will reach only a few hundred or thousand users. A
reward system that specifically takes the Internet into account will reward many
more creators
5
than copyright royalties, as we will see below.
When we look back at the emergence of art that seems truly new, we find what
was already there: the Woody Guthrie behind Bob Dylan. We also find things that
are less often recorded in bios: environments, places, groups where a know-how,
a thought, a voice, gestures were conceived, tried out and appreciated, where
styles emerged and matured. The environments of today’s Internet culture start
with personal computers and home studios (millions of them in Europe or in the
US). Next up might be cafes, bars or student halls with open wireless Internet.
When we follow the trajectory of creative people, we find other places: bookstore
back-rooms hosting creative writing workshops, pubs with open jam sessions,
small music production units that are at the same time rehearsal studios and
micro concert halls, dance studios, philosophical cafes, squats and hacker spaces
in former industrial buildings where multimedia installations and performances
are prepared, and some public spaces that are beyond the reach of inspectors who
collect fees for public performances. Then there are more institutionalized envir-
onments, which subsist mostly on public, community or private funding: art and
culture centers, exhibit spaces.
Finally, there is production, the most deceptive word of our debate. When we
discuss our proposals for the legalization of file sharing with creators, only very
few inquire about lost income. Most have another, more pressing concern: can I
do my next project? Can I secure the round-table for my documentary movie?
Where do I find the money for production of my next set or album?
6
Who will
finance my photo-reporting trip? How do I sustain a decent editorial team for my
collaborative on-line news media? Who will believe in me even when my first
projects fail, as John Hammond believed in Bob Dylan? Who will stand in my
recording sessions and tell me what’s right and wrong? Who will promote me,
but in the sense of peer appraisal, like Johnny Cash writing the liner notes for the
how much? 91
Nashville Skyline album? The term “production” should not be restricted to what
Joseph Stiglitz had in mind when he wrote: “Producers whose profession con-
sisted in bringing music to consumers have no raison d’être today. It’s like trying
to save the horse and cab-man industry in the car era.” It points also to what he
suggested thereafter: “However, their work can evolve towards a more editorial
function, guiding consumers towards this or this type of music.”
7
Many of the environments mentioned above survive without the kind of finan-
cing mechanism we advocate. Some dearly need it, but funding each one indivi-
dually would lead to far too much micromanagement. It is preferable to fund
intermediaries who, in turn, will support these decentralized environments. Addi-
tionally, a wide range of production and dissemination environments can be di-
rect beneficiaries of a mutualized financing scheme.
7.2 Rewards
In this section, we propose a method for designing a reward system for sharing
on the Internet, and we apply this method to obtain a detailed proposal. Most of
the discussion, however, is not tied to the specific Creative Contribution mecha-
nism which we advocate in this book: the analysis is relevant to any financing
model for digital cultural and creative activities. For example, it does not depend
on whether or not the model is based on a compulsory contribution. It is worth
mentioning that, in parallel with our work, Roberto di Cosmo (DiCosmo 2011)
conducted an analysis that covers many similar issues, in particular regarding the
use of credits and reward functions.
What is a work?
Since our rewards are not based on copyright law, we are free to define the work
(as a unit that can be rewarded) as best fits the nature of on-line exchanges and
the functionality of the reward system. To some degree, we can even leave this
decision to the creators themselves. Individual movies or episodes of TV series
are better considered as units: allowing a different practice for them would run
the risk of biasing rewards. On the other hand, for the purpose of the reward
system, it is better to consider a blog or an on-line photographic gallery as a
single work, rather than treating each entry or photograph as the unit. For musi-
cal recordings, the choice of what constitutes the proper unit could be left to the
creators. Creative Commons music websites such as Magnatune, Jamendo or
Pragmazic have demonstrated that the notion of an album (a set of musical
tracks) remains fully valid on the Internet.
8
Musicians could decide whether they
want usage to be recorded and rewards granted on the scale of an album or of
individual tracks.
9
This choice of albums will decrease transaction costs and man-
agement overheads in the system, and make it easier for lower popularity works
to reach the threshold leading to a reward. We come back to these implementa-
92 sharing
tion details when discussing the minimal registration and identifier requirements
for works in section 10.2.
The input to a reward system: usage credits for individuals
To design any reward system, one must first estimate how many people are to be
rewarded, and at what level. From this, one can easily deduce the total amount of
funds that will be necessary. Here we are discussing rewards associated with the
level of usage of works. By now, the reader will be familiar with ranked popularity
distributions. Such a distribution is the natural starting point to design a reward
system for usage on the Internet. To construct the ranked popularity distribution,
the compound usage of the works of each creator is recorded,
10
and individuals
are listed in order of decreasing usage. Usage may mean different things and can
be measured in various ways, which we describe in chapter 10.
There are many unknowns regarding this ranked list. How many people will be
on it? What will be the average level of measured usage? Will the measured usage
be concentrated on a few creators, or spread over many? All this will be easy to
compute or model once we have observed it for a few years. But at this stage, we
need to make a few simple a priori hypotheses in order to estimate the overall
scale of the necessary funds. To do this, we model ranked popularity distributions
using Zipf’s law, as introduced in chapter 3. This type of model provides us with a
tool to discuss various hypotheses.
Design choices for a reward system: how to go from usage credits to
rewards
A reward system must transform the ranked distribution of usage per contributor
into another distribution, of financial rewards. The conversion from usage “cred-
its” to a reward amount for each contributor is not a straightforward, mechanical
process. For a given total cost for the system, it depends on three essential policy
choices:
1. What is the minimum number of people we want to be rewarded at or above
some meaningful level?
2. Which reward function is used to translate use credits into rewards?
3. What is the minimum amount of reward worth redistributing to a contributor
per year?
To answer the first question, we must clarify the main purpose of the rewards.
The key promise of information technology and the Internet is to enable a many-
to-all cultural society, a world in which very many people contribute works or
productions that are accessible to all, many of these works deserving the interest
of some, and a significant number the interest of many. Therefore, the primary
design criterion for the contribution we are proposing is that it should enable
how much? 93
many more people to get better at whatever creative or expressive activity they
wish to use the Internet for. Getting better may mean learning a skill that is not
specific to the Internet: playing an instrument, writing compelling texts, taking
photographs or shooting videos. All these techniques become accessible in a dif-
ferent manner thanks to information technology and the Internet. People now
have access to tools and practices that were formally reserved for professionals,
but to benefit from this new access, one must first learn to use these tools profi-
ciently, discover what one really wants to do with them, experiment and get feed-
back from others. This takes time, effort and guidance. Helping a sufficient num-
ber of individuals in this respect will be our essential guide in making the first
design choice above.
By reward function, we mean the way in which a relative level of use is trans-
lated into relative rewards. If a given work is 3 times more popular than another,
should the corresponding reward be 3 times larger? Less? More? Many people
assume that rewards must be proportional to use. This is definitely not the case
in the existing copyright systems, where the royalties grow more than proportion-
ally to the sales. A best selling author will receive 50%, or even 100% more royal-
ties for each book sold than most authors. This trend is even more pronounced
for music. On the other hand, as we will see, in the digital world there are excel-
lent arguments to justify a less-than-proportional reward function. However,
there are also constraints on how far we can go in that direction.
We may gain some insight into the appropriate choice of reward function by
studying the observed distribution of usage credits. However, we should bear in
mind that the present distribution is a complex mix, where traditional attention
patterns from the pre-Internet cultural industry rub elbows with emerging many-
to-all patterns characteristic of the digital sphere. When the Creative Contribution
is put in place, these patterns will blend together, and we must attempt to forecast
the resulting distribution to understand how the reward system will work in the
long term. This is not an easy task, but models based on Zipf’s law allow us to
consider a range of possibilities. Figure 7.2 compares the cumulative distribution
of attention that could be expected under various scenarios in a fictitious me-
dium-size country where two million people contribute works that are shared on
the Internet. The top curve corresponds to a pure concentrated attention pattern,
similar to what is observed in large-scale media publishing and present-day copy-
right royalties. The bottom curve corresponds to a diverse attention pattern, as
might be observed if the giant communities of non-market Internet sharing came
to dominate access on the Internet. The middle curves show intermediate situa-
tions, such as one might expect to see for the first few years after the Creative
Contribution is put in place. See appendix B for details. The most concentrated
case corresponds to a Zipf law parameter of 1.1, and the most diverse to 0.8. The
intermediate cases have Zipf law parameters of 1.0 and 0.9, respectively.
94 sharing
Fig. 7.2. Various distributions of attention to creators can lead to great differences in the
number of creators who share 90% of the usage credits.
It is interesting to look at a horizontal line corresponding to 0.9 on the y-axis. In
the first (maximum concentration) case, fewer than 100,000 contributors (5% of
the total number) receive 90% of the total attention. This number is very similar
to the number of people who receive copyright royalties today in a country of this
type.
11
The concentration is strongest near the top: fewer than 10,000 contributors
receive 80% of the total attention.
12
For our present purposes, the most interest-
ing cases are the two intermediate curves, where the number of contributors shar-
ing 90% of the total attention is much larger: over 20% and 40% of the total
creative population respectively. One can expect the actual usage pattern to ap-
proximate the higher of the two (corresponding to a relatively concentrated dis-
tribution of attention) in the initial phases after the introduction of the Creative
Contribution. This is not only because Internet publishing will take time to reach
its full potential, but also because established right holders will be likely to regis-
ter themselves and their works in the Creative Contribution system more rapidly
and efficiently. The pattern of usage would then progressively become more di-
verse, tending towards the third curve, or even the fourth (bottom). These are
tentative hypotheses, but whatever the details, it is clear that the distribution of
usage credits for individuals will be much more diverse than any of the present
distributions for commercial channels, at least after a brief initial period. It will
how much? 95
also be much more diverse than the present distributions of copyright revenues
for any media (with the possible exception of books).
Let’s now look at motivations to adopt a less-than-proportional reward func-
tion. Some of these motivations are of an economic nature. In the industrial pro-
duction of physical goods, there are economies of scale in production and distri-
bution. These constitute incentives to focus, to a certain degree, on a limited
number of products. It is clear that no such constraints exist in the digital non-
market world. Many digital sales business models nonetheless rely on concentrat-
ing the attention of users on a limited number of works. However, the key rea-
sons to adopt less-than-proportional reward functions are not economic, they are
social and cultural. It is a desirable property of culture that some works, and
those who create them, will attract the attention and appreciation of very many. It
is, however, socially damaging if this attention leads to levels of income and
wealth utterly disproportionate to the cost of producing the works, or the income
needed to maintain a good standard of living. Rishab Ghosh stressed that, in the
digital world, the value lies in the existence of a work, and not in each of its
copies (Ghosh 1998). This suggests that as long as a work has proven itself to be
of interest – by attracting the attention of a certain number of users – we should
value it for itself, and not only with respect to the number of people who appre-
ciated it. This is the true meaning of a many-to-all cultural society, and less-than-
proportional reward functions contribute to it.
In Appendix B, we show that when the distribution of usage credits more or
less follows a Zipf law, a power law reward function gives rise to another Zipf law
distribution for rewards. A power law reward function means, for instance, that a
work receiving 10 times more attention will be rewarded 10
a
(10 to the power of a)
times more than another work. Setting a to 1 gives a proportional reward. A less-
than-proportional reward is achieved by using a < 1. For instance, if a ¼
1
2
, the
reward will be 10
1
2
¼
ﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃ
10
p
¼ 3.16 times more, instead of 10 times more. A less-
than-proportional reward function transforms a concentrated distribution of at-
tention into a more diverse distribution of rewards. For example, if the distribu-
tion of usage credits corresponds to the “concentrated” curve in figure 7.2, but
one uses a power law reward function with a ¼ 0.8, one obtains a distribution of
rewards corresponding to the “diverse” curve in the same figure. Another ap-
proach to less-than-proportional reward functions has been implemented in prac-
tice in Sweden. The compensation system for loan libraries uses a “topping-off”
mechanism: authors are compensated proportionally to the loans of their books
up to the annual median wage (¤16,000). Beyond that, they receive only half of
the proportional reward. If their total compensation exceeds ¤19,000, they receive
only 10% for any further loans. Whatever one thinks of the idea of a compensa-
tion for lending books, topping-off mechanisms are an interesting approach, in
particular from a social angle.
96 sharing
There are, however, constraints on how far one should go with less-than-pro-
portional reward functions. The most successful creators, and those whose inter-
ests are tied with theirs, would certainly oppose it. As they still see the reward as a
compensation for lost income, they would describe it it as an “unfair” reduction
in rewards. We discuss this point further in section 7.4, where we show that
provided the less-than-proportional character is not excessive, this position is not
an insurmountable obstacle. It is nonetheless clear that a strong momentum of
support in civil society and cultural contributor groups will be necessary to sur-
mount it. Even in the absence of a political opposition, it would probably not be
considered fair, or culturally productive, to adopt a reward function that is too
strongly less-than-proportional. For example, under the cubic root reward func-
tion advocated by Richard Stallman (Stallman 2009), a work used by one million
times more people than another would only be rewarded 100 times more.
There are also limits on the minimum reward to be distributed to an individual,
for two related reasons: transaction costs, and the social acceptance of the reward
system. There are costs associated with the distribution of the reward. These in-
clude management costs for the organization(s) administering the rewards, but
even more transaction costs for recipients, who have to register themselves and
their works. Distributing rewards below a certain limit would lead to an ineffi-
cient system, whose management costs would be disproportionate: they would
be criticized by both financial contributors and beneficiaries. Beyond transaction
costs, associating a monetary aspect to non-market activities – even in such an
indirect manner – is only worth doing if it is not “peanuts”. Furthermore, the
smaller the rewards to be distributed, the more challenging it becomes to mea-
sure usage precisely enough to allocate them, and with enough resistance to fraud
(see chapter 10). Collecting societies already set such thresholds on distributing
the collected rights. They are criticized because of the manner in which the “un-
distributed” rewards are handled. The corresponding fees are collected (paid by
users), but in most cases, they are distributed to the more favored beneficiaries,
on a prorata basis following their other benefits. In other words, the least popular
creators are made to subsidize the most successful. Such a problem will not exist
in the case of the Creative Contribution: the amount of the fee is computed while
excluding the rewards that are not distributed. In the following, we propose a
threshold for rewards of $40 or ¤30 per person per year (for the compound use
of all works of which that person is a contributor). Note that one could lower this
figure by half without raising issues of costs: the questions of relevance and tech-
nical feasibility mentioned above come into play first.
We now proceed to develop a working proposal for the rewards, and to address
the key question of what their absolute level should be.
how much? 97
A fixed cost adaptive reward system
If the aim of the rewards it is to enable investments in the development of individ-
ual and group capabilities, one must ensure that a sufficient number of creators
receive rewards that are above the threshold of practical usefulness. Whether the
reward is to be used directly to buy tools or services (such as courses), or indir-
ectly by freeing time that would otherwise be devoted to earn a living, a mean-
ingful entry figure is probably in the range of $200 or ¤150
13
per year
14
per artist
or contributor. This does not mean that we should not distribute rewards below
that level. However, we should design the system such that a sufficiently large
number of contributors receive a truly meaningful – even if limited – financial
support.
How many people should the system fund? To answer this, we need to know
how many people produce and share cultural works on the Internet. In France
and in the European Union as a whole, 20% of the population aged 16 or older
declares having produced and published some contents for sharing over the Inter-
net in the past 3 months (Deroin 2010). Typical works are photographs, blogs,
poetry or music. Personal publishing on the Internet is rising rapidly (it doubled
in the past 3 years in France) and shows no sign of slowing down. According to
the Eurostat 2007 pocket book on cultural statistics (Eurostat 2007), 10% of Eur-
opeans (EU-27) declare that they regularly play an instrument, 15% sing, 3% act,
19% dance, 12% write texts or poems, 27% make photographs or films, and 16%
practice some other artistic activity. Another study conducted in France (Don-
nat 2007) concluded that the predominant pattern associating Internet usage and
cultural practices was synergistic: more Internet usage is associated with more
non ICT-mediated cultural practice. Olivier Donnat, the author, left open the
question of whether this was a temporary trend due to the fact that most present
Internet users grew up before the Web, or whether it will still observed when
digital “natives” dominate the population. In our opinion the synergy arises
mainly from the decrease in TV viewing time, which frees time for other activities;
from the empowerment permitted by the use of ICT; and from the fact that physi-
cal artistic activity is a natural complement to mediated information. The question
raised by Olivier Donnat must thus be revisited: do we want this effect to last? Are
we ready to give the young (and the less young) the rights and capabilities that
will help them invest in cultural practice on the Internet and beyond? In the US,
writing one’s own blog or personal web pages was a typical daily activity for 3% of
Internet users
15
in 2008. This figure is not easy to compare to those regarding
usage in the past 3 months. However, a detailed comparison of a range of statis-
tics on cultural practice seems to indicate that significant personal content pub-
lication on the Internet is slightly lower in the US than in Europe: 15–20% of US
Internet users, that is 11–14% of adults, engage in it.
Our starting point is that, even in the “worst” case in terms of diversity, corre-
sponding to the “concentrated” curve in figure 7.2, with proportional rewards,
98 sharing
our system should reward at least 2 to 2.5% of contributors to works published
on the Internet at a level above $200 or ¤150 per year. With the latest known
statistics, this would represent approximately 840,000 recipients in the US,
315,000 in Germany and 230,000 in a country such as France. More generally, it
would represent about 0.4 to 0.5% of the population aged 16 or more in a devel-
oped country.
16
These figures may appear low, compared to the overall scale of
Internet exchanges. However, not everyone wishes to receive monetary benefits
from their on-line production.
17
Additionally, for the Creative Contribution to be
socially acceptable, the popularity threshold for receiving significant payment
needs to be high enough to give the public some degree of guarantee that its
recipients deserve the benefits they will receive.
Concentrated (low diversity)
Country # recipients above
$200 or €150
# recipients above
$40 or €30
Total yearly
amount in local
currency
Monthly amount
per broadband In-
ternet subscribing
household
US 840,000 4.2 million $2,659 million $2.64
France 230,000 1.15 million €501 million €2.32
Germany 315,000 1.58 million €704 million €2.31
Intermediate diversity
Country # above $200/
€150
# above $40/€30 Total yearly
amount
Monthly amount
per household
US 1.376 million 8.23 million $2,659 million $2.64
France 360,000 2.14 million €501 million €2.32
Germany 497,000 2.98 million €704 million €2.31
Diverse
Country # above $200/
€150
# above $40/€30 Total yearly
amount
Monthly amount
per household
US 1.839 million 13.75 million $2,659 million $2.64
France 465,000 3.49 million €501 million €2.32
Germany 651,000 4.89 million €704 million €2.31
Table 7.1. Number of rewarded contributors and total amount of rewards for various
hypotheses on observed diversity or applied reward functions
how much? 99
We now derive estimates for the global cost of a reward system that satisfies the
standards set out above. Table 7.1 summarizes our estimates of the total amount
of the reward part of the Creative Contribution in three countries: the US, France
and Germany.
18
We have designed the model (detailed in appendix B) so that it
can adapt gracefully to variations in the diversity of attention or to different re-
ward functions: when the diversity of observed use is greater or when a less-than-
proportional power law reward function is used, the number of rewarded creators
is higher, whilst the total amount of the rewards remains constant. One may also
wish for the total amount to evolve: we will come back to this point in chapter 8.
The 3 cases presented in table 7.1 correspond to three levels of observed use di-
versity for proportional rewards
19
or to situations where one used a power law
reward function to obtain such a distribution for the rewards. In the worst case,
the amounts were calculated such that 2 to 2.5% of Internet contributors receive
more than $200 or ¤150/year, and 10 to 12.5% more than $40 or ¤30/year. Our
working hypothesis is that the diversity of recorded usage will be limited initially,
and grow progressively.
Interestingly, the figures obtained in various developed countries are relatively
similar. This should ease the handling of international issues connected to the
Creative Contribution somewhat (see section 8.2).
7.3 Financing production and the creative environment
We have defined a framework for rewarding the creators of works shared on the
Internet. This leaves open the question of which works will be produced. This is
certainly not a question of quantity: we live in an era of abundance of creative
activity, personal and public expression. However, many fear that widespread
non-market sharing of digital works could make it more difficult to invest in the
production of some types of works, or more difficult to support some editorial
functions, which remain necessary so that quality is recognized and promoted
within the vast array of available works. In this section, we explore the contribu-
tion that Internet users could make to ensure that rich and diverse works of high
quality will indeed be produced and recognized.
We proceed as follows: we first give a tentative inventory of the types of works
that could benefit from an additional form of – Internet-specific – financing. We
sketch out the global economic framework for the production of works in various
media, in order to derive a reasonable global estimate of what the financial con-
tribution from Internet users could be. We then discuss those editorial activities
which would run the risk of becoming “orphaned” in a world dominated by a mix
of concentrated media industry and decentralized Web sharing.
100 sharing
Media
So far, and in particular when exploring the global amount of the reward part of
the Creative Contribution, we have not distinguished between works in different
types of media. Internet user practice and – increasingly – creative activity tend to
treat all media as a global set and blur the boundaries between them. However,
for certain purposes, there is a need to consider the specifics of each medium. For
example, it will become necessary to do so in order to organize the management
of rewards effectively, a question which is discussed in chapter 9. But it is even
more crucial when considering means of supporting the production of new
works, and maintaining a favorable environment for their recognition and disse-
mination.
Information and communication technology is used in all media, whether to
create new works or to digitize analog works and make them more widely acces-
sible. This does not mean, of course, that activities such as making a film, com-
posing music or performing it, taking photographs, creating visual artwork, or
writing texts occur only on computers connected to the Internet. In fact, as infor-
mation-based tools become pervasive, physical practices and presence, gestures,
face-to-face interaction become increasingly valuable. Furthermore, a medium
(moving image with a soundtrack, music, photographs, books, blogs, etc.) is
much more than the carrier that transmits it. Carriers do matter, of course. Digi-
tal and argentic photographs are not the same. Lightweight digital video has a
completely different feel to a film shot with a 35mm camera. Writing a book
such as this one on a computer, using text-editing software, or doing so on a
typewriter, or even using paper and pen are completely different experiences,
which give rise to different books. Nonetheless, activities of a specific nature are
involved in the production of – say – an essay, a piece of music, a film, an ani-
mated wall painting such as the one shown in figure 7.1, a poem, or a short
format video to publish on the Internet. ICT may help bring the cost of producing
an individual work down a lot in some cases, but not in others. For example,
heavy investment is usually needed before anyone can start to appreciate a com-
plex computer game or a feature film. Similarly, investigative reporting or in-
depth field research for a documentary are costly and sometimes risky activities.
It may take a lifetime to perfect a skill (playing an instrument, using a brush in
painting, picking the right word and the right prosody when writing) sufficiently
to enable a particular work to be created, even if information technology and the
Internet can contribute to the process.
Historically, different forms of media forms do not disappear as new ones
arise: they simply accumulate. We still have theater plays, feature films, novels,
pieces of music that last from two to twenty minutes, short news articles and
longer research ones, despite the emergence of blogs and on-line video. Some
commonly used units are anecdotal, linked to a specific context. In Europe, for
example, non-fiction video is often produced in multiples of 13 minutes (13, 26,
how much? 101
52) ... because of advertising time and programming grids in TV channels. Some
of these constraints will no doubt disappear in the future, but the notion that an
in-depth documentary needs between 45 minutes and two hours will not go away.
Widespread on-line sharing will pose another, quite distinct challenge. Pub-
lishers will no longer act as an a priori filter of what is made public. Informative,
creative and expressive works will be available in such abundance that it will be
impossible to sample them all in order to identify those that please us. How will
we find what is worthy of our attention? Of course, publishers will not disappear,
and they will continue to spot works or artists which are starting to attract some
recognition, and help them reach a new level of quality. This artists and repertoire
20
activity will become increasingly vital. One can only spot new and emerging ta-
lents and help them to mature if an adequate environment for this early recogni-
tion exists. In certain contexts, such as collaborative news media, the importance,
quality or reliability of information must be assessed in a very short time frame. It
takes a long time, and a lot of money, to build and maintain the competence to do
that. (Stalder 2006) analyzed the different types of filters that are necessary com-
plements to the abundance of information, public expression and creativity. He
distinguished between filters on contribution that are necessary for free/open
source software development, filters on truth or validity that are necessary in
science, and filters on interest that are necessary in the access to creative works.
One could add filters on relevance and accuracy for collaborative news, filters on
originality for blogs, etc.
Expensive resources in a world of abundance
Can the financial contribution of Internet users be made to address such a hetero-
geneous set of needs? We will certainly have to be modest, at least initially. Some
domains, such as science and more broadly academia, already have their own
resources and rules of governance for the publication of new works. They need
to be maintained and defended, in times where many would like to cut the re-
sources and circumvent the governance. New mechanisms can address specific
needs, such as encouraging individual citizens and society as a whole to play a
more important role in defining the aims of scientific research, and to contribute
to it. Some digital-native domains have found their own solutions for sharing
compatible investment: they use a commons-based peer production model, for
instance of free/open source software. Even in these domains, some innovation
aspects would benefit from an innovative financing scheme: see (UNU-MER-
IT 2006). On balance, we have chosen to treat databases or software as beyond
the scope of the Creative Contribution (see FAQ 3 in chapter 11). The latter will be
more efficient and better managed if it focuses on the universe of creativity, infor-
mation and expression in the public sphere.
102 sharing
We propose to identify a number of media-specific needs, without any claim to
exhaustiveness, but representative enough to allow us to estimate the global
needs for support for creation and its environment.
Contribution to media production
Our concern here is not to compensate the motion picture, video or music indus-
try, or even individual creators, for possible damage they would suffer due to the
legalization of non-market file sharing. The question we seek to answer is: how
can Internet users make a useful contribution to the existence of works that will
be shared on the Internet? Today, this existence depends mostly on decisions
made either by private investors (major companies, independent production firms
or labels, investment funds using tax credit schemes, news media and television
companies) or by one of many government-administered and often peer-managed
funds. Individuals who are not themselves involved in production merely manifest
their appreciation in the box office, in TV audience figures, in CD, DVD or down-
load sales … and via file sharing. If information technology and the Internet have
the potential to bring about one great transformation, it might well be the greater
role of individuals in supporting the production of new works and in making
choices about which works will exist and who will produce them.
Resources from individuals are already being pooled to support projects in
many domains. Kickstarter, whose motto is “Fund and follow creativity”, defines
its mission as:
Kickstarter is focused on creative ideas and ambitious endeavors. We’re a great
way for artists, filmmakers, musicians, designers, writers, illustrators, ex-
plorers, curators, promoters, performers, and others to bring their projects,
events, and dreams to life.
We know there are a lot of great projects that fall outside of our scope, but
Kickstarter is not a place for soliciting donations to causes, charity projects,
general business expenses, or raising funds without a specific goal.
21
Kickstarter allows people who have a project to “pledge it” for a given amount.
They commit to realize it if and only if this minimum amount is raised. Donors
then have a time limit (1 to 90 days) to pledge money, which will actually change
hands only if the required minimum is reached. The amount requested varies
from a few hundred dollars to a few tens of thousands. Kickstarter reached gen-
eral media coverage when the Diaspora free software project for building a decen-
tralized, user-controlled, privacy-aware social network, which was pledged for
$12,000, collected more than 10 times this amount. At that point, its 4 young
promoters asked people to stop donating to them and fund other projects instead,
as they did not see how they could usefully spend more money. Most projects on
Kickstarter are not for building tools, but for creative endeavors in art and media.
how much? 103
The average individual support to one project is between $30 and $50. Many proj-
ects are for video or complex visual arts production, whose total cost is in the
range of tens of thousands of dollars.
Similar intermediaries exist in many countries. Some follow the participative
funding intermediary model of Kickstarter (open to all projects), while others are
more like “labels” or “co-production firms”, pooling resources for the projects of
a group of federated artists. Nicolas Dehorter (Dehorter 2010) has compared both
models and concluded that the participative label or co-production model in in-
trinsically fragile. He reached this conclusion mostly on the basis of examples
from the music industry. Although one such label, MyMajorCompany, was highly
successful early on, this success was based on a single case (the artist Grégoire
sold 700,000 albums as a result of a project initially supported by 347 spon-
sors
22
), and many other participative labels such as Spidart have gone bankrupt
or struggle for survival. Typical funding needs, even for expensive musical record-
ing production are not more than $50,000 to $100,000 (see below). Some inter-
mediaries such as Sellaband
23
and MyMajorCompany offer investment returns to
fans who support a project, but there is no compelling evidence that this leads to
more funding than disinterested donations.
In film and video production, developing direct participatory production to the
necessary scale is a real challenge. The French organization Touscoprod (“every-
one can be a film producer”) collects funds for feature film projects. They define
their standard of success: “A film with 2,000 coprod[ucers] who have contributed
a total of ¤100,000 is a real measure of success.”
24
This amount is valuable, but is
only a minor financing source for a feature film with a typical budget of several
million euros. Even for smaller budget ventures such as documentaries, short for-
mats or light-weight productions, it is hard to see how participative production
intermediaries could really expand enough to play a decisive role in a many-to-all
cultural society, unless resources are pooled on the scale of an entire society. This
is exactly what the Creative Contribution can bring: a means for participative pro-
duction to reach the necessary scale, in a society where users are co-producers.
This role should be seen as a complement to participative funding intermediaries
such as Kickstarter, and not as a replacement for them. Their role as quick and
agile grassroots resource collectors will remain immensely valuable.
The model of competitive intermediaries presented above on page 79 is the
ideal vessel for society-wide pooling of production resources. Organizations such
as those we have already mentioned would register to be placed on a list of poten-
tial recipients, subject to guarantees of transparency, public reporting, and good
governance of funds. Each year (to avoid the frequent repetition of a complex
choice) Internet users would decide to allocate given percentages of the produc-
tion part of their financial contribution to intermediaries of their choice.
104 sharing
The global production context
Media US Germany France
Motion Picture $15,500 million
o
€1,070 million
o
€1,100 million
/
TV $10,000 million
c
€1,000 million
approx.
€800 million
/
Music/phonorecord publishing
(excl. fabrication)
$3,000 million
d
€700 million (ap-
prox.)
)
€410 million
c
Book publishing
(excl. printing and binding)
$2,800 million
d
€700 million (ap-
prox.)
c
€310 million
c
Global estimate considering other
media
$45,000 million €6,000 million €4,500 million
Table 7.2. Estimates of yearly production investment for various media in three countries.
Several figures including the global estimates are to be considered approximative. Sources:
ðaÞ
UK Film Council Statistical Yearbook 2010 (2008 data), http://www.ukfilmcouncil.
org.uk/statsyb2010.
ðbÞ
Statistiques du Centre National de la Cinématographie (2009
data for motion picture, 2007 for TV, http://www.cnc.fr/Site/Template/T6B.aspx?SELECTID=
1724&id=121&t=3.
ðcÞ
Estimated by the author from Bureau of Labor Statistics, total
payroll for motion picture and video industries, http://www.bls.gov/oco/cg/cgs038.htm.
ðdÞ
Estimated by the author from 2010 Statistical abstract, US Census Bureau, tables 1091,
1092 and 1102, and cross-checked against the number of titles published in 2008 and their
average cost of production.
ðeÞ
Estimated from Chiffres Clés 2010, DEPS/Ministère de la
Culture, http://www.culture.gouv.fr/nav/index-stat.html and (Robin 2007): the methodology
described in the box on page 106 leads to significantly lower figures for phonogram publish-
ing.
ðf Þ
Extrapolated from the figure for France, assuming twice as many titles and triple the
turnover.
Now comes the hard question: what should be the overall amount of production
contribution for various media? A detailed analysis of media needs and possibili-
ties will require stakeholder debates and research that are beyond the scope of
this book. We only attempt to make a gross estimate of a reasonable global bud-
get, as a tentative basis for future debates. We start by reviewing, in very general
terms, the economics of the production of works in various media: film, video
and TV, music, computer games, book publishing, multimedia, visual arts in-
tended for on-line distribution, etc. From these, we obtain an approximate global
figure for the yearly investment in the production of new works, and then propose
a contribution level for our Internet user-driven financing proposal.
This analysis is used only to set the global amount, and not to determine the
actual distribution of funds to recipients: that will be based on user preferences.
Table 7.2 gives gross estimates of the investment in the production of new
works for various media in three countries. Some methodological warnings are
how much? 105
required: we consider here only the investment needed to obtain the first copy of
a work, excluding costs associated with the production of copies, distribution,
retail or promotion. This is a logical choice, since we are concerned here with the
existence of works, rather than their distribution. Regarding the estimates for
phonorecord and book publishing investment, where figures are not directly
available from reliable public statistics, we used two methods, cross-checked
when possible: one based on the proportion of the global turnover invested in
the existence of works (typically 15%) and the other on the payroll of publishers
and their providers (for instance recording studios). Refer to box below for a
detailed treatment of the case of production investment for musical recordings.
Example: Estimation methods for the investment in musical
recordings
In order to derive an estimate for the investment in new recorded music
works in the US, we assumed that 15% of the turnover of the sound record-
ing industries reported by the Census Bureau is directly invested in the ex-
istence of new works: this gives a figure for 2007 of $3,000 million, which
is probably an overestimate. We then cross-checked it against the fact that
115,000 albums were published in 2008, of which only 110 sold more than
250,000 copies, a mere 1,500 topped 10,000 sales, and fewer than 6,000
sold more than 1,000 copies in official circuits. On should note that these
figures confirm an extreme concentration in sales, but also indicate that the
small producers sell their albums in non-official circuits. We estimated the
cost of production of one work. It was reported to be $150,000 for the pro-
duction of a high-quality album in (Fisher 2004, note 27) quoting (Hull
1998-2004), but only $125,000 in (Bourreau-Gensollen 2007) quoting (Vo-
gel 2001). Such albums are extremely likely to reach the threshold of one
thousand units sales, even after the recent decrease of CD sales. For other –
often self-produced – albums, we assume a lower average cost of $20,000:
(Bourreau-Gensollen 2007) quote a minimal cost of $10,000. Most authors
signal a gradual decrease in production costs, except for the most notorious
artists. This second estimation figure leads to global estimates of produc-
tion investment ranging from $2,340 million to $2,930 million. Note that
our analysis is independent of the targeted channel (physical record or
downloads, for instance through iTunes), as we consider here only produc-
tion costs for an initial reference copy of the work.
Our estimates remain approximate, but they are sufficient for our macroscopic
approach. Some important forms of media are missing, such as newspaper and
periodical publishing
25
or computer and video games. The statistics for some of
106 sharing
the relevant sectors do not always include the outsourced production, for instance
for on-line broadcasting, publishing and photography. An important global indi-
cator is the total revenue of independent artists, writers and performers, which
was $11,900 million in the US in 2007.
26
Our broad summary estimate for all
media represents our best effort at taking all relevant aspects of production in-
vestment into account.
The total figures are impressive: $45,000 million in the US, ¤6,000 million in
Germany and ¤4,500 million in France. They will remain so. Many sincere media
analysts, observing information technology and the Internet from an outsider’s
perspective, view it as a hostile environment, ineluctably imposed on media by a
cruel fate. They warn of a “black hole” that will swallow all of the content-related
industry.
27
Digital photography and the music and moving image industries are
daily proof that this view is misconstrued. It would be just as wrong, however, to
assume that no additional financing source for the production of quality works
will be needed. By focusing the debate on these caricatural, frontally opposed
views, we run the risk of creating a situation where concentrated media publish-
ers promotes a few high-budget works, while Internet production proliferates but
remains limited in ambition. What we suggest is an intermediate route which is
financially tractable but carries strong ambitions: a contribution by Internet users
(through the competitive intermediary scheme) at the level of 5% of our estimate
of today’s total production budget in the US and 7% in Germany and France. The
higher percentage is a partial compensation for the weaker per capita investment in
production in these countries.
28
It would come to $2,250 million in the US, ¤420
million in Germany, and ¤315 million in France.
Orphan editorial activities
In the information technology and Internet age, editorial activities are trans-
formed, but they remain very important. It is becoming increasingly difficult to
find funds for a number of these activities. Most challenging are those which
serve many different users, each of whom is ready to pay only a little for this
service. Universal information services such as search engines or geo-localization
can be financed at a very low per user level, which makes them compatible with
funding through advertising. More specialized activities, such as news analysis,
investigative reporting, photo-reporting or documentary film-making, music la-
bels (not in the phonographic sense, but as organizations in which a collective
style and individual artists mature), or stock archives struggle to find resources.
Photography is most helpful to understand the processes at play, as it is the one
medium that has fully undergone the digital revolution. Digital photography is a
huge and flourishing industry. More valuable photographs are taken and dissemi-
nated everyday than ever. Flickr alone, the leading photograph hosting site, hosts
more than 4,000 million photographs, including more than 175 million under
Creative Commons licenses.
29
More people live from being a photographer than
how much? 107
ever: according to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics, 152,000 persons were em-
ployed or self-employed as photographers in 2008, a number which grew and is
expected to grow at least as fast as the total number of jobs.
30
However, photo-
graph stock archives and photo-reporting agencies are in deep crisis, except for
the news agencies that supply a limited number of daily photographs to the
world’s entire media industry. The citizens of the world are now competing with
news agencies for visual coverage of almost every kind of event, but they can
hardly invest in photo-reporting in a faraway country. For professionals, a flour-
ishing art market for photography compensates only partially for the difficulty in
carrying out long-term personal projects. The additional financing scheme for
production which we sketched above can do a lot to renew the development of
these activities.
Editorial and archival activities are undergoing a fundamental transformation:
they are moving downstream, and this is a huge challenge. It is one thing to
receive a few tens or hundreds of manuscripts, to listen to a few hundred tracks,
to view a few hundred portfolios or exhibits, but how does one recognize and
publicize quality in an ocean of works? All content-hosting and voluntary sharing
sites are struggling with this challenge. Flickr has its “best of the week” and
“photo of the month”, Jamendo and Pragmazic their hundred most listened to
albums. It is hard to do much better than a basic filter that eliminates the real
junk, followed by random sampling and self-amplification (the selected works
automatically receive more attention). To counter this, sites also show the most
recently accessed contents or a randomly chosen selection, to give them a chance.
They try collaborative rating and advice systems. This is great exploratory work,
but there is a lot of room for improvement.
Archiving is even more of a problem. In the past, limits on the rate of fabrica-
tion of content objects and on access to the means of production made it feasible
to aim at archiving everything one could gain access to (which then mean physi-
cally have in one’s possession). Today, archiving must be selective, and explicit
choices must be made, but who has the legitimacy to make them? Public policy
and public funding have an immense role to play, but it is also worth trying the
societal route, to enable collaborative archiving.
Country Rewards Production Ex-post editorial
and archival ac-
tivity
Total yearly
amount incl.
management
costs
Monthly
amount per
broadband In-
ternet subscrib-
ing household
US $2,659 million $2,250 million $225 million $5,348 million $5.31
France €501 million €315 million €32 million €883 million €4.08
Germany €704 million €420 million €42 million €1,215 million €3.98
Table 7.3. The total financial needs for the Creative Contribution (management costs are dis-
cussed in chapter 10).
108 sharing
In order to enable further exploration of these challenges, we propose to allocate
an additional 10% of the production share of the Creative Contribution to these
domains (ex-post editorial activity and archiving) .
We now have all the elements in hand and are finally ready to summarize the
total amount necessary for the Creative Contribution. The results corresponding
are shown in table 7.3 (2009 data in most cases).
One issue remains to be addressed: will the home copying law fees be sub-
sumed (absorbed) in the new contribution? As this has consequences in terms of
relations to copyright law, we address this issue in the following section.
7.4 Passing copyright-law tests
We now have a macroscopic view of a reward and financing system for digitally
published works on the Internet. When associated to this system, is the recogni-
tion of the right to non-market sharing (as delineated above) acceptable from a
copyright-law viewpoint? Some will challenge the question itself, because they
consider the right to non-market sharing as a fundamental human right, taking
precedence over the temporary, property-like monopolies of copyright, or because
they consider that this right is already recognized in their countries, for instance
in Spain. Some will object, on the other hand, because they think that no excep-
tion should be tolerated to exclusive rights beyond those already granted. To the
former, we express our deepest sympathy and understanding, but remark that it
would be a shame for the right to share to remain unrecognized in most countries
because of a failure to satisfy the requirements of judges and policy-makers. To
the latter, we point out that their approach, if applied in the past, would have
ruled out the copyright and author rights schemes which contribute the most
resources to creative activity today. For example, we would have no radio or TV
statutory licensing and no home copying laws. Creators would enjoy a fortress of
exclusive rights in which they would quietly starve, unable to conduct creative
endeavors, because most creative activity requires the existence of fair use rights,
exceptions and limitations. Instead, let us try to view the situation, for a moment,
as an open-minded copyright lawyer might.
First we will discuss the main question affecting the compatibility of the Crea-
tive Contribution with copyright law: its impact on the economic rights of crea-
tors and investors. We will then briefly address two additional aspects: the rela-
tion with legislation on the circumvention of technical protection measures, and
that with moral rights issues, when relevant.
We analyze the economic rights aspect by considering four questions:
– How will the revenues of authors, performers and other contributors be af-
fected?
– How will be the ability to finance the production of new works be affected?
how much? 109
– Will investors be unduly deprived of the benefits of their investment without
being properly compensated?
– How will the global cultural welfare be affected?
The best available guide to understanding the present impact of file sharing is the
recent paper File Sharing and Copyright by Felix Oberholzer-Gee and Koleman
Strumpf (Oberholzer-Strumpf 2010). The paper primarily covers the case of mu-
sic, which most commentators consider to be the sector most adversely affected
by file sharing. The key findings in this careful study are that:
– File sharing Internet traffic grew by a factor of ten between 2003 and 2009,
the weekly traffic growing from one terabyte to ten terabytes. This growth can
be explained partly by the increased presence of video in file sharing,
31
and to
some degree by the intentional pollution of file sharing networks. It leaves no
doubt, however, that the war against file sharing has failed to slow it down.
32
The paper also provides interesting elements on the geography of file sharing,
showing in particular that the three countries studied in this book (the US,
Germany and France, and the latter two in particular) contribute to global file
sharing at a higher level than expected from their share of Internet users.
– The cannibalistic effect of file-sharing on sales of phonorecords, predicted by
many observers, is in fact weaker than expected. Oberholzer-Gee and Strumpf
note that no serious study ascribes more than 20% of the recent decline in
sales to file sharing, the most rigorous ones finding no evidence of a specific
negative impact. In addition, as shown by many other studies, sharing in-
creases the demand for concerts and raises concert prices, a source of revenue
which is already much more important for artists than sales of recordings and
publishing.
– The authors propose a micro-economic model and use it to demonstrate that
file sharing is unlikely to discourage individuals from choosing a musical ca-
reer or from investing in the production of works.
– Finally, they claim that the music industry overall had an increased turnover in
their period of study (ending in 2007 for this aspect). They include in the
music industry the sales of devices such as iPods, which is a debatable choice.
However, they still focus on a relatively narrow range (sales of phonorecords,
concerts and music players). When taking the wider scope we used in earlier
chapters, including recording studios, music publishing, musical instruments
and teaching, it is absolutely clear that the music economy never stopped
growing in the US.
This summarizes the effects of file sharing today, which is mostly clandestine.
What will happen if non-market sharing is recognized for an extended set of
media, and the new reward and financing mechanisms of the Creative Contribu-
110 sharing
tion are implemented? Our claim is that the revenues of creators will be signifi-
cantly improved, that better incentives will exist for the production of new works,
and that overall cultural welfare will be significantly improved. As for the media
industry, its fate will depend on its own choices. One can only hope that it will
eventually abandon the doomed fantasy of maintaining a business model reliant
on the scarcity of copies of works. It will then be able to explore the many paths
that lie open to it, and to prosper by serving the public’s needs. In any case, only
those investors who refuse to explore sharing-compatible business models will
suffer losses.
We propose to illustrate our claims by analyzing each of our four questions
above for one given medium, selected to shed a specific light on the matter. For
artist income, we use music; for investment, the motion picture industry; for the
sectoral economy, the book publishing sector. We could have chosen other exam-
ples: there is plenty of evidence that investment in digital recordings, or income
for writers, will fare better with the Creative Contribution, but a detailed treat-
ment of every case is beyond the scope of this book. The analysis of cultural wel-
fare must, of course, be done globally.
Artist income for music
It is interesting to compare table 6 in (Oberholzer-Strumpf 2010), which lists the
35 highest revenues of musicians in the US, with figure 7.3, which plots the 300
highest rewards from the Creative Contribution (all media included) in three sce-
narios ranging from a more concentrated distribution to a more widely spread
distribution.
33
In the first (“concentrated”) hypothesis, 84 artists receive more than $2 million
per year, and 168 more than $1 million. In the second (“intermediate”) hypoth-
esis, 49 artists receive more than $2 million and 106 artists receive more than $1
million per year. Even in the last (“diverse”) hypothesis, 18 artists receive more
than $2 million and 43 more than $1 million. In comparison, table 6 in (Oberhol-
zer-Strumpf 2010) shows that only 16 artists received more than $1 million in
2002 from recording sales. The year 2002 is the last year for which this kind of
data is available, and is also the time at which the recording industry’s revenues
peaked. We must of course take into account the fact that recipients of the Crea-
tive Contribution rewards come from all media, and not just music. But even if
only one-fifth of the highest recipients were musicians, it is absolutely certain that
these best-selling artists will be more than compensated for the possible loss of
phonorecord sales revenues arising from a legalization of file sharing. One might
even consider that the reward level for the best-selling artists is excessive, and
that distributive justice would be better served with a more widely spread or
topped-off distribution. When we consider artists and other contributors as a
whole (rather than just the best-selling few), it is even more evident that they will
benefit from the Creative Contribution. Our study of France (Aigrain 2008)
how much? 111
showed that less than 20% of the copyright and neighboring rights royalties actu-
ally distributed to musicians come from the private consumption of music goods
(including downloads, but excluding home copying fees). In France, this repre-
sents ¤60 million. Now let us imagine that the legalization of file sharing leads to
a 20% (¤12 million) reduction in this income. The rewards to musicians from the
Creative Contribution are expected to compensate this potential loss 10 times
over.
34
Fig. 7.3. Estimate of the 300 highest rewards from the Creative Contribution in the US, for
all media in various hypotheses of distributions.
A new paper by Julie Holland Mortimer et al. (Mortimer et al. 2010) helps us
understand better how concert revenues evolved in relation with file sharing.
Using data from Pollstar, a company that tracks concert activity in the US, for the
period between 1995 and 2004 during which music sharing exploded,
35
the
authors show that the number of concerts and their total revenues increased by
18%,
36
that the number of artists participating in concert tours almost doubled in
that period, and that, unsurprisingly, the number of concerts per group fell by
23%. This data does not include smaller venues. Overall, it is a great illustration
of the relation between sharing and the culture economy: there is nothing to
compensate for in terms of harm, and great challenges in terms of the revenues
of individual artists due to the new scale of creative activity.
112 sharing
That the revenues of artists – considered as a class – would significantly in-
crease if a reasonable flat-rate financing by Internet users would be put in place
was never really in doubt. The only claims to the contrary were based on a com-
parison with a totally fictitious scenario, in which a mix of control technology,
universal surveillance, repression and brain-washing of consumers would be
used to enforce the scarcity of copies of works. In such a scenario, consumers
would be forced to pay monopoly prices to access musical recordings. If the in-
dustry supporters of this scenario succeeded in imposing it, it is not at all clear
that they would actually share much of the profit with artists, who in the mean-
time would have lost their alternative means of reaching the public.
Film and video production
As we saw earlier, the motion picture and video industries, considered globally,
are in excellent shape: their revenues in the US grew from $72,000 million in
2004 to $82,000 millions in 2007.
37
All source of income are doing well, in parti-
cular the box office and DVD sales.
38
Only licensing for television programs are
stagnating or slightly decreasing, a natural trend when viewing time decreases,
which we can only acknowledge as great news … provided the freed time is used
for valuable purposes. Similar trends are observed in European countries. Despite
recurrent complaints of the video publishing interest group in France,
39
DVD
sales are also doing well there: they slightly decreased in turnover for a few years,
while still increasing in volume, and recently increased also in turnover thanks to
the growing publishing of back catalogs and the entry of Blu-Ray DVDs on the
market.
40
All this occurs while screams of how piracy is devastating the industry
are louder than ever. A few years ago, one could think that file sharing had not
exerted its effects because of limits on bandwidth. Today, moving image contents
are widely shared, through means ranging from newsgroups, BitTorrent P2P, to
direct inter-individual transmission on USB keys. Illegal streaming and download
sites also thrive.
Despite this global increase in turnover, there are concerns for the future of
production. Let us take a little tour in the world of French motion picture produc-
tion, which occupies a special place in the French political and cultural imagina-
tion. In France more than in other European countries, cinematographic produc-
tion has been resilient in the face of the inexorable rise of TV and American
productions. This was thanks to a variety of public policies, promoted across the
political spectrum but particularly on the left. Then, just as new activities started
to arise that truly competed with TV’s hegemonic control over human time, cine-
ma tied its fate to the latter by making more than half of its production invest-
ment directly dependent on TV channels.
41
This dependency was sealed by the
Tasca decree of 2001:
42
paying and free-to-the-air TV channels are obliged to in-
vest in motion picture production and must diversify their investments to some
extent. For a decade, this was the saving grace for the French cinematographic
how much? 113
production. The present situation is paradoxical, as the initial reason for directing
funds from TV into cinematographic production was to compensate for the re-
duction in the number of theater viewings, whereas these viewings are signifi-
cantly increasing today (CNC 2010), particularly among the heaviest Internet
users (15- to 24-year-olds and white-collar workers), and this despite the develop-
ment of home cinema and file sharing. Many presently fear that TV channels con-
tribution to film production will inevitably be eroded, because of the diminution
of TV viewing time and the growing reluctance of TV channels to program mo-
vies. This erosion will not be fast, as there are legal obligations that can only be
renegotiated when the license of a channel is renewed, but there will no doubt be
demands from TV channels to lower their contribution.
The other half of investment to motion picture production in France comes
from very diverse sources: various public subsidies, mostly specific to certain ac-
tivities (writing, independent production), tax credits for SOFICA (production in-
vestment funds) and, increasingly, regional government subsidies. An original
mutualized mechanism, the Commission d’avance sur recettes, in which levies on thea-
ter tickets finances refundable advances on future revenues for the production of
movies, is less important today than it used to be but remains a qualitative refer-
ence. Of course, private investment also plays a role, particularly for very high-
budget movies produced by the majors. At the other end of the scale, some doc-
umentaries owe their existence to smaller production companies and to the in-
vestments of the directors themselves. Last but not least, another form of private
financing is product placement, which plays an increasingly important – and pol-
luting – role. Pre-financing via DVD sales plays a very minor role in France, unlike
in the US.
Media chronology, the scheme by which producers of movies are able to com-
bine sources of income (and the related advance payments) for modes of distribu-
tion that are sequenced in time, is undoubtedly challenged. There is a realization
that once a movie is distributed to the public in digital form by any means, most
of the remaining part of media chronology becomes a fiction. In addition, the
major companies have started to realize the interest of flooding all distribution
channels simultaneously (except for TV). Does this mean media chronology will
disappear? Two important aspects will remain possible to implement: the sequen-
cing of theater projection and digital distribution, and the delayed free-to-air TV
broadcast. We have been extremely careful in defining when a work is digitally
published in order to separate, when it is desired, theater distribution from later
digital distribution. Projection in movie theaters will not be considered making a
work public, in the sense that would allow file sharing between individuals. TV
broadcast can remained delayed where legal provisions exist to this effect. Con-
trary to what is often stated, it does make sense for a TV channel to program a
movie, even though it has circulated in file sharing. People do not watch movies
on television as a primary form of access, they do so because of the convenience
114 sharing
of set programming: the limit of flow broadcast is also its asset. This double
minimal chronology will save the essential sources of financing for movie produc-
tion in various countries, from the US to France, not to mention India, the biggest
movie producer by far.
Despite all this, the current balance of funding for audiovisual production will
clearly be rocked, whether or not non-market file sharing is recognized. The most
demanding stakeholders (Clubdes 13 2008) highlight that the current organiza-
tion of funding is unsatisfactory, and that continued major dependency on TV is
suicidal for cinema.
In the US, though the 6 major companies (Time Warner, Newscorp, Viacom,
Sony, Walt Disney and NBC Universal) account for 80% of the box office
43
and
have a very strong control over distribution networks, most of the production is
outsourced to production companies.
44
Overall, the matter is not so much to compensate for a negative impact of file
sharing that remains to be proven, but rather to contribute a new form of finan-
cing, particularly for independent motion picture production and moving image
production targeted at the Internet. A probable new source of financing of €70 to
140 millions in France and $375 to 750 millions in the US will be extremely useful
in this transition period. If a consensus exists on the need for a higher contribu-
tion in a given country, it can be implemented without compromising the social
and economic balance of our proposal, but one should note that the share of the
overall support to production attributed to specific media will result from the pre-
ferences of broadband Internet subscribers.
The book publishing economy
Books deserve a special treatment. More than half of copyright revenues concern
written works, simply because copyright was designed for authors of books,
partly to protect them from abuse by publishers in the time of printer/publisher
privileges. However, part of the book-publishing industry is currently engaged in
an interesting form of self-destruction. The manufacturers of eBooks reading de-
vices and some publishers have built a common conviction that they could sell
electronic versions of books at monopoly prices, ignoring most of the reduction
in production, distribution and commercialization costs, whilst retaining the ex-
clusive control over copies of books that they enjoy in the paper book world.
45
It
won’t be long until the industry wakes up to a situation that is quite different
from that which it bargained for. The best-selling eBook readers will be those
whose DRM protections are weak. They might sell in large numbers, but this will
generate only limited revenue for publishers, and even less for writers, except for
a few best-selling authors. If the publishing industry consents to the enclosure of
knowledge behind the bars of DRM, when digital technology could be used to
make it more accessible and more re-usable, both authors and readers will be
resentful.
how much? 115
(Fisher 2004) judged that it was too early to include books in a flat rate-based
authorization for sharing. This was an understandable position at the time. Our
position today is the exact opposite: it is urgent to install a playing field where
publishers will face the role of sharing in the culture of the digital era. Authors
and publishers will remain free not to get involved: paper books will not disap-
pear any time soon, simply because they are wonderful human technology arti-
facts, the many functions of which it will take generations to outperform. We
purposely took care, when delineating the right to share associated with the Crea-
tive Contribution, to exclude digitizing of copyrighted analog carriers, such as
paper books, from its scope. However, there are fascinating opportunities to ex-
plore the synergy between paper books and the non-market sharing of digital
books. Many non-fiction works, or even successful fiction works released under
Creative Commons licenses, such as Cory Doctorow’s Down and Out in the Magic
Kingdom (Doctorow 2003) and For the Win (Doctorow 2010), or John Sundman’s
The Pains (Sundman 2008) have already exploited this synergy with success. Even
selling DRM-free digital eBooks is compatible with sharing, if the prices are rea-
sonably set and the suppliers provide added-value services.
Book-publishing production is flourishing today, the number of published ti-
tles undergoing a constant and significant growth. The US title output went down
from a high of 295,523 in 2004 to 275,232 in 2008,
46
but this should be con-
trasted against very dynamic growth in the UK: 28% in 2005, for instance.
47
Ad-
ditionally, self-publishing of print-on-demand books has undergone an explosive
growth, overtaking classical publishing in number of titles in 2008, the total US
output rising 38% to 560,626 titles. In France, the number of published titles
went up from 70,144 in 2006 to 76,205 in 2008.
48
A similar growth is observed
for unit sales and turnover (around 3% per year).
The sales of books, and even the copyright revenues of authors, are still much
less concentrated on a limited number of titles and writers than for other media
(Robin 2007). Worrying trends are nonetheless visible: an increased concentra-
tion in classical and on-line distribution channels, except for direct self-publish-
ing or sales by small publishers; a growing role of promotion – often TV-based –
for a few books expected to become best-sellers; growing difficulties in financing
editorial added-value positions within publishing organizations. In other terms,
the book industry is already living in the Internet age: all goes well at the macro-
economic level, there are difficult issues in the market structure, pressure on
added-value functions, and publishing lives in fear. It has even started to blame
its pains on piracy: SNE, the French Publishers’ Union used the results of an
interesting study that investigated the unauthorized offer of books for sharing
(Daval 2009) to promulgate its vision of an industry under siege, which will reach
the safe haven of digital sales only if piracy is eradicated. Curiously, among the
100 most pirated authors according to the study, a quarter were philosophers,
which seems good news for the cultural taste of pirates. The author of the study
116 sharing
himself warns against any conclusion that digitally shared books should count,
even in part, as lost sales, and criticizes previous affirmations to this effect in an
earlier study (TeraConsultants 2008).
Copyright law creates no obligation whatsoever to ensure that economic
players can successfully implement a particular business model, however much
the consumers might reject it. The constraints we have here are of a different
nature. The Creative Contribution must pass the three-step test for the creation
of new use rights, in particular the second condition, that possibly protects eco-
nomic players beyond the author: “does not conflict with a normal exploitation of
the work”. In the US, it must also be immune to challenges under the fifth
amendment takings doctrine, which prohibits taking “private property … for pub-
lic use, without just compensation”. We will not put an end to debates on what
may or may not constitute a “normal exploitation of the work”. The best we can
do is to take our lead from renowned legal scholars from many countries, who
called for A Balanced Interpretation of the Three-Step Test (Collective 2008). The decla-
ration includes this point:
4. Limitations and exceptions do not conflict with a normal exploitation of protected sub-
ject matter, if they
- are based on important competing considerations or
- have the effect of countering unreasonable restraints on competition, notably on second-
ary markets, particularly where adequate compensation is ensured, whether or not by con-
tractual means.
As we will see below, adequate compensation is there, but there is also a much
more important competing consideration. Not recognizing the non-market shar-
ing of digital texts restricts user rights, compared to paper books, in a manner
which undermines the very foundations of culture and knowledge, whereas infor-
mation technology and the Internet can, and should, enlarge access to culture
and knowledge to an unprecedented level. A form of exploitation of works in the
digital domain that does not permit an individual to share copies of works that
s/he has acquired legally with other individuals, without aim of profit, is not “nor-
mal”.
The takings doctrine issue is of a different nature. It is far from certain that we
should consider copyright or other intellectual restrictive rights to constitute
property, in the sense of the fifth amendment. The introduction to a debate on
this matter (Ghosh et al. 2007) stated:
The Federal Circuit recently answered this question with a definitive ”no” in
Zoltek v. US, holding that patentees can obtain remuneration from the govern-
ment for unauthorized uses of their inventions only at the legislative preroga-
tive of Congress. Zoltek has tremendous implications for the constitutional
how much? 117
security of these property rights, establishing far-ranging regulatory power
over patents and potentially impacting innovation policy in ways that neither
jurists nor patentees have realized just yet.
A takings doctrine challenge brought on behalf of publishers, against the recog-
nition of a right to non-market sharing associated with the Creative Contribution,
would face even more obstacles than the patent example cited above, since copy-
right is even further away from physical property. It should nonetheless be noted
that a just compensation defense would also be solid. Even the most criticized
studies such as (TeraConsultants 2008), mentioned above, acknowledge that it is
only the digital publishing revenues that are possibly harmed, and only to a lim-
ited degree. However, the specific investment for digital editions is limited, as
evidenced by the fact that, in very few years, new titles arising from personal and
small publishing became more numerous than classical publisher titles
(Jones 2009).
In subject areas such as computing, where digital books are increasingly pre-
dominant, the synergy of digital publishing and sharing, based on providing a
complementary added value, is illustrated every day by publishers such as O’Reilly
(OReilly 2002). It is hard to predict how this will translate for works of fiction,
except for science fiction which has also started going down that route. But in the
future, when a publisher commissions or acquires copyright on a book, they will
do so with the full knowledge of the possible exploitation forms, and of the need
for them to respect the right to share. Most of their catalogs were acquired when
the digital exploitation of works was not even imagined nor mentioned in copy-
right transfer contracts. In a similar vein, DVD publishers who specialize in back
catalog films have resisted the rise in video file sharing even better than other
segments of video publishing.
49
It is thus only for recent works, and for those
published between now and the time at which the Creative Contribution is imple-
mented, that the issue of a compensation might arise. This issue will actually be
the object of a debate between publishers and authors: should the publishers, in
when they are copyright assignees, perceive the rewards of the Creative Contribu-
tion on behalf of authors? The French photocopying compensation law for books
created a levy mechanism whose products go half to publishers and half to
authors. In our case, the Creative Contribution will bring its share of new finan-
cing to publishing projects, if Internet users are convinced that they need and
deserve it. The same law stated that the compensation for photocopying must be
paid directly to authors, and publishers are not authorized to keep it, even when
the author’s account for the book in question is negative (i.e. when the advance
they received from the publisher exceeds the royalties on sales). This seems wise.
We further discuss this issue in relation with contracts on page 120.
We have to abandon our analysis of the constraints of publishing books or any
other form of content there. A number of competition-based measures are
118 sharing
needed to ensure a sound economic environment for cultural works, and to max-
imize the benefits of the Creative Contribution. We will outline these complemen-
tary measures in the next chapter.
Global cultural welfare
The word welfare has two relevant meanings in this context: the socio-cultural
well-being of citizens, and the overall economic benefits. The socio-cultural ben-
efits of file sharing are so obvious that one might wonder at how little research
has been done to quantify them. The access to digital culture provided by a lega-
lized non-market sharing between individuals would constitute an immense ben-
efit, of particular value to the poorest segments of the population, who cannot
afford to buy more than a limited number of cultural goods. This point will be of
particular relevance when discussing the social acceptability of a flat-rate contri-
bution. This social benefit will be limited by the fact that access to broadband
Internet for socially disadvantaged households remains significantly lower than
for richer households.
50
It is nonetheless increasing at a fast pace, and could be
further improved in the US by the National Broadband Plan.
51
(Oberholzer-
Strumpf 2010) provide clear evidence that the US citizens of today are free-riding
on the investment made by European and Japanese citizens and governments in
broadband, in order to access files shared by Internet users in other countries. A
study commissioned by the Dutch Ministries of Economic Affairs, Justice and
Education, Culture and Science, and conducted by two independent research cen-
ters (TNO 2009), started doing the obvious: evaluating the impact of file sharing
(unauthorized or not) on the global welfare. The study concludes that there is an
indisputable positive effect on cultural diversity and access to culture, and thus a
net positive impact on social welfare.
The long-term evolution of global economic welfare, in the absence of a
scheme like the Creative Contribution, is less obvious: consumers enjoy a net
positive effect, but in the long term, providers could suffer a decrease in sales of
some products, and thus it is uncertain if the net positive effect would last. Im-
plementing the Creative Contribution would put a new burden on households
(paying for the contribution) but also bring them increased benefit (legalized file
sharing). Meanwhile, producers of contents would receive new benefits, in the
form of financial rewards and improved conditions of their activity.
The fate of levies for home copying
Home copying laws led to the creation in most developed countries of fees on
blank carriers possibly used for personal copying of copyrighted sound record-
ings and video. In Europe these fees are distributed taking taking in account the
new exclusive right of “making available” granted to phonorecord and video-
record producers further to the 1996 WIPO treaties.
52
These fees have created a
mixed bag of benefits and drawbacks. Many analysts challenge the principle itself
how much? 119
of the levies, i.e. that people would have to compensate right holders for legal acts
conducted in the private sphere. The levies led to the distribution of benefits to a
wider set of artists, in particular music performers. At the same time, their distri-
bution is considered by many as unfair, because the actual distribution has very
little to do with the actual use for copying of the carriers. The only key used in this
distribution that bears some relation to actual copying is the result of polling by
phone interviews on what was actually copied on carriers, an indicator that is
known to be biased towards the highly promoted contents (the only ones that
come to mind among the interviewees). The fate of the levies seems to be sealed
due to another trend: copying of copyrighted works on carriers is much less fre-
quent, and only if one considers any computer storage device as a carrier, as tends
to be done in Germany, would there remain a reason to maintain them.
At first sight, it appears a natural choice to subsume (dissolve) the home copy-
ing levies within a new contribution associated with the right to share. However,
this risks to resulting in importing compensatory approaches within the frame of
a reward system which we do not want to be compensatory in nature, and in
giving an excessive power to videorecording and phonorecording producers in
the negotiation of the new contracts between creators and producers (see below).
We thus prefer to let levies on carriers phase out of their own course, even if this
means the temporary co-existence of the two systems.
New contracts between creators and producers
The Creative Contribution rewards a new form of exploitation of works. It cannot
be considered as included in previously negotiated contracts between authors,
performers, other contributors and producers/investors. Existing contracts will
have to be amended, and new contracts made to contain explicit provisions. Two
approaches are possible: one which will make the rights to the rewards non-
transmissible and another which would accept their being assigned to producers
with some form of benefit for authors. We expect that the chosen approach will
differ across countries depending on their social and cultural tradition. It would
be a mistake in our opinion to try to impose one of the two schemes. What is
essential, if the transfer of rights is made possible, is for the conditions under
which it would be negotiated to empower creators in the negotiation: the original
rights should sit with them and them only. In Europe, this may open a debate on
the proper compensation of the inability to enforce the “making available” rights
of producers for existing works. A transition scheme could be put in place if
necessary. For future works, producers (as a whole) are likely to benefit from the
production support side of the Creative Contribution to a higher level than their
existing revenues from blank carrier copying levies.
120 sharing
DRM and moral rights
Recognizing the right for individuals to share digitally published works without
profit motive is one thing. But what if technical protection measures (TPM) make
it impossible, and the legal protection of these measures against circumvention
precludes removing them?
53
In some countries, TPM are protected against cir-
cumvention, even when this circumvention is necessary to allow a legal use of the
contents to which they are applied. This is in particular the case in the US, follow-
ing the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (see ChillingEffects), and in the trans-
position in some European member states of the 2001/29/CE Directive on Copy-
right and Neighbouring Rights in the Information Society. Other EU member
states have chosen to subject TPM to the respect of authorized use (Ireland) or to
make circumvention legal when it is necessary for a legally recognized use. The
2010 copyright reform law proposal in Brazil contained even stronger provisions
with direct sanctions for DRM that hinders legal use
54
(Doctorow 2010b). In ad-
dition, the legal protection of interoperability, enshrined in article 6.2.b of the
directive, has been sufficient to protect software such as DeCSS against circum-
vention claims. DeCSS permits access to content-scrambled DVDs for the sake of
playing them in free/open source software systems. In practice, this software is
used globally for a variety of purposes, while its distribution remains illegal in the
US. Legal frameworks that permit the use of TPM to prevent users from exercis-
ing their legal rights will need to be revised in order for the right to non-market
sharing to be a reality.
The large content industry has played a strange game regarding TPM/DRM: it
periodically recognizes that consumers hate DRM and that no commercial offer
constrained by them will be accepted. Nonetheless, it keeps pushing for new
DRM systems to be implemented, applied to a variety of contents (in particular
video and text), and installed in IT and media devices. It will be a side benefit of
our proposal to install a more stable situation in this respect.
An important clarification should be made: access control, for instance in or-
der to give access to works only against payment, remains perfectly OK, and cir-
cumventing it is illegal hacking of a site. This is an important enabler for com-
mercial offers that are compatible with file sharing, and essential to sites that
provide information whose value is limited to a short time frame, such as news
media. One will have, nonetheless, to be careful that this is not abused to reinstall
DRM in their usage control sense. This would be the case, for instance, if a provi-
der were to give access to works for payment with a technical protection that
requires some authorization each time the content is accessed or copied.
Finally, we must return to a possible opposition to our proposal on the basis of
moral rights, in countries such as France and Germany. Moral rights are a com-
plex package. Some of them, such as attribution, are internationally recognized
and can be fully applied to the right to share, as they already are in Creative Com-
mons licenses. Similarly, our proposal fully respects the right of divulgation: it
how much? 121
does not apply prior to the publication of a digital version of a work, authorized
by the author (whether commercial or non-commercial). Other moral rights such
as integrity have never been effective in the personal sphere: we can cut a maga-
zine to make a collage, or cut a book into slices in order to allow several people to
read it in parallel when books are in short supply (just like the handlers of the
Exemplar did, in the Middle Ages, to ease its copying
55
) without risking a moral
rights infringement case. The right to integrity is not threatened by the right to
share as we have delineated it, certainly not as much as it is by editing of movies
for on-flight projection or advertising inserts in TV and satellite broadcasts. Other
moral rights such as droit de retrait et de repentir are left over from times when
authors, if they changed their mind about a particular topic after publishing
something on it, could not use the Internet to publicize the fact widely.
56
In any
case, they have no bearing on the right to share. Moral rights are therefore not a
possible source of challenge to the legitimacy of our proposal.
Only a fundamentalist conception of exclusive rights, which would prohibit any
regulation of the exploitation of works, could be opposed to the Creative Contri-
bution and the associated right to share. But then, copyright and author rights
would become such a straight-jacket that creativity would suffocate in their arms.
7.5 Is the Creative Contribution socially acceptable?
The payment of the Creative Contribution will put a financial burden on house-
holds. Is this burden legitimate? Are the benefits provided sufficient to justify it?
These questions must be answered from two perspectives: first for households as
a whole, and then more specifically for low-income households, for which this
additional burden may not deliver the intended benefits if it makes access to
broadband Internet unaffordable for them.
For the more general assessment, we compare the amount of our flat rate con-
tribution to other relevant components of a typical household budget:
– household cultural expenditure in the wider sense;
– household fixed Internet access expenditure;
– household expenditure for mobile communications.
Each of these reference figures is useful for a different purpose: cultural expendi-
ture because it would be self-defeating for a proposal that aims to encourage a
wider participation in culture and creative activity, to compete excessively with
existing spending for cultural purposes; Internet access spending because the
flat-rate contribution will be collected by Internet Service Providers and, even if it
is a separate payment, will risk being perceived as a part of Internet costs; and
finally, mobile communication costs because they are an example of a form of
household expenditure that has grown immensely in the last fifteen years in
122 sharing
many countries, including for low-income households, while it could be signifi-
cantly reduced by adequate competition policy measures.
Our concern is not whether the shousehold cultural expenditure will grow or
not in general: the development of a huge sphere of non-market cultural activity
is beneficial in any case. We are just trying to check that the payment of the Crea-
tive Contribution will not in itself impact cultural consumption excessively.
In France, the average cultural expenditure per household in the strict sense
57
is reported by the Eurostat pocket book on cultural statistics (Eurostat 2007) as
¤1079 for 1999. A study by CREDOC researchers has estimated that the 2007
cultural expenditure in France was 20% higher (Maresca et al. 2011). We have se-
rious reservations on some figures in this study, and think that the real figure is
higher, but we adopted this figure for sake of caution. (Lacroix 2009) gives a
much higher figure for 2007, where cultural goods, services and equipment reach
¤2114 per household, but this includes equipment such as computers, which are
used also for non-cultural purposes. In Germany, the figure for 1999 is ¤1,374
and we have assumed a 20% higher figure for 2007. Unfortunately, more recent
figures are difficult to obtain or compare. In the US, the spending per consumer
unit for entertainment and reading (that does not include amateur practice) has
grown 37% from $2,050 per year in 1999 to $2,816 in 2007.
58
We add 10% to the
US figure to account for amateur practice. (Cammaerts-Meng 2011, see page 7)
give figures that confirm an increase of consumer spending for “leisure” in that
range in the UK.
59
We thus obtain the figures listed in Table 7.4 for various coun-
tries.
US Germany France
Cultural expenditure $3,098 €1,649 €1,295
Proposed total yearly Creative Contribution $63.8 €47.7 €49.0
representing (percentage of cultural expenditure) 2% 2.9% 3.8%
Table 7.4. Yearly household cultural expenditure (2007)
In all cases, the burden imposed on households by the Creative Contribution is
very reasonable in comparison to their global cultural expenditure. The risk that
the contribution would lead households to limit other forms of access to culture
is therefore limited. However, there are noticeable differences in percentage from
country to country. These differences are in part explained by the fragility of sta-
tistics on cultural expenditure, in part by the fact that a higher share of public
spending is devoted to culture in Europe than in the US (which can be seen as a
hidden form of cultural spending through taxation), and in part by a generally
higher consumption expenditure per household in the US. One should also note
that the cultural expenditure of households with a broadband Internet connection
is higher than the expenditure of average households.
60
how much? 123
In France, the average cost per equipped household for a fixed line Internet
connection is ¤33 per month (ARCEP 2008). Some 90% of the population has
access to offers costing ¤30 per month at most, against which they receive
8Mbits/s download and 1Mbits/s upload speed or more, integrated free voice over
IP telephony to wired lines in most countries, and a TV over IP access to more
than a hundred TV channels. Costs for pure broadband Internet are even lower in
most regions in Germany, while open integrated triple-play offers are less devel-
oped because of a greater role of proprietary TV contents offers and cable TV
providers. In the US, the costs of broadband Internet access are similar, but for
an inferior quality: in 2010 the Federal Communications Commission has up-
graded its requirements for the definition of broadband to 4 Mbits/s download
and 1 Mbits/s upload (FCC 2010), a figure that was well below any fixed line
broadband market offer that year in Germany or France. If the commitment of
the US administration to its National Broadband Plan is confirmed, the situations
in the countries under consideration will level out in the future, though a weak
policy on network neutrality may delay this process. The Creative Contribution, as
we proposed it, represents 12–16% of the subscription costs to fixed line broad-
band Internet. We will discuss below its potential impact on access to the internet
for poorer households, but in general, this cost is small compared to the benefits
and legal security it provides.
To illustrate why the contribution is not an excessive burden, it is interesting to
compare it to household expenditure for mobile communications, the household
budget item that has grown most explosively in the past 15 years. In France, the
average household expenditure for mobile communications is ¤72 per month,
and it has been shown that the impact of this spending has led poorer households
to harmfully limit their spending on food.
61
In the US in 2007, the average con-
sumer unit spent more than $50 per month on cellular phone communications,
three times more than in 2001.
62
This spending has kept growing since at a fran-
tic pace, and has probably reached levels similar to France. The increased spend-
ing on mobile communications has more than erased the decrease in fixed line
communications spending. It is a tribute to the enthusiasm of consumers for
mobile communications, but also a clear sign of a major world-wide competition
policy failure. It is particularly relevant to the discussion below of the impact of
the Creative Contribution on access to the Internet for poorer households, as
poorer households spend a much bigger share of their budget on mobile commu-
nications than on other ICT and culture-related items.
The Eurostat Pocket Book on Cultural Statistics (Eurostat 2007) reports that the
average cultural spending for the first quintile (the 20% poorer households) was
about 50% of the global average spending in 1999 in Germany and 55% in
France. (Maresca et al. 2011) remark that for specific categories such as blue col-
lar workers, the spending is only 45% of the average. This means that the poten-
tial burden of the Creative Contribution on this category of households, while still
124 sharing
representing less than 8% of their cultural expenditure, is significantly greater
than for average households. However, the benefits afforded to these households
in terms of access is also significantly greater than for better-off households. The
poorer households, whose members often also have a lower level of education,
are conscious of the essential role of the Internet in access to knowledge and
education: the poorer households with children have a much higher equipment
rate than the others.
63
If one feared an adverse effect of the Creative Contribution on the ability of
poorer households to access broadband Internet, two approaches could be fol-
lowed to prevent it. One is to exempt poorer households, or make the contribu-
tion itself income-dependent. Nothing prevents a mutualized financing to be
based on differentiated payments according to income, for instance, provided
that the power of each person to influence who gets rewards or financing (and
how much of them) remains equal. The second approach is to have a state, re-
gional or local policy to cover the costs of the Creative Contribution for poorer
households as part of Internet access or social and cultural inclusion policy.
(Fisher 2004, pp. 216-217) considered a third approach, which is to make the
household contribution part of income tax, but rejected it as too unpopular. For
us, this third approach would also be contrary to the essence of the Creative Con-
tribution, which is not a tax to fund public actions, but a pooling of resources
within a society where all are contributors. The first approach, of a progressive
contribution, may also raise some issues: the contribution will be collected by
Internet Service Providers, which are not necessarily the organizations we most
wish to know about our income. Furthermore, income progressiveness for minor
payments is inefficient: it is much preferable, from a wealth redistribution point
of view, to have a strongly progressive income tax (unpopular perhaps in some
circles, but certainly needed) and to keep small statutory payments at a flat level.
how much? 125
8 Sustainable financing for the
commons
In the previous chapter, we defined what could be the initial regime of the Crea-
tive Contribution. We now reflect on its evolution in space and time. No doubt
surprises will crop up in its implementation: how should it adapt to them? How
should it be reviewed to address new challenges, in particular of scale? Can it be
put in place in some countries first and others later?
As part of this exercise, we introduce a new way of looking at financing
schemes that link the monetary economy to the non-market commons. The rele-
vance of such schemes goes well beyond the cultural or information domain.
They address a central problem: in the information age, how can we empower
the members of a society to manage resources for the knowledge, environment
and social commons?
8.1 Evolution of the Creative Contribution in one country
The reader might be wondering why when (Oberholzer-Strumpf 2010) rightly
stress that cultural sharing is a global phenomenon, we propose to manage re-
sources for the financing of creative activity in national frameworks. There are
good reasons for this initial choice: national frameworks are currently the only
ones in which financial resources can be collected on the appropriate scale, the
governance of the collected sums can be democratically controlled, and the de-
bate on what is socially acceptable or not can effectively take place. It is a com-
promise, and we welcome the progressive development of resource pooling in
other domains, at the level of global regional entities such as the European Union
(a natural umbrella for more global schemes) or Latin America, or even globally
in the field of health
1
or the environment. Nonetheless, in fields such as culture
and creativity, mature democratic arenas are presently lacking and must be devel-
oped before large-scale resource collection can begin. In parallel with national
mutualized financing schemes, grassroots initiatives such as Flattr, an intermedi-
ary for the voluntary pooling of rewards to creative works set up by Peter Sunde,
one of the founders of The Pirate Bay, or the participative funding and co-produc-
tion intermediaries already mentioned in section 7.3 will continue to explore the
route of global resource pooling.
127
Within the limits of a given national territory, two relevant parameters will
evolve: the sums collected, and the financing needs. The number of broadband
Internet users will keep growing, though in some countries it will reach a plateau,
because a fraction of the population will never become connected. There will be a
small minority of dissidents (people who refuse the constraints and blessings of
connectivity, which is a legitimate right), and a number (somewhat larger, unfor-
tunately) of persons who live in conditions that are not compatible with access to
the broadband Internet. The development of broadband mobile Internet, if it
steers clear of discriminatory models favoring the transmission of some contents
over others, will open new avenues of development. The payment of the Creative
Contribution can be shared between fixed line and mobile broadband users, but
the same individuals or households will ultimately be paying. Assuming a fixed
level of contribution per household, the sums collected can be expected to grow
by a further 20–30% in developed countries.
2
Let’s now turn to the financing needs. Two of the choices we made when esti-
mating them initially might need to be reviewed later. For rewards, we selected
the number of people who should be rewarded at or above a given minimum
level; for the financing of new works, production and the environment of crea-
tion, we selected an initial amount corresponding to 5–7% of all investment in
producing new works in all (digital and analog) media today, plus an additional
10% of this amount towards the creation and maintenance of environments con-
tributing to the early recognition of quality works.
3
What if not enough potential
rewardees show up? What if, on the contrary, the many-to-all cultural society
model installs itself more quickly than we expected, and people who should be
rewarded (in the opinion of many) are not, because of the limits we have set for
the system? What if orphan activities in production prove to be a much wider
domain, and despite the many other mechanisms that can contribute to finance
them, one wants the Creative Contribution to play a bigger role there?
One can handle these uncertainties using three tools:
– Incorporating from the start, in the legal basis of the Creative Contribution, a
plan for it to reach its set value only progressively over three years. This is
probably necessary so that the collected resources are efficiently used. Those
who stick to a compensatory approach will complain that the right to non-
market sharing is going to apply immediately, while the financing side will be
progressive. This is mistaken, because file sharing already exists, and the im-
pact of its legal recognition
4
will also be progressive. Of course, this impact
will not necessarily be negative for established players or sources of produc-
tion investment, but even it if were, it will take time to build up. More gener-
ally, the governance mechanisms that we discuss in chapter 9 should include
enough flexibility for a smooth adaptation of, for instance, the share of re-
wards allocated to various media, and sufficiently strong democratic govern-
128 sharing
ance guarantees to minimize the risk of specific interest groups being the
chief drivers for this adaptation.
– Planning, again as part of the law, a review of the mechanism five years after it
comes into force. Such reviews are inserted in an increasing number of laws,
but in many cases, they are a formality, and not always observed in some
European countries. For the issue at stake, however, the public debate can be
expected to be lively enough for the review to be a real one.
– Conducting, prior to the finalization of law proposals, a societal and stake-
holder debate on the use of less-than-proportional reward functions. As
pointed out above on page 96 and detailed in appendix B, they are a key in-
strument of distributive justice, and a management tool with which one can
better handle the uncertainty surrounding the initial evolution of popularity
distributions. Those who believe that the present observed commercial popu-
larity distribution is the product of individual preferences and a perfect cultur-
al market will no doubt complain. But the debate will enable other views to be
aired, describing the shape of commercial popularity distributions as having
more to do with the strategies of a few commercial actors and a very imperfect
media market.
8.2 International aspects
Does it make sense to implement a scheme such as the Creative Contribution in a
single country? A quick and easy answer is that it will prove so attractive that it
should rapidly spread to other countries. In Europe, the idea has already propa-
gated nicely. With some variations, proposals exist in Germany, Belgium, Swe-
den, Italy, the Netherlands and even in countries where statutory resource pooling
is rare, such as the UK. It is being discussed elsewhere: in the US and Canada, of
course, but also in countries such as Brazil.
5
The reality will propagate even better
than the idea.
One country will have to be the first. Let us call it country A, and place our-
selves within it. How does usage in other countries interact with the Creative
Contribution, or a similar mutualized financing scheme associated with a right to
non-market sharing of digital works? First, we consider upload from other coun-
tries. Internet users in country B will naturally be inclined to exploit the recogni-
tion of non-market exchanges in country A, and the resulting existence of quality
services in that country:
6
they will make the works they have access to and like
available via IP addresses located in country A. If the persons who have a claim to
the rewards for these works are represented in country A, they will benefit, as they
would from any export mechanism. The act of uploading from country B will
remain illegal, but the courts in that country will have to take into consideration
the added income possibly collected by those who claim damages.
sustainable financing for the commons 129
It will of course be more difficult to control media chronology across multiple
countries. However, the ability to control media chronology across borders is al-
ready very much undermined not only by unauthorized sharing but also by legal
decisions, such as the recognition of the legitimacy of de-zoning for DVDs.
7
In
reality, when the Creative Contribution is generalized, it will create an equivalent
of something that has been the dream of all digital commerce, but which is im-
possible to implement in a commercial context: a form of differential pricing,
which can be termed differential contribution. Because the amount of the Creative
Contribution is set while taking into account purchasing power parities (PPS) or
another formula for adapting to differences in income, people in various coun-
tries will all have access to the commons of sharing while contributing an amount
depending on the local wealth. This amount can and probably should be zero in
the poorer countries.
More complex problems could arise with downloads from other countries. As
with current on-line file sharing, whether legal or not, there will be no way to
prevent users from country B from accessing works made available in country A.
8
This leads to two questions:
– Does this go against the interests of creators in country A? It depends on what
one compares this eventuality to. Certainly not compared to the present situa-
tion: a greater degree of international visibility (usually very limited, for the
vast majority of productions) can only lead to increased export sales proceeds
for works created in country A. Only a small fraction of works, those are al-
ready massively exported, could conceivably lose revenue, though even that
remains to be proven. The American example should serve to highlight the
immense commercial and cultural influence benefits of exposing other coun-
tries to one’s domestic production freely and massively. On the other hand,
country A would be justified in bemoaning the absence of a reward mecha-
nism in country B, which deprives creators and other contributors of the re-
turns they would get if such a mechanism was in place.
– Should this type of usage count when allocating the collected license fee
amounts? This question cannot be answered conclusively without a more de-
tailed study, but it seems preferable to avoid it. Although it would reflect the
full usage patterns, the usage measurement mechanisms we propose
9
would
be harder to operate reliably in an asymmetric context, and it would depart
from the idea of reward and resource pooling organized in one society.
8.3 Economy and non-market commons
The development of information technology and universal networks creates new
spheres of non-market exchanges. This leads to a de facto demonetizing of some
activities that were previously the object of monetary transactions, or creates a
130 sharing
dual system where the same contents are accessible in both manners, through
commercial transactions (generally with some added-value in comparison to
non-market access) and by exchange between individual peers.
Scientific publishing is an example of a domain which is in the process of
becoming entirely non-market on the access side, even though some publishers
still cling to the belief of remaining monopoly dealers. As a result, it has to search
for financing mechanisms for those parts of the scientific publication that remain
essential to its aims: editorial selection, limited but real production costs (in par-
ticular when paper publication is still deemed useful) and post-publication pro-
cesses such as commenting and revision. As most research work being published
is publicly funded, the natural financing solution would be to make these publish-
ing costs part of the research funding. Part of this solution was implemented by
the European R&D funding programs, when they decided to allow authors to
claim back publication fees. However, the fees are reimbursed whatever their
cost, and proprietary journals often charge three times more for their “open ac-
cess” option (where the author pays to ensure access to their publication is open)
than journals with open publishing models. This amounts to a significant public
subsidy for proprietary models and is clearly unacceptable. Aside from this de-
bate, there is also a need to provide complementary financing for the publication
of results from unfunded or insufficiently funded researchers, and researchers in
poorer countries or institutions. This has been a test case for pooling resources
for the creation of knowledge commons. In the case of the Public Library of
Science,
10
it is handled by a combination of support from foundations (in particu-
lar the Open Society Foundations) and donations from individuals. This solution
will probably not scale up as fast as the needs it covers, as open publishing is
increasingly becoming the dominant model.
In the cultural domain, direct public funding is less dominant: though it plays
an important role in financing creative activity in many countries, it is indirect for
a large part, a typical example being the employment of artists in public educa-
tional organizations. In fact, there would probably be strong opposition to a pre-
dominant funding from governments towards, say, the expression of individuals
in the public sphere, or towards news media, for fear that it would lead to forms
of censorship or influence on contents. It is thus natural to seek a direct society-
wide pooling of resources, where the role of government is to set up the system
and to act as a trustee for its transparency and democratic governance. It is the
route we have followed with the Creative Contribution proposal, which, as an eco-
nomics construct, is best described as a government-initiated society-wide pooling of
resources for the conditions of existence of the cultural, expressive and information commons.
It turns out that similar situations of having to finance the conditions of exis-
tence of commons (by definition outside the scope of market transactions) are
also found well beyond the domain of information and culture. For instance,
while local community action can do a lot for managing environmental resources,
sustainable financing for the commons 131
some need to be maintained on a more global scale. One such example is the
preservation of biodiversity among plants and genetic resources of agricultural or
medical interest. The industrialization and standardization of agriculture have led
to a strong reduction in biodiversity, directly through the reduction in the number
of cultivated varieties, and indirectly through the effects on natural biodiversity of
agricultural landscaping, weedkillers and pesticides. In reaction, movements for a
better preservation of vegetal biodiversity gained momentum. Two – probably
complementary – forms of actions for this preservation exist: preservation storage
of vegetal varieties in seed banks, funded by governments under the umbrella of
international organizations, and the decentralized in situ reproductive manage-
ment of biodiversity by farmers.
11
Government action has, for a long time, de-
incentivised the latter by installing costly certification procedures for seeds,
whose requirements stood contrary to in-situ biodiversity preservation
12
and by
requiring certification for the commercialization or even the non-market ex-
change of seeds. Fortunately, grassroots farmer and amateur gardener efforts
countered these trends, and we recently witnessed a return to a larger set of vari-
eties in particular for fruits and vegetables. Pharmaceutical and cosmetic compa-
nies as well as agro-food companies themselves are now conscious of the value of
global biodiversity preservation, even if they would rather free-ride on it, proprie-
tarizing its most valuable components when industrializing them. There is a clear
need to incentivise the in situ preservation and development of biodiversity, which
turns out to be an activity to which many can contribute and from which all ben-
efit. Some forms of this activity (biodiversity inventories, home gardening) have
their own motivations and do not need further financial incentives. Others, such
as the reproduction of seeds through the culture of cereals and other plants are
costly and a societal pooling of resources would be useful.
Similar situations also arise in the management of social public goods such as
health: everyone can contribute to a better knowledge of health conditions or
problems encountered in the use of drugs. Furthermore, large-scale pooling of
resources to search for treatments for rare or neglected diseases is already a rea-
lity, bringing together individual donations, governments and private~funds.
A specificity of information and knowledge commons is that the financing
schemes they require must not create transaction costs within the flows of infor-
mation and knowledge. In this sense, they are “purer” commons than physical
commons or social public goods, where some transaction costs in economic in-
centives are acceptable, because there exist anyway other transactions to which
they can be attached.
Within the landscape we have just sketched out, a new vision of schemes such
as the Creative Contribution arises: they can be seen as, and could actually be-
come, a healthy form of specialized currency creation. To see how this works, let
us assume that we have an idea of how much new investment occurs every year to
produce components of cultural commons in one country. We then divide this
132 sharing
amount into equal parts for each individual, and distribute (virtually) the corre-
sponding sum to each person above a certain age, empowering them to allocate it
according to their usage (to reward works) and their preferences (to finance pro-
duction). “Hang on a second,” you might say. “The Creative Contribution will
come out of our pockets, not out of some virtually distributed pot of money that
we receive.” This is true at the moment, but the alternative model we just outlined
might be the one of the future. For it to become acceptable, there is one condi-
tion: the resources must be pooled among a community of peers, and the amount
that leaks out of the system (e.g. in speculative investments) must remain limited.
The annual distribution of individual credits must not lead to monetary inflation.
Inflation would rise if too much of this currency ends up distributed to some
individuals or organizations, over and above what they need to live on and to put
together meaningful creative projects.
sustainable financing for the commons 133
Implementation
9 Organization and complementary
policy measures
The best proposals can turn into a bureaucratic nightmare, or fail to serve their
intended aims, if their implementation is inadequate. The challenge is made
harder by the fact that organizational issues are no fun. Internet users and crea-
tive people (two very much overlapping categories) are not particularly keen on
creating organizations, specially not when they have to deal with the large-scale
management of money. They often create ad hoc organizations that handle the
complex logistics of a project, or art and advocacy collectives. They are often en-
trepreneurs, engineers of these lightweight virtual corporations which have re-
cently received some legal recognition in a Vermont law (Bollier 2008). But sitting
on steering committees and management boards is not the activity of choice for
most of them, and they ignore or outsource (when they can afford it) most of the
interface with collective management organizations, except to complain about the
misgovernance of the latter. To involve Internet users and a much wider set of
producers and contributors to works in the management of the Creative Contri-
bution, we will have to use innovative means.
A non-fiction writer and analyst must also show some caution here. Organiza-
tions are not created, or even designed, by writing books. The organization of the
Creative Contribution will differ from country to country. Moreover, putting it in
place must be the first step in a participatory process, not the execution of a set
plan. To cope with these challenges, we limit this chapter to the description of the
key components that will have to be present in any organization for the Creative
Contribution or a similar system. We then outline how the governance of a parti-
cularly difficult decision (the split of rewards to different media) could be
handled. And, finally we stress the need for a number of complementary policy
measures that would maximize the benefits of the Creative Contribution.
9.1 Principle and essential components
Let us leave aside legal aspects such as the recognition of the right of non-market
sharing of digital works between individuals and the reaffirmation that providing
means of doing so is also legal. The system of reward and support to creation
embodied in the Creative Contribution is not based on copyright. It is an autono-
137
mous recognition of the social rights of creators and users in the information
technology and Internet era.
Fig. 9.1. Core components for the organization of the Creative Contribution.
What are the necessary components for the management of our financing sys-
tem? We identify here seven essential functions that can be implemented within a
single organization or several. Whether a single organization is put in place to
perform these functions, or they are shared among multiple organizations, each
function can only be trusted to an independent public agency, set up by law, and
which is accountable to government, parliament, and the public. The seven func-
tions are:
– The interface with broadband Internet Service Providers, the reception of the
funds collected by them, and their transmission to financial management or-
ganizations. This function is not represented in figure 9.1, as it raises no par-
ticular difficulty.
– The operation and maintenance of public registers of potentially rewarded
works and their contributors (see section 10.2), as well as of intermediaries
138 sharing
that are potential recipients of the support to production and to the environ-
ment of creation.
– The collection of usage data by means detailed in section 10.3 and the estima-
tion of the gross rewards for each medium (which depend on the split be-
tween media). These distribution keys are then transmitted to the financial
management organizations.
– The collection of broadband Internet subscriber preferences for the allocation
of the support to production and the environment of creation, as detailed
above on page 104.
– Cross-checks and other measures to prevent and detect fraud, as well as peri-
odic surveys of large samples of users in order to improve understanding of
the usage of Internet contents and their production (see chapter 10).
– Ensuring that the public has access to the data and detailed reporting on all
aspects of the rewards and support to creation. This is essential not only for
transparency, but also because this public access ensures that citizens and
third-party organizations can help detect any fraudulent registration of works
and evaluate the fairness of the rewards.
– Steering the participatory decision-making processes for decisions that cannot
be preset in legal texts and must thus be taken during the course of the im-
plementation of the Creative Contribution. We discuss these governance pro-
cesses in the next section, taking the particular example of the split of the
global amount of rewards among media.
An original aspect of this organization is that it will rest on one or several public
agencies receiving the essential data they have to process from the general public,
and reporting to it as well as to government and parliament.
We have used the expression “financial management organizations” as a place-
holder for the type of organization that will actually distribute the rewards within
one medium. We leave open here the question of whether existing collecting so-
cieties could fulfill this role, or whether new types of organizations will be
needed. The first option would require collecting societies to reform their govern-
ance considerably, and provisions would have to be made for an airtight separa-
tion between the sums collected on the basis of copyright and the new rewards.
The cost of operation of the overall organization is discussed in the next chap-
ter (section 10.5).
9.2 Decision-making and democratic governance
In the past 30 years, policy decisions regarding access to and production of cul-
ture have raised serious concerns about democratic governance. Despite accumu-
lating evidence that these decisions affect each of us, they were prepared in con-
sultations with a restricted set of industry players, where the dominance of the
organization and complementary policy measures 139
large content industry was supposed to be balanced by the presence of informa-
tion technology companies. Citizens and consumers were at best informed or
allowed to provide a few position statements, but proposals originating from
them were never seriously studied. As an example, the latest rounds of repressive
laws against file sharing were met with public furor, particularly in Europe. The
refusal to even discuss or study alternative financing frameworks permitting the
recognition of file sharing fueled this anger. The new organization put in place to
manage the Creative Contribution or similar schemes will have to prove that it can
do better, that it can organize truly open decision-making processes involving
multiple stakeholders, and duly take the views expressed into consideration.
The distribution of the global amount of rewards among different media is an
example where such a debate will be required, which we can use to illustrate the
conditions for it to be fruitful. First of all, options should be truly open, including
the option of treating all media in one global basket. There are reasons for doing
so: all media are mixed in the real practice of Internet usage. Also, in economic
terms, the cost of a copy of a work in various media (where there are economic
reference points) are not so different. A musical album, a film on DVD, a book, a
photographic album, or their digital equivalents are all in a similar price range,
despite differences in the cost of production of an initial copy, or in the time
spent using each. If the various media interest groups accepted such a solution, it
would no doubt be the best, as it would lead to a simpler process for the measure-
ment of usage. Another option, which we already mentioned, would be to let
broadband Internet subscribers make the decision themselves, by allocating per-
centages of their contribution to this or that medium. Yet another option would
be to look for some ground truth proxies in the measurable usage patterns of
various media. Many parameters should be considered when making the deci-
sion, in particular the number of popular works which are or are not registered
for rewards and the portion of the total which they represent.
All stakeholders should have a voice, and their legitimacy must be properly
acknowledged: private interests, citizens, advocacy groups, academic researchers,
policy analysts… When the decision-making process reaches the Cui Bono (“for
the benefit of whom”) question, these voices are not all equivalent – policy should
ultimately be designed for the benefit of citizens – but all of them should be heard
on an equal standing. Of course, there are practical constraints: it is easy to orga-
nize multi-stakeholder meetings between representatives of incorporated organi-
zations (including advocacy groups), academic experts, government and agency
staff, but involving individual citizens in the decision-making process calls for
entirely different procedures. Internet-based participatory democracy is an ob-
vious candidate for the organization under discussion.
Finally, at some point decisions must be made: endless debate is not an option
for an organization which has funds to distribute. A clear and explicit decision-
making process must exist. In the case of an independent public agency, this
140 sharing
means that its management must be empowered to make these decisions accord-
ing to its mandate, provided that they are justified on the basis of both the inputs
received and the objectives of the organization. In turn, this means that the man-
date and the statutes of the organization(s) will have to be drafted carefully.
Citizens will also have a role to play in evaluating the activity of the organiza-
tion(s), in addition to the major contribution they make to its activities by provid-
ing data on usage and preferences.
9.3 Additional policy measures
The Creative Contribution will carry its own direct benefits. These benefits will be
maximized, however, if attracting attention in the non-market sphere can also
lead to increased commercial revenues, when desired. In this section, we outline
a number of policy measures that could contribute to a better synergy between
both domains.
More open markets for cultural goods and services
The markets for cultural goods and services are presently characterized by an ex-
treme degree of concentration. The large media publishing and the new Internet
providers have a strong control over the distribution of works and the provision of
services. We presented an overview of the degree of media concentration in the
Oligopoly box on page 61.
Some of these concentrated distribution channels, in particular in digital distri-
bution, are more open to offering a large set of titles for sale. However, there are
worrying signs that this theoretical openness does not lead to a more diverse
market because of a combination of heavy promotion over a short period, DRM
that are de facto imposed by publishers on authors, and access mechanisms on
platforms which disfavor intermediate popularity titles. Some of these problems
will be solved with the recognition of the right to non-market sharing, but a basic
competition policy could help limit others, whether by anti-trust, dominant posi-
tion abuse or preventive competition policy, such as an open standards policy.
Fair trade requirements for commercial offers
One of the positive effects of information technology and the Internet has been
the emergence of fair trade offers in the content markets. In particular, some
providers guarantee that a significant share of the revenues will actually go to the
artists. These offers are presently confined to niches, as they are the object of an
unfair competition from classical offers, who should rightly be re-branded “un-
fair trade” in contents.
Minimal requirements of fairness (to authors and other contributors), taking in
account the different structure of costs for digital media, are a real policy option:
they can be attained through voluntary self-regulation under the vigilant eye of the
organization and complementary policy measures 141
public, but also through incentive or normative policy. Contract law could be im-
portant, for instance forbidding the common practice of deducting promotion
actions from the accounts of authors and other contributors.
Strong and effective requirements for network neutrality
In the past two years, network neutrality, that is the equitable transmission of bits
on all types of networks, regardless of their origin, contents, or the application
and protocol used, has become the hottest policy issue in the digital environ-
ment.
1
Governments have taken various positions. The Federal Communications
Commission voiced a strong commitment to network neutrality in the US, but it
has yet to be translated into effective measures, and it faces significant opposition
from cable networks and mobile communications operators. European govern-
ments, under intense lobbying by telecommunication companies intent on verti-
cal integration with premium content publishers,
2
tend to tolerate discriminatory
practices, with weak and ineffective guarantees of consumer information. The
Google/Verizon agreement, analyzed by (Zittrain 2010), and the fuzziness of
some of its clauses, show that even a company like Google, whose success is built
on network neutrality in the general Internet, is prepared to accept network dis-
crimination to promote its own side interests.
If demanding and effective standards of network neutrality are not adopted,
new forms of gatekeepers will replace the old ones and maintain artificial scarcity
despite the abundant capacity of networking. They will produce networks with
which they will “canalize” the Internet, to make it function like stores with lim-
ited shelves, or media with a limited editorial space. The rest of the traffic will still
be there, but it will be discriminated against in terms of quality of service or even
in terms of accessibility. The potential of the Internet for a diverse culture will
have been lost, or at least damaged. Network neutrality may seem an abstract
concept, but the lack of it will be felt in very concrete ways.
Encouraging sharing-compatible commercial services
The idea here is not to promote a specific form of business, but to maximize the
compatibility between non-commercial sharing and commercial offers. It has a
bearing on the detailed definition of the scope of the Creative Contribution. For
instance, news media could offer their daily contents only to subscribers, but
permit free sharing of archives. Journalists, or their employer (depending on laws
and contracts) could then benefit from Creative Contribution rewards for this
sharing. This can be seen as a reward to the service rendered to the cultural com-
mons within the frame of a private for-profit organization.
Keeping advertising pollution under control
Advertising is a debated issue in the Internet world. Initially, advertising offered
means to obtain revenues from delivering a limited value to many users, which is
142 sharing
a typical situation on the Internet. However, advertising is highly polluting. Even
schemes such as AdSense, which have been designed to avoid the need to con-
centrate attention on a limited set of contents (that plagues classical advertising-
funded media), have a polluting effect. A blog writer using AdSense will write for
two public instead of one: readers and advertisers.
One must draw lessons from those media that managed, at least for a period,
to provide access to information of a reasonable quality whilst being partially
financed through advertising, in particular newspapers. This fragile balance did
not materialize spontaneously: it was the product of regulations (on signaling
advertising), of ethical codes (of independence of the editorial contents, or bans
on product placement), of internal and external counter-powers. On the Internet,
technical innovations can also play a part, with ad-blocking software. All of these
attempts to resist pollution by advertising are under threat, but they can be regen-
erated if authors and consumers start refusing this degradation of media quality.
organization and complementary policy measures 143
10 Usage measurement for equitable
rewards
We are close to our intended goal of making a reasonably complete and self-con-
sistent proposal. We have one final question to tackle: can we really measure the
non-market use of works precisely and reliably enough to set the basis for re-
wards? Strongly divergent opinions have been expressed on this topic in the past.
Some managers of collecting societies, who were hostile to a flat-rate-based lega-
lization of file sharing, initially claimed that it was impossible to measure usage,
and that the system would be prone to an enormous amount of fraud.
1
Then, as
such a system started looking increasingly likely to be implemented, others said
that there was no problem at all, provided they were the ones to do it.
2
Finally, yet
others declared that it was intrinsically unfair, since the methods would neces-
sarily use statistics, while their present measures for other sources of revenues
use detailed counting of every use.
3
This objection is ironic, since they measure
only an extremely limited fraction of the use of works, compared to what we are
trying to address.
These disparate arguments further motivate us to evaluate the precision which
can be achieved in practice. We start by describing the structure of a possible
measurement system, then detail some of its aspects and describe what it can
achieve in realistic conditions. Appendix C details the underlying model support-
ing our claims.
10.1 A general usage measurement system
Structure
(Fisher 2004, pp. 223-234) described a potential measurement system for reward-
ing artists. It was mainly based on large-scale sampling, but also included alter-
native or complementary possibilities, such as using the direct expression of pre-
ferences (for example, genres). We also favor a sampling system, leaving the
direct expression of preferences for the financing of production. As Fisher did,
we note that a fair reward system does not need to track every use of a work, but
only to estimate the relative use of each work compared to the others to a reason-
able level of precision. Our system is of a different nature from Fisher’s and oper-
ates on a different scale. It is at the same time more modest and more ambitious.
145
More modest, because we do not try to measure the value that users have derived
from a work, but only whether they shared files and accessed or uploaded on-line
contents. More ambitious, because we are addressing a bigger set of works and
media than the classical music and motion picture entertainment domain consid-
ered by Fisher.
Fig. 10.1. General structure of a possible usage measurement system.
There are two main sources of measurement in the system: a large sample of
voluntary broadband Internet users, and access and usage data provided by con-
tent sites. The first source is used for measuring the actual sharing of files, main
object of this book. The second source is used to measure how users directly read,
listen to or view contents on non-market sites, as well as how they upload and
reference for recommendation on these sites. If non-market sharing of digital
works is legalized and all broadband Internet users make a statutory contribution,
Internet users and the sites they put together to make contents accessible are,
considered as a whole, the best guarantors of a fair distribution of the rewards.
Of course, some of them will possibly try to abuse the system, and other parties
may disguise their efforts to do the same. We thus will have to put in place a
number of security and cross-checking mechanisms to prevent, detect, and inves-
tigate fraud.
We have yet to specify what constitutes “usage”, which data would be collected
from the Internet user sample or from content sites, and how. For our purposes,
usage is defined as any form of action involving publicly accessible contents that man-
ifests interest for a work. In other terms, for file sharing, the usage we will mea-
sure is the entry into the possession by individuals of a full file representing the
work, or the upload of the file on a publicly accessible content site (on P2P file
sharing networks, access and upload coincide). For contents that can be used
directly on-line, in particular blog entries and other contents produced for direct
Web use, usage will be constituted by the display of the work in a Web browser
146 sharing
(complete or sufficiently long for a time-based document such as video and re-
cordings). Finally, public manifestations of interest, other than uploading a docu-
ment for download on a non-market site, such as linking to or referencing will
also be usable if this proves not to be too prone to abuse.
The position we defend here is that the data must not consider what individuals
do with the work, once obtained, in the private sphere. Any system that would
require even a sample of users to provide data about their personal usage of a
work once they have acquired the file that represents it would be rejected by
users, and would lead to the construction of an absurdly complex and probably
inefficient use measurement system.
The fact that we collect possession, access or recommendation information (we
call them usage clues) and not hard proofs of user enjoyment will no doubt be
deemed unsatisfactory by some. We find this view misplaced. (Fisher 2004, pp.
225-226) remarked that when people download a music file, quite often they
never listen to it or listen to it just long enough in order to decide that they are
not truly interested, in many cases they listen to it only once, and only in a few
cases do they listen to it repeatedly. Well that’s also true of people who buy CDs
(with different proportions). Many supposedly hard proofs of user interest or en-
joyment in the existing copyright system are no better, or even much more ap-
proximate, than our access, upload and recommendation clues. Statutory licen-
sing for radio, a scheme that presently accounts for a significant share of
royalties for music authors and composers in many countries, is entirely statisti-
cal: it counts broadcasts unit by unit, but rates are based on broad classes of pop-
ulation able to receive radio, and in rare cases on statistics about the probable
audience share at a given time of broadcast.
4
Fees for public performance of mu-
sic in stores or restaurants are collected from owners (who in turn charge custo-
mers as part of the general expenses they must recover in their revenues), while
the existence of any enjoyment is uncertain. Clues are just an honest word for
indications of interest, whose aggregate sum will be a valid basis for a reward
system. If desired, one can give weights to various clues, but we suggest postpon-
ing this weighting until we have more experience and understand more about
user practices on the Internet and about the way the reward system works.
Access and use data from content sites will be particularly useful for media
where the number of creators and works is very large, such as blogs or photogra-
phy (even when an entire personal blog or photo gallery is treated as a single
work). Content site data is not to be trusted any more blindly than user-provided
data. However, it is amenable to different forms of control, and importantly, it is
exhaustive in its own realm. The independence between the two sources is also
precious. For fraud detection purposes, the consolidated data coming from our
two sources can be cross-checked against other data from independent sources
that are hard to skew simultaneously: observation of Internet traffic and possibly
data from audience measurement intermediaries.
usage measurement for equitable rewards 147
Last but not least, any usage measurement system must include surveys of a
representative sample of Internet users, conducted periodically (every two years?)
to monitor their non-market use practices. Considering the specifics of the do-
main under study, where rare practices can be important, the sample will have to
be large, in the same range as for time budget surveys. It will provide very valu-
able information on Internet use practices which are not connected to commer-
cial transactions, and thus poorly understood at present. It will be possible to use
the results of these surveys to evaluate the bias introduced by the voluntary per-
manent sample, and by other technical aspects of the reward system. This does
not mean that this bias must necessarily be corrected: it is not absurd to give a
higher weight to the use patterns of the voluntary participants in the sample,
provided that participation is open to all. The same is true for data resulting from
the use of user-generated content sites. It can be seen as a form of reward to the
rewarders, which is in the spirit of a contributive system.
In the following sections, we detail some moderately technical aspects of the
usage measurement system and discuss the precision that can be obtained. The
system we propose is by no means the only workable one, and it is open to further
discussion, but it is important to show that there exists at least one approach that
can meet the requirements of precision and resistance to~fraud.
The requirements for a usage measurement system
Since our measurement system produces the data used to compute the level of
rewards, it must be precise enough for these rewards to be equitable, in particular
for rewards that represent more than a symbolic amount. We address this issue in
detail in section 10.4 using a model described in appendix C.
One common argument against the idea of rewards for the use of digital works
in file sharing is that it would be prone to fraud. We address this issue also in the
sections where we discuss precision, as both aspects are linked. It is useful to
describe here the philosophy of our approach to fraud for such a system.
In a recent paper, Andrew Odlyzko, one of the key analysts of Internet issues,
has discussed the joys and pains of designing secure systems that use insecure
means (Odlyzko 2010). He proposes two approaches, both of which we will use:
slowing things down and cross-checking independent sources. Slowing things
down is a pain, when the beauty of digital technology and the Internet is that
provision of data can be fast and seamless, but we will not be able to avoid some
of it. Just like any website needs precaution against spam robots, we will have to
require human confirmation at some key stages. It will be the case for the regis-
tration of participants in the voluntary sample, and for the periodic reporting of
consolidated use clues by members of the sample. Cross-checking is the key to
the prevention, detection and possible investigation of fraud. It creates some
complexity in the overall design, but no digital measurement system can avoid it.
Fortunately, some widely used software such as anti-spam plug-ins for the free-
148 sharing
software WordPress platform provide very useful inspiration.
5
The technology to
be put in place will have to be safer, as the benefits of possible fraud are more
immediate that those of spam. No system will be safe forever, they will have to be
revised in face of new techniques and approaches to fraud. Despite all this, one
should not overestimate the level of fraud in social systems in general, and infor-
mation technology systems in particular.
Contrary to a common ideological bias, fraud in social systems such as the one
we propose does not frequently emanate from ordinary recipients. Most abuse
originates with established economic players, and most fraud comes from orga-
nized networks. A typical example is the unemployment benefit system put in
place, in France, for workers in the live performance and creative activity sector,
called régime des intermittents du spectacle.
6
When the total cost of the system in-
creased, fraud and abuse were invoked among possible causes. Independent stud-
ies were conducted, which concluded that the system was indeed being abused,
mostly by large media companies, in particular broadcasters, including – ironi-
cally – public broadcasters, who disguised permanent employment as intermittent
in order to receive subsidies from the system. Direct fraud by recipients was
found to be insignificant, even though people received benefits for activities
whose inclusion in the system was not originally intended (Corsani-Lazzara-
to 2008). There was also criticism against the high-level benefits distributed to
some movie actors. Similarly, fraudulent use of social and health insurance bene-
fits by ordinary recipients has been shown to have a limited relative financial im-
pact (CAF 2010).
In order to be accepted, the usage measurement system must not install con-
trols which would be perceived as a presumption of fraud, but it must not be
naive either: it must be capable of detecting and – if possible – of preventing
fraud if and when it occurs. No system is perfectly resistant to fraud. Existing
copyright rewards are no more exempt from fraud than VAT, for instance. The
reward system we propose won’t be either, but one can make fraud easier to
detect, limit economic incentives for it, take various measures to eliminate frau-
dulent data from measurements, and prosecute fraudulent behavior. As rewards
are based on comparative levels of use, the best protection against fraud will
come from the sheer mass of non-fraudulent data, but as fake data can be pro-
duced at will, we must make sure that it will be hard to inject it in the system.
10.2 Registration and identification of digital works
A reward system cannot function without some way of identifying works that are
shared. When trying to detect unauthorized file sharing, copyright holders and
their private contractors use automatic recognition systems. Though much pro-
gress has been made since we researched these subjects in the 1990s, automatic
recognition systems have intrinsic limitations in terms of cost, complexity and
usage measurement for equitable rewards 149
how many works can be reliably recognized.
7
In the application of the French
HADOPI law, the representatives of right holders track use of 10,000 musical
tracks and 1,000 moving image documents, a ridiculously small subset of our
culture, although one which makes it clear in whose interests they are acting.
User-oriented applications such as Shazam
8
offer recognition of up to 8 million
music tracks from ten second samples of audio for smart-phone users. Though
we do not have data on their exact recognition performance, such systems clearly
accomplish an impressive feat. However, this kind of gymnastics is not needed
for our purpose: in the context of a reward system for a legal activity, there is
fortunately a much simpler approach: let the producers of works identify them
voluntarily, by registering and tagging them.
There are various traditions regarding registration of works. In the US, regis-
tration of works was a condition for obtaining copyright protection until the Bern
Convention Implementation Act of 1988, which came into force in 1989.
9
The US
Copyright Register contains 61 million entries, of which 16 million are in a digital
database. By contrast, European countries have not made registration of works a
condition of author rights or copyright, even though some of them have compul-
sory legal deposit laws. The system of registration we have in mind here is of a
different nature, and is very similar to the system described in (Fisher 2004, pp.
203-205). It can be kept to the minimum needed for the administration of a re-
ward system, namely:
– identification of the registrant;
– certification by the registrant that s/he is the single creator (in the sense:
author, performer or technical contributor benefiting for neighboring rights)
for the work, or has been authorized by other co-creators. A presumption of
entitlement
10
will apply: no check nor examination of the validity of the claim
will be done (see below);
– identification of the creators and other contributors to the work and of their
respective share (see below);
– provision of a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) pointing to a reference copy
or location of the work available on the Internet (an exemplar in the modern
sense);
– attribution of an unique identification code which, as we will see, can be clo-
sely tied with the URI.
In countries with a registration tradition such as the US, the corresponding regis-
ter is a natural choice to act as the registration agency. In other countries, it will
have to be a new organization. The register must be public and publicly search-
able and downloadable, in order to make it possible for creators or their repre-
sentatives to check that their works have not fraudulently been registered by
others. In all cases, opposition procedures must be possible, and associated sanc-
150 sharing
tions against the abusive registration of works must exist. The registration pro-
cess should be a matter of minutes using the Web. If it takes any longer or if there
is a transaction cost, it will represent a harmful obstacle to the diversification of
rewardees. In contrast to (Fisher 2004), we think registration should be free of
charge and funded as part of the management costs of the Creative Contribution,
which are evaluated in section 10.5. Mass registration should also be possible, for
instance for the works already included in a copyright register, or for works regis-
tered with collecting societies. However, in both cases the shares allocated to
various contributors will have to be treated with caution, as this information can
not be readily transferred from other forms of registration: it depends on specific
legal provisions and/or the contract provisions described above on page 120.
It should be noted that the registration described in this section is not a form-
ality in the sense prohibited by the Bern Convention article 5.2:
11
it is not a condi-
tion for obtaining copyright, nor for proving one’s rights in a copyright proce-
dure.
It is worth considering in more detail the unique identifier and the information
associated with it. An international standard exists that us widely used, for in-
stance in the context of scientific publication archives: the DOI or Digital Object
Identifier (Paskin 2008). In parallel, many other systems exist for specific cate-
gories of published works, such as the ISBN
12
for books. The characteristics of
the DOI make it suitable for use in a reward system for a very diverse set of works.
It is agnostic with regards to the nature of works. The production and manage-
ment of unique identifiers can be distributed among various agencies. The DOI
permits a durable connection between the identifier and a resource identifier
(URI) pointing to a reference copy or location on the Internet, which can be up-
dated by the registrant as and when necessary. Identifiers can apply to different
levels of a composite work, enabling the definition of a single identifier for a blog
or a personal photo gallery. This is important to handle the rewards to works that
are composed of multiple units, each of which might not receive enough atten-
tion to qualify for the minimum level of rewards. This type of grouping can be
applied only to works that are all accessible at a unique Internet location, and
thus truly constitute an ensemble that can be rewarded as a unit.
The use of the DOI might raise some concerns from the point of view of being
an open standard: some patents apply to its implementation.
13
We nonetheless
use the DOI as an example of a voluntary identification system that fulfills all the
relevant functional needs.
Finally, in addition to the abusive registration of works, one possible form of
fraud could be the production and dissemination of copies of works in which the
digital identifier has been replaced by the identifier of another work. This can be
prevented and detected relatively easily using cryptographic integrity checks.
14
The exposure of the person benefiting from the fraud should also act as a power-
ful deterrent.
usage measurement for equitable rewards 151
10.3 Data collection
The large sample of Internet users providing anonymous use clues on a voluntary
basis plays a key role in our proposed reward system. If a large proportion of
Internet users participated in the sample, it could function efficiently as the sole
provider of data. Mobilizing a sufficient number of participants will call for a
society-wide campaign. It will be successful only if one can provide users with
simple-to-use tools and guarantees of privacy, efficiency and reliability of the pro-
cessing. This is a key reason for limiting the type of data they will have to provide
to access to works or making them available (and possibly recommending and
referencing them). For the sake of realism, we have assumed that when the Crea-
tive Contribution is first implemented, given suitable preparation, one could ob-
tain a sample of 1,400
th
of broadband Internet users in a given country, i.e.
400,000 in the US and 100,000 in France.
The key issue is how participants will provide use clues. The process we pro-
pose is as follows:
– Any individual can register to become a member of the sample. They will have
to provide personal details, as well as a valid email address, under guarantees
of privacy. Cryptographic keys permitting authentication of the reporting of
use clues will be generated on the user’s machine (for their use, see appendix
C.4). Users will be advised to keep identifier and keys secret. Despite our de-
sire to make participation in the sample as easy as possible, it might be neces-
sary, as stated above, to slow this registration step by requiring some hand-
shaking or other methods preventing abusive registration, for instance by
robots.
– Participants will then be encouraged to choose from a number of free/open
source software plug-ins to various applications involving contents access and
upload: Web browsers, ftp or news clients, P2P clients, blog and other pub-
lishing software.
15
They will be able to configure this software to abstain from
reporting clues, depending on the type of use or contents, as far as the latter
can be unambiguously identified.
– Use clues will be accumulated on the user machine and transmitted to the
data collection agency when the user decides, at least once a year. Before this
transmission, the user will be in a position to review their contents and delete
any information s/he does not want to transmit. The mode of transmission of
information to the data collection agency will limit the possibility to create
fake members of the sample. Additional measures rendering the reporting of
fake clues more complex or easier to detect are outlined in appendix C.
– Optionally, it will be possible to prevent transmission of use clues of a work
when the participant is a potential recipient of rewards for this work. Of
course, nothing will prevent creators from asking their friends to register and
152 sharing
accumulate use clues for their works, as this is not in itself fraud, but it will be
a time-consuming way to obtain rewards.
Data provided by content sites (user-generated content sites, voluntary sharing
communities) and intermediaries will be of a similar nature: it will consist of
anonymous information on access, upload and possibly recommendation and re-
ference (anonymous with regard to users, of course). These sites will incur costs
for providing it, and it would be normal for them to receive compensation pay-
ments from the data collection agency. They could be offered a guarantee of con-
fidentiality: all consolidated data will be public, but which data elements originate
from a particular site could be kept confidential. Content sites should not be ob-
liged to provide use clues, but they can be encouraged to do so, as it contributes
to rewarding contributors, from which they benefit. It is difficult to know how the
balance between direct inter-individual sharing and access/upload through sites
will evolve in a context of legalized sharing. However, it is likely that content site
data will initially be at least an order of magnitude greater in the number of clues
it provides than data from the voluntary user sample (see below).
The observation of Internet traffic would be an inefficient and fraud-prone
mechanism if it were used directly for rewarding. It can nonetheless prove very
useful to cross-check the received clues against some reasonably independent
data source, in order to detect potential fraudulent reporting. Data from interme-
diaries such as Flattr or companies providing sampled data as Noank Media
planned to do could also be useful complements.
16
10.4 Performance in one medium
If rewards are to be distributed according to the relative use of works within each
medium, we have to estimate to which degree of precision we can measure this
use. In particular, are we able to measure use well enough for moderately popular
works, whose authors intend and appear to deserve to be rewarded? Appendix C
describes a model for the study of this question. We give the results of applying
the model to two quite different medium/country situations: music rewards in the
US and personal blogs in France. In both cases, our modeling shows that it would
be initially really challenging to achieve the required level of precision and to dis-
incentivise fraud, if one used only a voluntary sample. However, it becomes tract-
able if one also uses selected data provided by content sites.
We first present the results of applying our models to the voluntary sample of
Internet users, and then discuss how the combined use of content site data en-
ables some of the limits of a voluntary sample approach (when this sample is not
sufficiently exhaustive) to be overcome.
The key parameters in the model are:
usage measurement for equitable rewards 153
– How much non-market use of works is likely to occur on average per person
or per work, and as a result how many clues will be collected from the average
participant in the measurement sample or from content sites?
– The model makes an assumption about how many creators would deserve to
be rewarded in the medium under consideration, without assuming that each
work will be necessarily registered for rewards from the Creative Contribu-
tion.
– Finally, how diverse will the distribution of popularity of works be?
Our estimates of these parameters are not necessarily accurate, but when in
doubt, we assume the most unfavorable values, that is the values that will lead to
a less precise measurement, or we signal the imprecision of the estimate.
Music singles in US
As detailed in appendix C, we worked on the hypothesis that, in the US, a fourth
of all rewards would go to music creators. This means that, initially, 210,000
music artists would need to be rewarded at a level of $200 or more, and
1,050,000 at the level of $40 or more. When considering other parameters, such
as the average number of music tracks per creator and the proportion of titles
registered for rewards, this would imply measuring the use of 3,780,000 music
titles with sufficient precision.
Based on these hypotheses, if file sharing reporting by members of the volun-
tary sample would be the only source of data, one would obtain between 333 and
536 use clues per year for a creator rewarded at the “minimum significant level”
of $200. The number of clues for a creator rewarded at the minimum level of $40
would be between 66 and 107. These figures were obtained using independent
techniques (see appendix C) and the difference in results is an indication of the
difficulty of obtaining a precise estimate. Even with the worst estimate, the preci-
sion of the measurement coming from the voluntary sample would be correct: for
a reward of $1000, corresponding to 1,665 use clues, the measurement error
would be less than 5% more than 95% of the time.
17
However, injecting a fake clue in the data collected from the voluntary sample
would generate an artificial benefit (in terms of rewards) of 60¢ (37¢ in the best
estimate), making fraud attractive. This means that the parallel use of content
sites data (download or streaming from user-content generated sites) is a neces-
sary complement to the measurement system for a medium such as music in a
very large country. It is not easy to estimate precisely how much additional data it
would provide, but a conservative estimate is that it would add at least 5 times
more clues per work.
154 sharing
Blogs in France
As detailed in appendix C, we worked on the hypothesis that 5% of all rewards
would go to bloggers. This is a relatively high proportion for a new Internet me-
dium, which is only one among many, but it is justified by the current enthusiasm
for blogging in France. For a population of 64 million, there are 9 million French
blogs accessible on the Web, of which about 2.5 million are active and at least
500,000 are active and exhibit a creative effort.
18
The number of active blogs is
decreasing as some are being replaced by new social media such as Facebook, but
the number of “creative effort” blogs keeps increasing.
Based on this hypothesis of 5% of rewards for bloggers, 57,500 bloggers would
have to be rewarded. Considering that the registration of blogs for rewards is
likely to be partial, usage needs to be precisely measured for twice that number,
that is 115,000 blogs.
Based on an additional conservative hypothesis of the average yearly readership
for these blogs (20,000 visits per year), assuming a distribution of attention more
diverse than the general one for all media, our model predicts the initial voluntary
panel would generate 118 use clues for a creator at the “minimum significant
reward” level, and 33 for a creator at the “minimum reward” level.
This means that the data coming from the voluntary panel alone would be in-
sufficient for a precise usage measurement. In addition, the risk of fraud would
be high: injecting a fake clue in the reward system would be worth ¤1.27.
For such situations, the parallel use of content sites or blog software such as
WordPress for the automatic reporting of use clues is even more necessary, at
least until a much larger voluntary user sample can be put in place. It would be
immediately efficient as it is likely that one could obtain reporting for at least a
fourth of all significant blog access, thus obtaining 50 times more data
19
than
from the voluntary sample. This would meet the necessary demands for precision
of measurement and disincentivisation of fraud. However, we advise against
using only content site data for two reasons: data provided by sites is not to be
trusted more blindly than user-reported data, and the use of a voluntary sample
manifests the contributive nature of the overall reward system.
10.5 Management costs
Any large-scale reward system will necessarily have management costs. These
should be in the range of a few percent of the distributed rewards. A non-market
sharing reward system, thanks to its extensive use of the Internet, will have lower
management costs than existing collecting societies. Nonetheless, maintaining
the registers, collecting data on a large scale, detecting and preventing fraud,
interfacing with financial management organizations and overseeing their activ-
ity, and conducting periodic surveys on Internet use will require significant bud-
usage measurement for equitable rewards 155
gets and highly competent staff. For comparison, the US Copyright Office budget
is more than $50 million, of which a large share is funded by user fees.
We expect that a management cost of 2% of the total amount of the Creative
Contribution will be necessary for the operation of the agency or agencies de-
scribed in chapter 9. On top of this, there will be costs associated with the finan-
cial management of the distribution of rewards and funds, which will probably
represent a similar amount. A total percentage of 4% ($214 million for the US,
¤35 million for France and ¤49 million for Germany) would remain well below
the management costs of existing reward and incentive systems, including those
managed by private organizations: Kickstarter, for instance, keeps 5% of the col-
lected funds for its management costs and profits.
20
156 sharing
11 Clarification and counter-arguments
In recent years, a lively debate has developed in countries where proposals involv-
ing a flat-rate contribution of Internet users to creative activity were made with a
view to acknowledge or legalize file sharing. Most of these proposals differ from
the one developed in this book because they adopted a compensatory vision of the
contribution. In this chapter, we consider some of the most common criticisms.
Some of them we took into account when designing our own proposal, so that
they do not apply to it.
We attempt to provide short and clear answers to key points or questions, in
the spirit of a “frequently asked questions” (FAQ) document. The “questions” are
split into three categories: requests for clarification, counter-arguments raised by
defenders of the right to share on the one hand, and by opponents on the other
hand. This exercise is not by any means intended to close a debate, which we very
much welcome, but rather to make our position known, so that the debate can
proceed on a clear basis.
11.1 Clarification
1. Which media are covered by the Creative Contribution?
All media covered by copyright or author rights except software and copy-
rightable databases. The case of scientific publications is undecided. Note
that this definition aims at ensuring that the rewards or support are granted
only to original work. It should not be interpreted as implying that the copy-
right is the basis for the rewards.
2. What about non-copyrightable material such as data, facts, news and other ma-
terial that is in the public domain?
Nobody can claim rewards for public domain material. However, projects
whose aim is to make the public domain more accessible, and/or freely reu-
sable, are legitimate recipients of the Creative Contribution, as they are part
of the environment of creation.
3. Why are software, copyrightable databases and possibly scientific publications not
included?
157
Because other solutions are already established or being explored in these
domains.
1
Our first duty in these domains is to abstain from creating further obstacles
to the free access to published knowledge. In this regard, the European Di-
rective on the Legal Protection of Databases
2
must be repealed. Then, in
some cases, new financing models are needed to permit some types of soft-
ware innovation to take place in the commons or to make useful editorial
functions sustainable in scientific publishing. Specific approaches are already
being explored in these domains. Finally, competition policy to prevent dis-
crimination against free/open source software is also important.
We chose to limit the scope of the Creative Contribution to informative, pub-
lic expression or creative works because it seemed to us that the existing ap-
proaches might be disrupted if it encompassed software, databases and
scientific publications.
If this position is reconsidered, it is possible, in principle, to include software
and copyrightable databases in the Creative Contribution, but the global
amount of the contribution and the definition of what is a work would need
to be adapted. Specific work would also be needed on usage measures.
Finally, the exclusion of scientific publications may create difficulties, as they
are not necessarily easy to distinguish from other types of publications. This
may call for further debate, as their inclusion in the Creative Contribution
would not necessitate an adaptation to our proposal. The decision may de-
pend on whether one considers scientific publications to be read principally
by the scientific community or by a wider public.
4. Which works are covered?
Any work in any medium included in the scheme, which has been distributed
or made accessible in digital form to individual users, free-of-charge or
against payment.
5. Why is digitizing of analog works or performances not included?
The world of freely sharable digital works has great promise and has already
empowered each of us, but analog distribution remains of value, and the two
will likely co-exist for some time. Expanding on Marco Ricolfi’s copyright 2.0
idea (Ricolfi 2009), we propose to treat them as separate, in order to facilitate
the transition. This amounts to maintaining one critical form of media chron-
ology, separating analog distribution or performance from digital distribu-
tion. One can also describe it as recognizing an exclusive divulgation right
for the author to authorize digital distribution, which the freedom of non-
market sharing does not override.
It means that one will not be able to use the right to share to digitize and
distribute orphan works or “out of print” works. As these represent a very
158 sharing
important share of our culture, other means of recovering this heritage must
be explored. For orphan works, one possibility is collective licensing, without
compensation, but with a guarantee fund set aside to compensate any right
holders who may re-appear, and thus to provide legal security for users. For
“out of print” works, decent publishing contracts already include a clause,
which returns all rights to the author if the publisher refuses to re-publish
their works on a given (and brief) time scale, and this clause could be made
compulsory.
6. Is modification of works permitted?
We consider that an additional debate is necessary to decide if non-commer-
cial “remix” rights should be included or only the modifications that are per-
mitted in Creative Commons No Derivative Works licenses: “such modifica-
tions as are technically necessary to exercise the rights in other media and
formats”.
3
The arguments for each of the options are detailed on page 85. If
the choice is made of authorizing modifications, some adaptation is needed
in the reward system. The simplicity of the reward system should be pre-
served, meaning that derivative works that meet originality standards are eli-
gible for rewards in their own standing. This means that registering a deriva-
tive work is a statement of originality and can be challenged by the original
authors. Of course, if authorized, modifications must be properly labeled.
7. How is the total amount of rewards split for various media?
A debate must be held to decide if the usage data will be collected and
rewards distributed medium per medium, or if all can be managed in one
basket. Our view is that a medium per medium approach is initially more
credible. Our all-media-encompassing analysis in chapter 7 is useful for esti-
mating the global amount of rewards needed. However, the definition of a
work and usage patterns differ so much across different media that we con-
sider it difficult, at least for the time being, to distribute rewards by mixing
works of all media in one basket. This means that the global amount of re-
wards will have to be split into shares for various media. Of course, one
would like to have an objective basis for doing so, but as we remarked in
chapter 7, there is no clear ground truth basis for this split. Neither the total
amount of information shared on-line (in bits) nor the time devoted to usage
of works in each medium are reasonable choices. Using the existing share of
each medium in the present economy does not make much more sense.
One possible approach would be to use Internet user preferences expressed
on a yearly basis (each person would allocate so many percent for written
works, so many for music and other sound recordings, so many for video,
etc.). However, some degree of certainty regarding the sums likely to be allo-
cated to each medium is highly desirable. We have thus proposed that the
clarification and counter-arguments 159
distribution among media should be decided by a policy governance mecha-
nism outlined in chapter 9.
8. What is the main scheme for measuring usage in each medium?
We propose to obtain usage data from a voluntary subset of Internet users.
When some components of the media industry attempt to enforce the mon-
itoring of unauthorized acts by members of the public, they naturally encoun-
ter fierce resistance. As a result, it is hard for the industry to imagine that the
public might be willing to cooperate in any form of usage measurement.
However, a fair and efficient distribution of the collected sums is in the inter-
est of Internet users, who are likely to be the best allies in this task.
Of course, there will be attempts to obtain abusive rewards, either through
fraud or through efforts to bias measurements. Chapter 10 details a system
that is reasonably robust, aiming at making fraud detectable or not the worth
the effort. This system uses additional sources of information to complement
the data provided by the sample of voluntary users.
9. Who decides who gets support for production projects?
The subscribers to broadband Internet who pay the Creative Contribution will
allocate support to production. To make this choice easier and more efficient,
we propose using a competitive intermediary model, where users allocate
funds to intermediaries that compete to attract them, based on their policies
or projects. These intermediaries can be participative financing organiza-
tions, participative production firms, including ones for large individual proj-
ects, or even public funds for the arts, culture and media, when their statute
authorizes them to receive external funds from individuals. The choice would
be made on a yearly basis. It may be advisable to limit the maximum percen-
tage that a given user may allocate to a single organization, as suggested by
(Muguet 2008). To be included in the list of possible recipients, intermedi-
aries will need to satisfy some transparency and democratic governance con-
ditions. Of course, compliance with these conditions will need to be moni-
tored, and Internet users can also contribute to this effort.
11.2 Criticisms by opponents
10. Non-market sharing is a black hole, which will swallow the creative economy
whole.
Many critics voice this fear, but it is not supported by presently available evi-
dence. Today’s digital media situation is characterized by:
160 sharing
– a significant level of voluntary sharing by authors of their own produc-
tions for short texts, photographs, new multimedia and video formats,
and music for some genres (techno, electro, for instance),
– a significant, and constantly growing, level of unauthorized sharing, by
various means, of digital works in all media.
There is no evidence of a shrinking of the overall creative economy. However,
it would be obtuse to deny that information technology and the Internet have
introduced a radical change: the public is becoming a distributor of works in
its own right. Some economic actors, whose traditional business models rely
on having exclusive control over copying and distribution, need to partly re-
think their modus operandi. This is particularly true for phonorecord publish-
ers, and to a lesser extent for video publishers. It is important to realize that
their activities represent only a relatively small share of the economy of the
relevant media, and will only be affected partially. However, the role of these
publishers goes beyond mere reproduction and distribution, and it would be
a serious cultural loss if some of their other roles (such as editorial selection,
support and promotion of artists) were to disappear. Some aspects of our
Creative Contribution proposal are intended to help the re-invention of these
roles in the new context. Nonetheless, the corresponding economic players
will have to adapt significantly. Until now, some, in particular major phonor-
ecord publishers, have clung to the fiction of retaining exclusive control of
copies. The result has been a disastrous reduction of the volume of the mar-
ket, while new economic players offered a growing variety of titles, but were
starved of access to distribution and promotion channels. The recognition of
a right to share will break this vicious circle, particularly if it is associated
with a stronger competition policy in neighboring markets, such as concerts
and the distribution of phonorecords.
11. Why would people buy something when they can get it for free?
This is exactly what record publishers said when music became an important
part of radio broadcasting, in the 1920s. At the time, records had only a weak
competitive advantage over radio: they were not better quality, and certainly
could not boast better ergonomics, when records had to be changed every
three minutes.
4
Their sole advantage resided in the possession of an item,
and the ability to play it at a time of one’s choosing. On the other hand, radio
had its own competitive advantage, as a discovery channel for new music one
did not know, or for live concert broadcasts. Radio soon became the key pro-
motion channel for records. With time, this generated undesirable concentra-
tion effects, as radio stations were increasingly bribed or seduced into playing
only a limited set of titles.
5
But before that, radio turned out to be a blessing
for record publishing.
clarification and counter-arguments 161
Today’s situation is different, and people who sell digital contents will have to
ensure their offer has a different value to users than what they can get from
file sharing. This can take many forms, starting with a guaranteed level of
quality, and the possession of the work in a particularly attractive form, or
one that is easier to preserve in the long term than digital files. But commer-
cial providers can also attract paying customers by helping them to locate
contents of interest to them, by allowing them to communicate with other
users with similar interests or to interact with artists, or by providing extra
functionality (for instance synchronization with scores, or navigation func-
tionality in a motion picture) or other forms of added value bonuses. Even
without such added value, selling digital contents that are also accessible for
free can work, in particular when you allow people to do what they want with
them (in the non-commercial realm). Of course, the prices will have to be
reasonable.
12. This will prevent us from reaching a commercial Eldorado.
Let us put ourselves in the mindset of an imaginary content industry entre-
preneur. “What if we could sell contents at monopoly prices, and charge
more for more desirable items. We could prevent people from copying works,
and even make them pay for each usage. And all this with reduced costs of
production and distribution: we would get immensely rich. This perspective
is more attractive than the gold rush.”
Unfortunately, this Eldorado is unattractive for the rest of us. To reach it, the
entrepreneur in question will have to trample on just about every human right
and every freedom necessary to exercise those human rights: the right to
privacy, the freedom of information and communication, the right to due
process and a fair trial, the right to access to education and knowledge, and
the freedom to use the technologies of one’s choice.
6
The society needed for
the Eldorado of on-line content sellers to exist would bear a striking resem-
blance to the worst dictatorship we know of, as far as our freedom to use the
Internet and information technology is concerned (although the motivations
for surveillance, control and repression would be different).
Of course, most of the players who are searching for commercial success do
not want to do so at such an extreme cost. It was a refreshing experience
when during the debates on the “three-strikes and you are out of the Inter-
net” HADOPI law in France, some key figures from the French movie scene
(producers, film-makers and actors) stood up and declared that they were not
ready to stage a war against their public (Lettre aux spectateurs ci-
toyens 2009). However, even a few more steps in the direction of this fabled
Eldorado could already cause irreparable damage. It is not unrealistic to ima-
gine that a dual society would arise, where less-informed consumers would
be imprisoned in the Eldorado, while a small niche of free-thinking citizens
162 sharing
would enjoy the benefits of information and knowledge sharing, albeit in a
degraded form and at no small legal risk.
This is certainly not what content industry entrepreneurs want: they want to
earn money by serving the public, the artists and the quality of their produc-
tions. We sincerely hope that their know-how will be used to make our im-
perfect real world a little better.
13. Why do we need file sharing when we already have streaming and centralized
download sites?
Benjamin Bayart, the president of an associative Internet Service Provider in
France, answered this question (Fradin 2010, excerpt from our translation):
Some obvious conclusions from the analysis presented in the report [of
the French government on Network neutrality] were not drawn by the re-
port itself. For instance, it explains that traffic has moved from a decen-
tralized P2P model, which does not lead to international imbalances, to
centralized traffic on streaming platforms or Youtube-type sites. [The re-
port] also mentions the [three-strikes] HADOPI [law]. However, it does
not draw the obvious conclusion. Why is the share of P2P decreasing?
Because it is being attacked from all sides. It is the healthiest technology
for a stable, strong and sustainable network growth without problems,
and it is this precise technology that [existing policy] is trying to stop.
P2P distribution should be supported. It is the only [form of distribution]
that will counter dominant positions such as Apple’s Appstore. [If the cur-
rent trend continues,] iTunes will in the end have a global monopoly on
selling music. [...] Interpersonal exchange, directly from machine to ma-
chine, without technical intermediary, is the basis of the Internet. [...] The
same contents can be distributed in less than 15 seconds in P2P when it
takes 20 to 30 minutes with a central server. P2P is currently the most
efficient and rapid means of distributing contents without destabilizing or
damaging the network, and it can exploit localization. For dogmatic, poli-
tical and technically erroneous reasons, [some governments] have aimed
at damaging the best functioning tool.
The principal effect of HADOPI is to displace BitTorrent downloads in
favor of Megaupload or similar sites, i.e. to go from a smooth system
which does not create problems in networks to a completely centralized
system, which creates artificial congestion points that should not exist!
So yes, indeed, there has been a displacement from decentralized file sharing
towards streaming and centralized downloads, but it is the product of a bad
policy, and it is already creating problems that will no doubt serve as an ex-
cuse to implement worse policy (attacks against network neutrality).
clarification and counter-arguments 163
14. You are going to reward pornography.
There are several answers to this criticism, which will appeal to different peo-
ple and possibly be followed in different countries:
– So what? The copyright system already does, and this was not held against
it.
– For the same reason that copyright is less used by the pornographic econ-
omy than by other forms of contents, the share of rewards or support to
pornography from the Creative Contribution will be less than the real
share of its use. The main reason for this is that authors and producers of
pornographic works will be less inclined to register within the system,
because it might expose tax evasion practices or other shady aspects of
their business. Another equally important reason will be that usage of
pornography will be measured less completely, and fewer preferences for
support to its production will be expressed, because users are likely to be
reluctant to provide such data (even within a system that guarantees ano-
nymity).
– Finally, countries can put in place policies that disavow rewards and sup-
port for the production of pornography. There are drawbacks to such
policies, especially for funds which are not public money. They will be
seen by some as hostile to freedom of expression and access to informa-
tion. Others will point out that the definition of what is or is not porno-
graphy is imprecise. However, there are established policies which already
implement such negative or positive discrimination in the support of cul-
tural products. For instance, film and video collecting societies in coun-
tries such as Germany preferentially allocate production support to some
types of contents (such as documentaries) and disfavor others.
7
11.3 Criticisms by defenders
15. It is incompatible with innovative market offers.
On the contrary, we believe that there will be a strong synergy between the
Creative Contribution and voluntary sharing platforms with associated com-
mercial offers. These organizations currently operate in a hostile environ-
ment, in which the artists belonging to them draw no income from the plat-
form’s most important component: free usage of their works on the Internet.
Creative Commons platforms such as Jamendo or Pragmazic struggle to at-
tract more recognized musicians, because the artists using these platforms
get only indirect benefits (benefits of notoriety for concerts and other activ-
ities, sales of licenses for commercial use). The fact that artists will also ben-
164 sharing
efit, through the Creative Contribution rewards, from having their contents
made available on the Internet, will remove this limitation.
Classical or collaborative news media players, which presently use a combi-
nation of subscriptions, donations, advertising income and, in some cases,
public support, will have a new income channel, which will help them
achieve sustainability. The many music or video self-production or co-pro-
duction organizations which target omni-directional income channels (con-
certs, radio, TV, film, use in live performance or advertising, etc.) will also
gain an additional source of income or support.
Some music labels such as the French Believe
8
will face a more complex
situation, as they presently target sales of digital contents almost exclusively.
However, they can adapt their business to the new situation. Digital sales to
end-users are compatible with the right to share, if they are properly posi-
tioned and complemented with an added value. Magnatune is in an inter-
mediate situation: it already has a large share of non-commercially shared
music, and develops licensing for commercial use, but it also makes digital
sales to individual users.
16. It is incompatible with grassroots intermediaries and participative production.
Grassroots intermediaries and participative production organizations will
benefit greatly from the Creative Contribution on the production side, draw-
ing on an immensely extended base of potential contributors. They will also
benefit indirectly from rewards, as artists will have an increased interest in
involving themselves in participative endeavors mobilizing Internet users.
Fernando Anitelli’s O Teatro Mágico music and dance group in Brazil is a living
exploration of the synergy between sharing and participatory rewards. This
Creative Commons label has sold more than 300,000 albums in Brazil and is
also involved in Trama Virtual, an organization funded by companies to re-
ward music shared on the Internet. Users send use or appreciation clues, and
the money collected from the sponsors is distributed according to these user
indications. Trama Virtual illustrates the difficulties experienced by voluntary
participatory rewards in terms of scale: if the sums collected are too small in
comparison to the number of groups that show up for rewards, the whole
system distributes rewards only to a small number of artists or suffers from
heavy transaction costs. With a Creative Contribution system in place, Trama
Virtual would function at the required scale, but of course, this would mean
that users contribute not just clues but also money, in addition to what they
are already spending on buying albums and concert tickets. O Teatro Mágico
probably does not need it, but other groups in Trama Virtual do.
Organizations such as Flattr
9
propose to put in place a form of bottom-up
organized Creative Contribution among a voluntary community (of both ar-
tists and users). Flattr is play on words between flat-rate and flatter. It collects a
clarification and counter-arguments 165
monthly flat rate and redistributes it to the producers of works which are
signed up to it, according to use data collected from members using a small
software package (a simple button that users click to indicate appreciation of
a work when accessing or using it). Will Flattr suffer because users will feel
they have already paid for culture in general? In our opinion, this will not be
the case, because Flattr has specific assets: it is intrinsically global in scope
and can mobilize specific communities of interests, i.e. it can become a parti-
cipative intermediary for specific groups. Finally, one would not trust the col-
lection and distribution of sums on the scale of society to a private firm, but it
would be possible for intermediaries such as Flattr to be providers of certified
and auditable usage data for rewards. This would create an additional incen-
tive for users to be members.
17. This is a new tax for the benefit of a few.
The Creative Contribution is not a tax, but rather a statutory payment. Many
people see these two things as the same, but there is a key difference: the
collected sums do not become part of the budget of a government. They are
intended for one specific purpose and are managed by a specific organiza-
tion. We have designed this organization to be under the control of the con-
tributors: this is why we described it as a mutualized financing scheme.
Now, is this statutory payment for the benefit of a few? It is designed to be for
the benefit of many in some ways, and the benefit of all in others. We could
say that all will benefit, because all will have the right to non-market sharing,
but that would not be fair: one does not buy a right, one just gets it. However,
all will benefit from the richness of contents that can be shared on the Inter-
net. Truly all: when the right to share is recognized, the existence of legiti-
mate intermediaries will make sharing easy enough.
That is not the complete answer, of course. Most people supporting this ob-
jection worry that significant rewards would only go to a few. But what are we
it comparing to? It may be a few, but it will be many more than those who
currently receive significant rewards from copyright. This may not be enough
for everyone’s taste, but at least it is your taste that will decide who gets re-
wards. And finally, less-than-proportional reward functions can be used to
tune the spread of the distribution of rewards.
18. The Creative Contribution will consolidate the poor governance of collecting so-
cieties.
Volker Grassmuck, one of the key proponents of the Kulturflatrate in Ger-
many, was reported by (Cronin 2010) to have said: “‘Mafia’ is a widely used
epithet for music collecting societies in many countries. The arcane area of
collecting societies draws much public interest and anger.” There is a key
contradiction, inherent in our present situation: collective management is
166 sharing
needed more than ever in the Internet age, because it is the only way to have
an efficient, large-scale allocation of funds, without associating transactions
costs to usage, but its present face is not attractive. The existing forms of
collective management grew out of associations of co-opted authors defend-
ing their own interests. They were then developed by persons who were sin-
cerely committed to culture and the arts, but have turned themselves into
organizations that serve interests often quite remote from the full creative
ecosystem. Publishers, heirs of right holders, investors who have managed to
get copyright assigned to them, and a few best-selling artists control their
governance, which is often characterized by censal voting.
10
For these organi-
zations, self-propagation and pursuing management interests are often high-
er on the agenda than the interests of culture as a whole.
We need to move away from this misgovernance, but we should not throw
the baby out with the bath water. Our approach is to create brand new orga-
nizations, with a new governance basis, and to trust the key distribution func-
tions only to them. They will handle the minimal criteria for the registration
of works, the measurement of usage, the calculation of rewards for works,
the collection of user preferences for support to production and the environ-
ment of creation, the organization of decision-making on how rewards are to
be split between media, and the reporting to the public. The existing collect-
ing societies will then have a choice. Either they must accept playing by the
rules of a reformed system, amend their governance, accept caring for all
creators and contributors and not just their members, as a few already have
in various countries (SPEDIDAM and, for a period, ADAMI in France, and
more timidly STIM in Sweden
11
). Or they will continue to oppose these pro-
posals, as most collecting societies have done, often to the point of support-
ing the most repressive approaches to file sharing. In this latter case, even the
financial management of individual rewards will have to be conducted by a
new organization.
19. In the name of commons, you are monetizing the non-market.
No, we aren’t, but the difference is a subtle one. We are financing the condi-
tions of existence of a specific form of cultural commons. In a world where
access to conditions of living and resources for production are monetized,
commons can exist only if those who maintain and enrich them have ade-
quate financial resources. The key differences between monetizing the non-
market as described by Jeremy Rifkin in the Age of Access (Rifkin 2001) and
our proposal lies in:
– the absence of transaction and control in the path of usage,
– the empowerment of users.
clarification and counter-arguments 167
Social public goods and commons in modern societies are always financed by
collective means. Publicly run schools are built by paid contractors, and tea-
chers receive a salary. Elinor Ostrom, who received the 2009 Nobel Prize in
Economics for her studies of commons governance, has stressed that the
management of resources by user communities was a key approach to gov-
erning commons. The true question is “is our proposal the right approach to
finance cultural commons in the Internet age?” We certainly did our best to
define one of the ways of doing it.
20. This will not stop the war against sharing.
This criticism was expressed by anti-capitalist thinkers. They consider the
war against sharing as the essence of capitalism and doubt it would stop just
because of the recognition of a domain of non-market sharing of digital
works between individuals. Our ambition is more modest. We just intend to
make sure that some essential capabilities are not taken away from people,
and we trust that they will exert them in an empowering manner.
21. This will undermine other sources of income for creators, such as salary and fees.
This is a very legitimate concern. Each time a new form of delayed income is
created, investors and employers may use it to put pressure on immediate
wages and other forms of payment. This concern does not mean we should
abstain, but vigilance is required.
168 sharing
12 From proposal to reality
It is time to reflect on whether and how the proposals developed in this book can
attract a critical mass of support. The last few years have seen a subtle but signifi-
cant evolution. Proposals for a flat-rate financing of culture and the recognition of
file sharing first arose as a reaction against repressive laws. Geographically, they
followed the world-wide dissemination of these laws, which was co-ordinated by
a few interest groups such as the International Chamber of Commerce or special-
ized media interest groups.
1
Flat-rate proposals were made in response to DRM
anti-circumvention laws, then to “three-strikes and you are out of the Internet”
laws, and now to the present generation of laws requiring the compulsory filter-
ing of sites. This process is still at work, but another agenda is developing: the
financing of sharing-compatible digital creativity is seen as a goal in and of itself.
This approach was present from the start, but less visible. In this concluding
chapter, we outline the trajectories along which this autonomous agenda is un-
folding. These paths will cross and part, blend and diversify, with unpredictable
results. But they all have a role to play in laying the foundations for a sustainable
digital cultural ecosystem, and making it a reality.
12.1 Grassroots Internet and creative communities
James Love’s former Consumer Project on Technology and the present Knowl-
edge Ecology International have been consistently promoting an independent vi-
sion of how culture could be financed and shared in the digital era
2
since 2002.
Several milestones were reached along the road. In 2006, the Paris Accord meet-
ing brought together representatives of Internet policy, consumer groups and
creative communities to try to define a common road-map on these issues.
3
That
same year, scholars and Internet policy specialists met in Chicago at the 10
th
an-
niversary conference of the peer-reviewed on-line journal First Monday to reflect
about how to make collaborative creativity sustainable.
4
Even though these events
received a significant amount of attention on the Internet, it is fair to say that the
sound waves did not propagate far beyond circles specialized in the access to
knowledge and culture.
The increasingly mingled grassroots Internet and creative communities have a
key asset: they do not wait for things to happen, they make them happen. The
ideas we presented in this book would have remained confined to small groups if
content authors had not started to authorize sharing of their works. The voluntary
169
sharing of information, expressive or creative works was formalized by licenses
from 1998 onwards.
5
This made explicit a practice which had in fact started much
earlier: digital projects such as Project Gutenberg started close to 40 years ago,
and the open Web as a whole can be seen as a giant voluntary sharing project,
where “cut and paste” is the primary sharing tool. Enabling a self-conscious ap-
proach to voluntary sharing for any individual or group was a key step forward.
Several hundred million works covered by copyright are today shared voluntarily,
mostly under Creative Commons (CC) licenses. CC licenses organize the synergy
between cultural commons and commercial activities, but they do not provide a
way to finance the conditions of existence of the creative works and their produ-
cers. They are still used predominantly for works which can be produced by an
individual with a minimal investment and some capabilities (Web texts, photo-
graphs, free encyclopedias such as Wikipedia and its satellite projects) or whose
funding is ensured by a pre-existing public organization (scientific publications,
for instance). There are also some remarkable voluntarily shared works in other
media, which call for a stronger investment or require know-how that is less uni-
versal, but these remain a minority in their respective universes.
Treating a sustainable cultural commons as a self-standing goal, and in parti-
cular proposing that they should be financed via a flat-rate contribution by Inter-
net users, can be seen as addressing these limits. Such proposals initially met a
brick wall: not only media interest groups but also governments refused point-
blank to consider them. There has been no government-initiated, official study of
the costs, benefits, and more generally the impact of proposals such as ours. This
has caused frustration in circles going well beyond the initiators of these propo-
sals, in particular in countries where attempts to eradicate sharing have triggered
a lively societal debate. Faced with this, Internet and creativity grassroots groups
took matters into their own hands, and endeavored to set up co-operative finan-
cing systems along the lines of the entertainment co-operative proposed in (Fish-
er 2004, pp. 252-258).
6
In the last 3 years, projects such as Kickstarter in the US
and Yooook in France
7
have flourished. Some of them even follow the flat-rate
model, in particular Peter Sunde’s Flattr.
8
Flattr presents itself somewhat mislead-
ingly as a social micro-payment platform, but micro-payments by users, the draw-
back of which were analyzed by (Shirky 2000), are precisely what it avoids. Each
Flattr member pays a flat-rate contribution every month, which is shared accord-
ing to the interest they manifest for the works of other Flattr members. In other
words, Flattr is a social resource pooling and user appreciation-based distribution
platform. In that sense, it is a true foreshadowing of our proposal’s implementa-
tion, although there are important differences (Flattr has to track the appreciation
expressed by each individual for each work). It is too early to know if Flattr, Kick-
starter and their more local counterparts in many countries will scale up, and to
which degree. If they do reach the scale needed to address global cultural com-
mons challenges, they will be handling milliards of dollars per year. There will
170 sharing
then be issues of governance for some of these intermediaries, as for any large-
scale money-handling organization.
Meanwhile, there is an excellent synergy between the concrete exploration of
alternative financing systems and proposals for new policies for the society-wide
pooling of resources under the umbrella of law. This synergy is not without ten-
sions, just like there are possible tensions between voluntary sharing practices
and the recognition of a certain level of sharing as a minimum right. Though the
founders of Creative Commons, in particular Lawrence Lessig and James Boyle,
are also copyright policy reformers who believe in installing a basic right to share,
recognizing this right legally will, in a way, deprive voluntary sharers of the spe-
cific gesture of authorizing this minimal sharing. Similarly, some may see propo-
sals such as the Creative Contribution as an unnecessary intrusion of policy in the
set-up of resource pooling for the cultural commons.
Grassroots creative and Internet communities’ representatives, academics and
policy-makers now meet regularly in events such as the Free Culture Forum
9
in
Barcelona to discuss new models of sustainability for the digital era. The ques-
tions raised above are hot topics on the agenda. The outcome of the 2010 round
of discussions is embodied in a How-To for Sustainable Creativity, which discusses 12
sharing-compatible mechanisms for providing resources to creative activity.
10
Flat-rate based resource pooling such as ours is but one of them, and the How-To
lists important conditions for its acceptance by the very communities it is trying to
empower. One thing is certain: a friendly and honest comparison between the
various approaches is the best tool to improve them.
Our own vision is that, in addition to market mechanisms and public subsidies,
it would be optimal to associate a general society-wide resource pooling set up by
law with many competitive intermediaries ensuring focused financing or rewards
in specific domains or geographical zones.
Beyond the aforementioned circles, the last ten years have seen the develop-
ment of cultural craftsmanship on a giant scale. In the course of writing this
book, we have encountered evidence for this at various stages: we mentioned that
more book titles were published in the US recently on a “print on demand” basis
than using the classical “print in advance” method, and described the prolifera-
tion of self-production or small production structures in music, and the related
growth in the number of published albums. This modern and agile craftsmanship
develops important editorial functions. Its practitioners are by nature fragmented,
and it will take time for them to evolve a common strategy. Meanwhile, many are
captured by bigger distribution interests, sometimes because they depend on the
existing distribution channels, which the latter control, and sometimes because
they are simply too busy to spend time building coalitions. Recognizing them as
an important constituency and helping them define autonomous objectives is a
meaningful policy agenda. We now turn to a key question: who will table propo-
sals and vote to implement the Creative Contribution or a similar system?
from proposal to reality 171
12.2 Government policy
We already mentioned that, up to now, governments have given little considera-
tion to any form of flat-rate contribution to freely sharable cultural creativity, with
the possible exception of Brazil, where there is some discussion of incorporating
a cultural flat-rate within the on-going copyright reform. The draft law that was
submitted to the public for comments in 2010 did not include a flat-rate proposal,
though it is one of the most favorable for access to culture (Colombo 2010), but
the issue is still under discussion. However, the nomination of a new Culture
Minister has raised concerns about whether the original intentions of the reform
will still be pursued (CulturaDigital 2010).
The reasons for this continued repressive attitude by governments increasingly
go beyond file sharing itself: controlling the Internet as a sphere of public expres-
sion has become a major aim for some regimes, whether authoritarian or demo-
cratic.
An extreme example is Italy, where open access to the Internet, the free expres-
sion of bloggers, the protection of intermediaries against liability, the mere free-
dom of the media to report on judicial affairs, and the access to certain some
sites, are all under threat or already hindered. Under the Pisanu decree of 2005,
originally provisional but then turned into permanent Italian law, giving Internet
access to anyone required obtaining a photocopy of a photo ID and retaining a
memory of communications for the specific user (Masera 2010). This precluded
easy cybercafe access or open wireless networks, including in universities, and
Italians could envy the residents of many emerging countries in this respect.
Though the Pisanu decree article regarding access to the Internet was finally re-
formed at the end of 2010, Internet access in Italy remains hindered by both legal
and social obstacles. A law proposal plans to submit bloggers to the same rules as
the press, even requiring video-bloggers to have a prior authorization of opera-
tion, as is the case for broadcasters (deMartin 2010). Another “gag law” proposal
would prohibit, if adopted, reporting by any medium on the content of judicially
ordered phone taps until a final judgment has been pronounced (DEramo 2010):
the primary motivation seems to be the prevention of reporting on serious penal
cases in which the Prime Minister and his advisers are involved. In both Europe
and the US, Internet Service Providers and the hosters of content sites are exempt
from liability for the contents they transmit or let users upload without checking
them. This is called the “mere conduit” protection and was a key enabler for the
development of Internet businesses and activity. However in a case against Goo-
gle Video, an Italian judge issued a first instance judgment with jail sentences
(presently under appeal) against Google executives, on a basis that seems to
ignore the legal framework of European liability protection.
11
A final judgment is
still pending on whether the mandate issued by Italy to ISPs, ordering them to
filter The Pirate Bay site as a whole, is legal or not.
12
Only this last case concerns
172 sharing
file sharing, but all are part of a general effort at installing preventive and pre-
emptive control of expression on the Internet, its usage and its access.
This is of course worrying, but offensives against the open Internet and the
freedom to use it without a priori control have unintended positive side effects.
Many citizens and advocacy groups, which were traditionally remote from Inter-
net issues, have now realized the extent to which freedom on the Internet has
become an essential condition of democracy and an open society. Many who
would before have accepted any measure presented as intended to fight piracy
have now started to scrutinize such proposals more carefully. Some of them have
even gone as far as to recognize that proponents of the legalization of file sharing
care more about creativity than the proponents of the war on piracy. This is one of
the factors which caused some major French motion picture figures to join the
Création-Public-Internet coalition, which supports the Creative Contribution pro-
posal.
13
In itself, this is not enough to change governmental policy. However, it is help-
ing to formulate a minimum set of demands, which can be pushed consistently in
all democratic countries. One of these demands is that governments should com-
mission independent impact studies and consultation processes on proposals
such as the Creative Contribution. More generally, this kind of option should be
considered in the relevant policy preparation exercises. These demands come not
only from civil society and advocacy groups, but increasingly from parliaments
and political parties.
12.3 Policy-makers
We already mentioned that a law amendment incorporating blanket licensing for
file sharing was adopted in France in December 2005, before a new vote reversed
the decision in 2006. An amendment putting in place a “creative contribution” for
music was tabled twice by the opposition Socialist party in the 2009 parliamentary
debates on the three-strike HADOPI law. Even after this law was adopted, as diffi-
culties with its application were becoming apparent, a new law proposal for a
blanket licensing for file sharing was tabled by a member of parliament belong-
ing to the right-wing majority (Guillaume 2010). During the 2009 general elec-
tions in Germany, the Green and social-democrat parties included a Kulturflatrate
proposal in their program. Without going so far as to endorse it, a spokesperson
for the winning CDU party said the Kulturflatrate was an option to be included in
policy debates.
14
The recognition of file sharing and the financing of culture are
issues that cut across the political spectrum, and it is interesting to make an in-
ventory of how specific political schools of thought position themselves on these
matters.
Green/ecologist parties have a natural sympathy for the recognition of com-
mons and for the empowerment of individuals in creativity matters. Some of the
from proposal to reality 173
most active supporters of the Kulturflatrate or the Creative Contribution in Europe
are to be found among their members. However, the same reasons render them
cautious about a possible adverse impact of schemes organized by law on grass-
roots initiatives. For them, the compatibility between the two is a key aspect of
any proposal.
Social-democrats, or liberals in the US, are on familiar ground when matters of
society-wide pooling of resources and distributive justice are at stake. However, in
Europe, some of them fear that too strong an empowerment of individual prefer-
ences would endanger a more top-down, traditional cultural policy. They thus
support public broadcasting more than broadcasting by the public. The attach-
ment of social-democrats to socio-economic rights leads some to embrace cultur-
al commons and their financing as an enabler of these rights, and others to con-
sider the notion of non-market cultural commons with some suspicion because
they fear that it could weaken economic growth. Recently, some have advocated
the acknowledgment of the non-market commons contribution to empowerment
and capability building as an essential strategy for renewing the social-democrat
policy offer (LabideesPS 2010).
Liberals in the European sense (defenders of economic freedom and civil
rights) are deeply divided: most reject a repressive approach to file sharing, but
they are reluctant to involve government intervention in organizing another pol-
icy.
Some European conservatives or republicans (in France) disapprove of the in-
fluence of interest groups on policy-making in these domains and, as a result,
favor government-organized rewards and the right to share. For many of their
colleagues however, commitment to the general interest stops short of challeng-
ing the claims of large financial players. However, in times of deep economic
crisis, these kinds of dividing lines become more fluid.
Parties coming from the communist tradition have great sympathy for the com-
mons, but they sometimes share with Bill Gates a confusion between commonism
and communism.
15
They are inclined to support the direct provision of cultural
services by the State, which makes them defenders of the digital accessibility of
the cultural heritage but does not help them recognize the potential of a direct
provision of access to culture by the citizens themselves.
Finally, many voters who consider themselves distant from all political parties
and have a shifting voting record, as many active Internet contributors do, are
influenced in their vote by Internet freedom issues.
12.4 Entertainment players?
Listing established entertainment players as one of the possible driving forces for
the legalization of file sharing and the implementation of new financing models
may be seen as paradoxical. Even analysts who showed a deep understanding for
174 sharing
the way of thinking and the stated concerns of the entertainment industry were
faced with its stubborn refusal to deviate from anti-piracy efforts. There are none-
theless reasons to think that some of the entertainment industry players will at
some point embrace another vision. An indication of that possibility arose when,
as we recalled earlier, Jim Griffin, then a strategist for Warner Music, made a
proposal for a flat-rate licensing for file sharing for university students (Orlows-
ki 2008). There are deeper reasons to believe that this is not the end of the story.
The first one is that in the Read-Write Society that Lawrence Lessig advocates
(Lessig 2006), there is room for Read-Only components. The continuum of posi-
tions which we described between producers and consumers, or between creators
and receptors of works, also includes extreme positions: professional creators
and producers, and consumers solely focused on accessing these works. Even the
most prosumer-oriented Internet users enjoy laid-back entertainment when it is
not forced upon them as the only cultural perspective. While not likely to be
among the initial promoters, part of the established media industry can rally a
proposal for new user rights and financial contributions if they see it is likely to
become a reality. Their aim would be to conquer a share in the new sharing-com-
patible commercial offers.
The motion picture and video industry, while still pushing for DRM and other
means of enforcing the scarcity of copies, could come to accept such a perspec-
tive, rather than engage in a permanent war with the public. The reason it is not
doing so yet is that it is presently benefiting from the coexistence between un-
authorized semi-clandestine sharing and oligopolistic control (on production in
some countries, on key distribution channels in others). This is a cow that is
worth milking for as long as possible. The US independent movie producers,
who sadly followed RIAA in suing individual file sharers (See Anderson 2010),
will in the end look at the potential contribution to production arising from our
proposal.
As for the musical majors, they have milked the cow of scarcity to such a de-
gree that it is dry, with so restricted an offer of new titles, that it can hardly be
restricted further to maintain the extremely high per album profits margins they
enjoy. When a new playing field seems established, they will move. When will this
happen? We don’t know. Who will take the lead? Most probably one of the less
dominant players in the oligopoly.
12.5 Collective management?
For a while, it looked as if the collecting societies would be key supporters of a
new flat-rate-based reward system. In France, the collecting societies for music
performers (SPEDIDAM and ADAMI) were part of the Alliance Public-Artistes
that promoted the 2005 blanket licensing proposal.
16
In Sweden and Canada, the
music collecting societies also made similar proposals. In Italy, SIAE showed
from proposal to reality 175
some interest in discussing it at least. The involvement of collecting societies
raised concerns about governance, equitable distribution including for non-mem-
bers, and adaptation to Internet conditions. But as they also brought a significant
know-how in managing large-scale financial distribution, and as they carried a
significant political momentum, their participation was seen as a welcome rup-
ture from the repressive agenda.
Unless they can show a determined change of position and attitude soon, it is
now probable that they have missed the window of opportunity: few believe they
will come aboard any reasonable scheme. During the past few years, collecting
societies have been among the most active promoters of new control, surveillance
and repression measures, going as far as tabling the amendments that were most
harmful to Net Neutrality and Internet freedoms during the revision of the Euro-
pean telecommunication regulation (Quadrature 2008b). Their stubborn refusal,
in almost all countries, to accept management of commercial rights for works
licensed under Creative Commons Non-Commercial licenses, infuriated even the
most moderate. They did not move an inch on issues of governance, and they
won’t until governments adopt provisions such as those proposed in the Brazilian
copyright law, for example, which states (Colombo 2010):
(iii) the entities entitled to revenues and distribution of rights shall reduce
administrative costs and deadlines for distribution of the amount to the rights
holders, publicize all the acts of the institution (more transparency), particu-
larly the collection and distribution.
This seems to leave little chance for the collecting societies to act as the “financial
management organizations” we described in chapter 9 in any implementation of
our proposal, and it seems even less likely that they will be counted among sup-
porters of this kind of proposal in the coming debates. Nonetheless, once hun-
dreds or thousands million dollars are to be distributed, their members, and even
their management, will no doubt have second thoughts. When this happens, the
promoters of flat-rate proposals will be in a position of strength, and should put
all their requests on the table. There are key elements of the social distributive
justice which we stand for, that we simply cannot trust the collecting societies
with in their present form: the collection of use and preference data, the compu-
tation of rewards and the governance of multi-stakeholder decisions. They can
nonetheless contribute significantly to a smooth distribution of rewards and facil-
itate the registration of works, provided that they understand that this a new role,
not their private turf.
176 sharing
12.6 The continued role of academic research
Academic research played a key role in challenging the accepted wisdom on the
impact of file sharing and in elaborating proposals for new financing schemes for
creativity on the Internet. In times to come, it will no doubt keep playing this role,
but it will have to do it in a complex context. As we near the possible implementa-
tion of proposals such as ours, research and advocacy increasingly mingle. The
Free Culture Research workshops and conferences
17
are a meeting ground for
their interaction, an interaction that also takes place within each of us.
Researchers have a civic role, and they must, more than ever, involve them-
selves in societal matters and debates. But this civic role includes reminding
everyone of the complexity of the matters we are trying to address. Reducing
them to a few abstract principles of property or maximizing profits fits some
agendas. Adopting a simple “just-do-it” approach to complex matters would not
serve the public interest any better, and neither would it advance knowledge.
from proposal to reality 177
Appendixes
A Diversity of attention for beginners
Throughout the book, we analyzed the diversity of attention to works, as well as
of the distribution of revenues, which those who produce them receive from var-
ious channels. Sometimes we have exhaustive data to study the diversity of atten-
tion directly, but in many cases we have only some partial or indirect evidence or
hints about what its future may look like in various conditions. The whole debate
on the Long Tail theory formulated by Chris Anderson (Anderson 2004, Ander-
son 2006) revolves around the way in which the diversity of attention is likely to
evolve in various situations (see below section 13.4). We need then to model the
diversity of attention, and for this purpose we used a mathematical model known
as Zipf’s law. This appendix is intended to give the interested reader a brief intro-
duction to the modeling of diversity of attention in general, and to explain why
Zipf’s law is used, how it works and its limitations. Less mathematically inclined
readers should not be deterred by the presence of equations: one can ignore them
and still understand the text. However, the equations will be helpful for those
who wish to verify the mathematical reasoning for themselves, or to carry out
further investigations.
This appendix uses ideas from the ranking tutorial of Lada M. Adamic (Ada-
mic 2002b) and from the remarkable Wikipedia page on Zipf’s law.
1
A.1 From wealth to popularity
Wealth distribution
Librarians have probably studied the relative demand for books or other texts for
centuries. Even as far back as the Middle Ages, it was a key factor for organizing
the production, purchase and storage of copies of books and other texts. We may
thus speculate that ancient librarians compiled lists of books (or other items)
sorted according to demand, with the most frequently requested items first, and
some of these registers may yet survive in library archives. If so, they would be the
first evidence of popularity distribution studies. However, it seems that a mathe-
matical modeling of similar distributions emerged in other fields. At the end of
the 19th century, the Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto formulated what is now
called Pareto’s law, according to which the number of people who have more
181
Fig. A.1. Share of total wealth held by the 20% richest individuals, depending on the value of
Pareto’s law parameter. If the wealth distribution in a particular group is described by a
Pareto’s law with parameter k, this graph shows the share of the total wealth held by the 20%
richest individuals, depending on the value of k.
wealth (or own more land, or have greater income) than a given number x is
inversely proportional to x raised to a characteristic constant power k. The corre-
sponding probability distribution can be formulated as:
P½X x /
m
x
_ _
k
.
where x is the wealth of the person under consideration, and m is the wealth of
the poorest person. Throughout this appendix, we use the symbol P followed by
square brackets to mean “the probability that [the expression in the brackets] is
true”, and the symbol / means “directly proportional to”. When k is just below 1,
about 20% of the people own 80% of the wealth, which has become known as the
Pareto principle. As often happens, this rule of thumb has become well-known,
but the law is less known, and people tend to forget that it has a parameter.
Figure A.1 shows that when k is varied from 0.5 to 1.5, the share of wealth held
by the 20% richest individuals can range from 99% to 55%. The full Pareto prin-
ciple actually states two things: that the distribution of wealth follows Pareto’s
law, and that, in some observed situations, its parameter is close to 1.
182 sharing
Pareto’s law describes a family of functions which are examples of the wider
class of power law distributions. These are so called because their probability
density functions
2
follow power laws, meaning that it is proportional to a nega-
tive exponential power of the variable. In the case of Pareto’s law, the probability
density function is:
f ðxÞ ¼
km
k
x
kþ1
Pareto’s law is thus a power law distribution with index k þ1. Power law distribu-
tions are extremely widespread in nature, where they arise from processes which
have no preferred scale. They also crop up often, and most relevantly for this
book, in the study of ranked distributions, namely distributions of values that
have been ordered by decreasing value.
The star of the show
For convenience, we would like to characterize the degree of diversity of attention
to cultural works with a single number. The best way to do this is to model the
ranked distribution of the number of times each work has been accessed using
Zipf’s law, which has been shown often to approximate closely the real-life
ranked distribution of popularity of cultural works.
George Kingsley Zipf was a Harvard University linguist who studied the fre-
quency of occurrence of words in different languages. He formulated the law that
bears his name in 1935, though the same pattern was already noticed much ear-
lier, probably as early as 1916, by a French stenographer named Jean-Baptiste
Estoup (Petruszewycz 1973). Estoup wrote a stenography manual which was re-
edited many times, and he used his analysis of the frequency of words to design
his method, but he did not model it as systematically as Zipf.
What Zipf stated is that, if one ranks the number of occurrences of words in a
large text, starting with the most frequent word and continuing in decreasing
order of frequency, then the number of occurrences O of each word is inversely
proportional to its rank k elevated to a constant power c:
OðkÞ /
1
k
c
Zipf also remarked that the parameter c was close to 1, so that the 100
th
most
frequent word is approximately 100 times rarer than the most frequent word. As
with Pareto’s law, this rule of thumb has stuck, and commentators often forget
that the parameter can take other values.
diversity of attention for beginners 183
Fig. A.2. The number of occurrences of words in a French text of 30,000 words, as reported by
Estoup, reproduced in (Petruszewycz 1973).
The use of ‘‘Zipf’s law with parameter close to one” has become part of the folk-
lore in several fields: linguistics and bibliometrics, of course, but also more re-
cently Internet studies (Shirky 2003b) and cultural studies. In this last field, Zipf’s
law was used to study the distribution of access to various works in libraries, in
commercial sales, and on the Internet. As we will see below, the distribution of
popularity of works does not follow Zipf’s law exactly (in the statistical sense).
However, one can still tune the parameter so that the function reproduces the
observed distribution as closely as possible. The resulting match is then often so
good that, for practical purposes, the value of c that gives the best fit can be used
as a single number characterizing the degree of diversity of attention to works. In
other cases, we will have to be cautious because the Zipf’s law approximation
becomes too distant from what is observed in real-life.
When this diversity is modeled by Zipf’s laws, changes in the parameter lead to
great differences in the degree to which attention is concentrated on a limited
number of works, or sales concentrated on a limited number of products. For
184 sharing
example, let us consider a sample, or “universe”, of one thousand works. If the
access to these works is described by Zipf’s law with parameter 0.5, the 5% most
popular works receive 20% of the attention. If the parameter is 1.5, the same 5%
accounts for 92% of all access. Perhaps surprisingly, differences as strong as
these are in fact observed between the various forms of access to cultural works.
Why do some distributions follow Zipf’s law?
There have been many attempts at explaining why some distributions observed in
real life are very similar to Zipf’s law. George Zipf himself suggested that it results
from the tendency of human beings to select the least-effort route to any particu-
lar result. Here we propose an explanation that builds on the same ideas, though
we formulate it slightly differently. However, it is beyond the scope of this book to
model the conditions which give rise to Zipf’s law in detail: the remarks which
follow are merely intended to shed some light on the processes at work.
There are common traits of the kind of variables which follow Zipf’s law, such
as the level of attention, the usage of or access to works, the income or wealth of
individuals, the size of cities, or the occurrences of words in a language. Gener-
ally, a variable follows a power law distribution when two conditions are fulfilled:
– its values are constrained by a resource which, while abundant globally, is
limited at the level of individual units;
– the larger the variable, the easier it is for it to grow.
Both parts of the first condition are equally important. The constraining resource
can be on the offer or on the demand side. There is a lot of wealth overall, but it is
not so easy for most individuals to get more of it for themselves. There are many
words in a language, but using the rarer ones requires extra effort, for most peo-
ple at least (in fact, the effort is approximately inversely proportional to the scar-
city of each word).
3
There are many inhabitants in a country, but a given individ-
ual can only live in one place. And finally, the overall attention span of Internet
users on the planet is certainly not scarce, but each individual has only a limited
amount of time. The second condition may be somewhat more self-evident: it is a
well-known fact that being rich makes it considerably easier to become richer.
Frequently used words are in everybody’s mind and get used – to some degree –
more frequently. This dynamic is most visible when a new buzzword appears. It
has limits, however, since one cannot use the same word all the time. Similarly, a
cultural work that has already received significant attention is likely to receive
more, through word of mouth or through investment in its promotion… up to a
certain point where it becomes more difficult to attract the attention of additional
persons.
We will now look at finding out if distributions follow Zipf’s law, and at meth-
ods for estimating the value of their parameter.
diversity of attention for beginners 185
A.2 Testing and parameter estimation for Zipf ’s law
When popularity follows Zipf’s law, the level of access or usage for each work can
be modeled as:
zðnÞ ¼
j
H
N
ðcÞ Ân
c
where zðnÞ is the number of times a work of rank n has been accessed or used
(works are ranked by decreasing popularity), N is the total number of works
(books in a library, music tracks on a download platform, or blogs on the Inter-
net), j is the mean number of accesses to or uses of works, and H
N
ðcÞ is a con-
stant used for normalization.
4
Specifically, H
N
ðcÞ is the N
th
generalized harmo-
nic number:
H
N
ðcÞ ¼

N
n¼1
1
n
c
The quantity
j
H
N
ðcÞ
is a constant. Zipf’s law is also a power law, but with index
1 þ
1
c
(see Adamic 2002b for details).
5
Checking whether an observed ranked distribution does indeed follow Zipf’s law
and estimating the best-fit parameter c (the value of c for which Zipf’s law most
closely resembles the observed distribution) are a bit tricky. The overwhelming
majority of published papers on these subjects use a simple property of power
laws: when both axes are plotted on logarithmic scales, they appear more or less
as a straight line with slope Àc, where c is the index of the law. Figure 13.3
shows an example, which will give the reader an adequate idea of a statistician’s
definition of a straight line. It is straightforward to estimate the slope of the line
in this log-log space, using techniques such as least-squares regression or log-2
bins. However, (Goldstein et al. 2004) showed that this approach is not only im-
precise, but also strongly biased. We devised a fast convergent method for fitting
Zipf’s law (estimating c) for an exhaustive observed distribution
6
which does not
suffer from these shortcomings. When only incomplete data is available, which is
often the case for commercial access, it is preferable to use the method suggested
in (Goldstein et al. 2004).
7
186 sharing
Fig. A.3. Number of times each track was listened to for the 1000 most popular titles on the
Musique Libre Creative Commons music streaming platform in 2006 (Aigrain 2006). Note
that both axes are logarithmic.
Once the fitting is done, one can check how closely the resulting Zipf’s law
matches the data. Rigorous statistical tests typically indicate that the function
which gives rise to observed distributions is not exactly a form of Zipf’s law. An-
drew Odlyzko
8
remarked that this is quite natural, since different parts of the
distribution of attention are influenced by very different factors. In particular, at
the extremes of the distribution, phenomena which are unlikely to follow a pure
power law pattern become important. A limited number of works benefits from
some expensive channels of promotion such as clips, TV, radio or billboard ad-
vertising. There can be a significant gap in attention levels between these works
and those that follow them in popularity. In P2P file sharing, the other end of the
distribution is riddled with pollution, some unintentional (user errors), but most
intentional (fakes and forged file identifiers injected by P2P warfare providers to
direct users to irrelevant contents, in order to make them waste time and lose
interest in P2P file sharing). P2P users and supporting sites are good at quickly
spotting these polluting elements, and their audience is generally limited, but
they are nonetheless accessed a few tens of times. This causes the distribution to
lose a key property of power laws: scale invariance, that is the fact that estimating
the parameter law can be done on any part of the distribution. However, when
diversity of attention for beginners 187
one limits the analysis to the initial part of the distribution (accounting for 80 or
90% of all accesses), one obtains a reliable estimate of the parameter, with a
better fit. This amounts to selecting only files that actually correspond to works
being shared.
In practice, one is not concerned with knowing if popularity exactly follows a
Zipf law in the statistical sense, but rather with whether one can use the Zipf’s law
as an approximate model for reflecting on policy decisions. It turns out that the
same distance function that is used for rigorous goodness of fit testing also pro-
vides a good indication of the meaningfulness of a Zipf’s law approximation for
policy reasoning. The Kolmogoroff-Smirnov distance (or KS) distance defines the
distance between two distributions as the maximum absolute difference between
the value of the cumulative distributions. So if we have a distance of say, 0.03
(3%) between a popularity distribution and its best-fitting Zipf’s law approxima-
tion, it means that we can pick any rank, and the total attention going to works
after this rank (or before) will not be further from the value we would have esti-
mated using Zipf’s law approximation by more than 3% of the total attention to
all works. Now, is that a lot or little? It is a lot, and enough to reject the statistical
hypothesis that the distribution follows a Zipf law with great certainty when con-
sidering universes of more than 1000 works. But it is little if one uses the approx-
imation only to comment on differences of, say, 20% of the total attention going
to works in a given range of popularity ranks.
Fig. A.4. Share of access to the 80% least popular works under Zipf’s law with the same
parameter (c ¼ 1.0) in 100 universes containing between 1000 and 100,000 works
188 sharing
It is only meaningful to use Zipf’s law parameters to compare observed distribu-
tions of popularity if both sets of works are of similar size, or with a careful
normalization process to compare the two differently sized universes. Forgetting
this has led to many errors of interpretation, in particular from critics of the Long
Tail theory (see below). The impact of the size of the “universe” on Zipf’s law is
illustrated in figure A.4: even in this limited range of universe sizes, with the
same law (the same parameter c), the share of access to the 80% least popular
works goes down from more than 21% to less than 14%.
A.3 Zipf ’s law and diversity of attention in P2P sharing
Our studies of information communities where authors share works under Crea-
tive Commons licenses and of sites providing access to selected public domain
works show a good fit of the observed distribution of popularity with the best-
fitting Zipf’s law. The situation is different with large-scale (predominantly un-
authorized) file sharing.
When individuals share works through P2P networks, the number of works
being shared is enormous. Works that are not offered for commercial access (be-
cause rights holders do not think it is in their interest to do so) or orphan works
9
are in large number, even though each of them might be shared only a limited
number of times. During ten weeks in 2008, Frédéric Aidouni, Mathieu Latapy
and Clémence Magnien (Aidouni et al. 2009) monitored all traffic going through
one of the servers used by the eDonkey P2P network. This data was strongly
anonymized and made publicly available. The collected data represents close to
9,000 million eDonkey messages, involving around 90 million distinct client IDs.
No fewer than 3,000 million file swaps flowed through this specific server during
those ten weeks. Just under 12 million distinct files were shared, each of them
being accessed more than 250 times on average. The data collected on these ex-
changes (excluding the files themselves) amounts to close to 10 terabytes (10,000
gigabytes) in uncompressed form, which is unprecedented for publicly available
data relevant to Internet studies. We are deeply indebted to Mathieu Latapy’s
Complex Networks research team at the LIP6 laboratory of Paris 6 University for
having collected and published this data at http://data.complexnetworks.fr/
weeks-1.0.1/.
The collection of the data was possible because of guarantees provided by the
collectors on the strength of the anonymization process. This has some conse-
quences for analyzers: as not only user information but also work information
has been anonymized, it is impossible to reliably identify works that belong to a
given medium. The results of our analysis should thus be considered as relevant
to the general study of diversity of attention in file sharing, rather than to the
study of a given medium.
diversity of attention for beginners 189
We analyzed the data in collaboration with Raphaël Badin, with the assistance
of Suzanne Aigrain, and thanks to the use of the University of Exeter supercom-
puter facility. In the eMule protocol implemented by the eDonkey server, users go
through two steps: they first query the list of available works, using keywords
such as an artist name, a title, or a file name or size, and they obtain in response
a list of available files. A user then selects one or several of the files and asks for
sources (peers) providing these files. As soon as the sources have been obtained,
the download starts. It is the requests for sources that provide an indication of
access to the corresponding work. We thus extracted the occurrences of file iden-
tifiers in the answers to queries for sources.
10
We counted the occurrences for
each unique identifier, and sorted the identifiers by decreasing number of occur-
rences, in order to obtain the observed popularity distribution. We then ran our
fitting algorithm to obtain the best-fitting Zipf’s law. Table A.1 lists the best-fit
parameters and the corresponding KS distance on cumulative distributions
(which measures the quality of the fit, the smaller the better) for different subsets
of the data.
As already remarked in (Aidouni et al. 2009), the tail of the distribution is ex-
tremely polluted: the fit becomes poor when using the one million most popular
files or more. On the basis of the data presented in (Aidouni et al. 2009) and (Lee
et al. 2006), we are reasonably certain that the deviation at the end tail of the
distribution is predominantly due to the intentional pollution of P2P networks.
Further research would be needed to definitely prove this hypothesis, for instance
by precisely modeling the noise introduced by~fakes.
Universe Parameter of
best fitting
Zipf’s law
KS distance on
cumulative
distributions
More access
observed from
rank ...
... to rank
100,000 distinct most popular
distinct files
0.378 0.0056 4,830 62,100
One million distinct most popu-
lar files (85% of recorded access)
0.581 0.0645 18,000 491,000
Two million distinct most popu-
lar files (95% of recorded access)
0.682 0.1073 18,800 750,000
One-third of all files (close to 4
million files)
0.758 0.1496 17,700 1,050,000
Full set of files (close to 12 mil-
lions files)
0.842 0.2079 15,000 1,551,000
Table A.1. Zipf’s law fitting for different subsets of the (Aidouni et al. 2009) data set. The last
two columns give the range of ranks for which the observed access is higher than the best-
fitting Zipf’s law prediction.
190 sharing
In figure 3.4, we analyzed the diversity of attention for the two million most pop-
ular files, which represented 95% of recorded access, and provide a universe of
similar size to the one studied for commercial sales of music in (Page-Gar-
land 2009). Considering the excessive deviation from Zipf’s law, we did not use a
Zipf law approximation to compare the P2P situation with the available estimates
regarding commercial access to music, but rather the directly observed data. One
should note that the observed distribution is actually more diverse than its best-
fitting Zipf’s law: the observed popularity is above the best-fitting Zipf’s law for
popularity ranks ranging from 18,800 to 750,000. We already observed this for
voluntary sharing communities (Aigrain 2006).
Important notice: We presented preliminary results of this study at the 2009
Free Culture Research Workshop at Harvard University (Aigrain-Badin 2009).
They were based on a different analysis of the data collected by the Paris 6 team:
instead of analyzing the access to source files, we analyzed the occurrences of
files in answer to keyword queries. This analysis found an even greater degree of
diversity. However, it is less representative of the real-life usage of works, in our
opinion.
A.4 A fresh look at the Long Tail theory
In 2004, Chris Anderson published his famous Long Tail article (Ander-
son 2004). This article forecast that the Internet would lead to more diversity of
attention, but stopped short of modeling this increase in detail. The article was
expanded into a book in 2006 (Anderson 2006). The same year, other researchers
(Brynjolsson et al. 2006) provided the first quantitative evidence for an increased
diversity of sales in the Internet channel for products also marketed in physical
channels. However, the increase was moderate: in a universe of 20,000 products,
it would correspond to a Zipf law parameter of 0.877 instead of 0.935.
In the years that followed, a number of critics challenged the accuracy of the
Long Tail theory or its relevance to business. A typically critical view was ex-
pressed in a research working paper by Tom F. Tan and Serguei Netessine of the
Wharton Business school (Tan-Netessine 2009). These authors studied the movie
ratings from the Netflix on-line movie rental company. The data presented by the
Wharton researchers provides an interesting test case and has led to a polite argu-
ment with Chris Anderson. Most critics of the Long Tail theory are not contesting
its accuracy, but challenging the feasibility of making a successful business out of
the increased demand for limited popularity titles. The Wharton researchers went
a bit further: they distinguished between the “absolute popularity” (how much
attention a work with a given rank receives), which they acknowledged to be the
core concern of the Long Tail theory, and a “relative popularity” expressed as the
share of attention which a given percentage of all available movies receives. They
diversity of attention for beginners 191
then conclude from their data that the relative share of the top 20% movies, for
instance, has increased over time from 86.6% to 90.08%.
From the viewpoint of the analysis of diversity of attention, this calls for a
number of remarks. First of all, the comparison is between 86.6% of 4,470 mo-
vies in 2000 and 90.08% of 17,468 movies in 2005. We can use our earlier experi-
ments on the impact of universe size on the share of attention going to the 20%
most popular works to explore the impact of this growth in the number of movies
available. Keeping the Zipf’s law parameter at 1.075, the initial value, we find that
the share of interest would rise from 86.6% to 89.1%. In other words, the “effect”
observed by the Wharton researchers would have occurred even if the underlying
law had not changed at all because of the behavior of Zipf’s law when the uni-
verse of works expands. More importantly, as Chris Anderson remarked in an
email made public on the Web (Anderson 2009), from a cultural diversity per-
spective, what is important is the share of attention received by the titles of inter-
mediate absolute popularity rank, for instance those ranked between 1000 and
4000: films which are not hits, but are still popular. Taking 2002 as a starting
point (there were not enough rated movies to study this popularity range before
that), we find that the proportion of ratings going to this range of absolute ranks
went up from at most 12% to at least 28% of the total.
These intermediate popularity works may not receive enough attention to be
conducive to classical commercial activity (revenues from sales or rentals). How-
ever, there is no doubt that they can be rewarded by an indirect scheme such as
the Creative Contribution.
What remains to be shown is whether the corresponding level of attention can
be measured accurately enough. This is the object of appendix C.
192 sharing
B The total cost of rewards and their
distribution
B.1 The model used in chapter 7
Evolution of the distribution of attention
In chapter 7, we attempted to describe the compound result of the autonomous
development of an Internet-native culture production and of the continued usage
of the Internet as a distribution medium for media publishing. The interaction of
these factors leads to a popularity distribution for creators (beneficiaries of the
Creative Contribution), which is the basis for our model.
To explain what we mean by “popularity distribution for creators”, we need to
define a few quantities. If each work w
j
has popularity popðw
j
Þ, and the relative
contribution of a given creator c
i
to w
j
is contribðc
i
. w
j
Þ, the total popularity
1
for a
given creator is:
popðc
i
Þ ¼

j
contribðc
i
. w
j
Þ Âpopðw
j
Þ
For example, if creator A contributed 50% of work w
1
, 25% of work w
2
and 60%
of work w
3
, the popularity of A is:
popðAÞ ¼ 0.5 popðw
1
Þ þ0.25 popðw
2
Þ þ0.6 popðw
3
Þ.
The popularity distribution for creators is the distribution of popðc
i
Þ: it deter-
mines the distribution of the rewards. We will speak equivalently of usage distri-
bution, because our measurement system collects usage clues (see appendix C).
A number of heterogeneous factors (such as classical media publishing and
unauthorized file sharing) already interact to drive the attention devoted to var-
ious productions. This interaction will be stronger once the Creative Contribution
is put in place and file sharing is recognized as a legitimate activity. It will result
– as it already does – in attention patterns (i.e. popularity distributions) that do
not formally follow Zipf’s law but are often closely approximated by it. We will
discuss below the impact of this possible divergence, but for the time being, let us
accept modeling the reported usage pattern by a Zipf law and consider only how
the associated parameter – and thus the diversity of usage – will vary.
193
Note that actual rewards will be distributed according to the observed distribu-
tion, not the model: this model is used only to determine the overall amount of
rewards, i.e. to set a global scale factor. To do this, we will assume that the input
to the reward system will be a Zipf law with parameter c. This leaves us with 3
parameters to set: the value of c, the size of the overall universe (the number of
creators to be rewarded), and the minimum reward amount to be distributed.
As explained in section 7.2, one can only speculate about the likely observed
value of c. In chapter 7, we predict that it will start at the high value of 1.0 (the
classical Zipf law, but actually less concentrated than present copyright rewards),
and then progressively decrease to 0.9 (a more diverse distribution of attention),
possibly becoming as low as 0.8 in the long term. The interested reader is re-
ferred to figure 7.2 for a comparison between the corresponding distributions.
2
Given the uncertainty of c and the likelihood that it will vary, it is important to
build a model which can function at constant total cost regardless of the precise
value of c, at least for the predictable future.
The reward level and size parameters
To set the remaining two parameters, we start from the decision that a certain
number of people should be rewarded at or above a certain minimum level in a
given country, at the time when the Creative Contribution is introduced. This
choice is not arbitrary, but it is clearly based on a programmatic decision rather
than on some more fundamental principle: there is no obvious ground truth that
immediately tell us that “we should reward so many people by at least this
amount”.
We chose to set this minimum reward at $200/year (or the local currency
equivalent), and the number of people who should receive it at 2-2.5% of individ-
ual Internet contributors who “produce and publish some contents for sharing
over the Internet in a 3 month period” (See Deroin 2010), and we did our best to
substantiate this decision (see page 100), but we acknowledge that a different
choice could be made. However, there are some important constraints. The num-
ber of creators to be rewarded at the minimum level cannot be raised arbitrarily,
not only because it would make the reward system too expensive, but also be-
cause it is not clear that there are enough deserving creators out there to justify
it, or that they would come out of the woodwork if a reward was available.
All the computer programs used to experiment with our model are distributed
in parallel with the publication of this book as free software
3
, and readers are
encouraged to experiment with other possible values, should they wish to do so.
Our choice for the threshold below which rewards will not be distributed is
$40/year (justified on page 99). Once these 2 choices have been made, the other
decisions follow for a given value of the diversity parameter c.
194 sharing
Setting an initial value for the universe size
For the time being, let us assume a proportional reward, where creators are re-
warded proportionally to the measured usage of their works. Let’s assume that
the value of the parameter of Zipf’s law for the initially observed diversity of usage
will be c ¼ 1.0, and we wish to have at least n ¼ 230. 000 creators receiving ¤150/
year or more. The following formula immediately gives the total number of re-
warded creators
N ¼ exp lnðnÞ þ
1
c
ln
150
30
_ _ _ _
where expðxÞ is the exponential of x and lnðnÞ is the natural logarithm of n. The
formula is obtained as follows. According to Zipf’s law, the reward for the
n
th
creator is:
rewardðnÞ ¼
R
c
n
c
where R
c
is a constant, or scale factor, that sets the overall level of the rewards.
The last creator being rewarded (the one which receives the smallest amount)
receives:
reward
min
¼
R
c
N
c
Dividing one equation by the other:
rewardðnÞ
reward
min
¼
N
c
n
c
Now take the natural logarithm of both sides:
ln
rewardðnÞ
reward
min
_ _
¼ clnðNÞ ÀclnðnÞ
rearrange:
lnðNÞ ¼ lnðnÞ þ
1
c
ln
rewardðnÞ
reward
min
_ _
and take the exponential of both sides:
N ¼ exp lnðnÞ þ
1
c
ln
rewardðnÞ
reward
min
_ _ _ _
Plugging in the values rewardðnÞ ¼ 150, reward
min
¼ 30, n ¼ 230. 000, and
c ¼ 1 gives:
N ¼ exp lnð230. 000Þ þ
1
1
ln
150
30
_ _ _ _
the total cost of rewards and their distribution 195
¼ exp lnð230. 000Þ þlnð5Þ f
¼ exp lnð230. 000 Â5Þ f ¼ 1. 150. 000
Running the model
All we now need is to work out the total reward, that is, the sum of all the re-
wards:
reward
tot
¼

N
m¼1
rewardðmÞ ¼

N
m¼1
reward
min
N
c
m
c
reward
tot
¼ reward
min
ÂN
c
Â

N
m¼1
1
m
c
reward
tot
¼ reward
min
ÂN
c
ÂH
N
ðcÞ
where H
N.c
is the N
th
harmonic number, already introduced in Appendix A. This
formula immediately gives the total reward, the only step that requires some sim-
ple assistance is the computation of H
N
ðcÞ.
How many creators are rewarded as diversity increases?
If we are now in a situation where the observed diversity of use corresponds to
another value of Zipf’s law parameter, say c’ we can find the new number of
rewarded creators N’ that will lead to the same total cost in this new situation:
N’
c’
ÂH
N
’ðc’Þ ¼ N
c
ÂH
N
ðcÞ
Solving this equation for N’ is not that trivial, and is easier done by approximation
techniques or using numerical tables. For instance in the example above with
N ¼ 1. 150. 000 and c ¼ 1.0, the solution corresponding to c ¼ 0.9 is
N’ ¼ 2. 140. 000 and for c ¼ 0.8 it is N’ ¼ 3. 490. 000.
Impact of a divergence of the observed usage from Zipf’s law
Only when a measurement system is fully in place can we judge if the reported
usage follows Zipf’s law. What are the consequences if it does not? We have de-
signed a constant cost reward system, and this cost can be distributed according
to the observed usage, but with some adjustments.
If we want to keep the minimal reward and still distribute the same total
amount of rewards, we will have two differences in comparison with what would
have happened with the Zipf law fitted to the observed usage:
– the number of rewardees will be different;
196 sharing
– the level of use corresponding to the minimal reward will be different.
The second effect could be the most problematic one if it forces us to measure
usage precisely at much lower levels than modeled in appendix C. Fortunately,
this is easy to avoid so long as one does not try to reward an excessive number of
creators, staying clear of the level of attention where real use is mixed with noise.
If we take the example of the 2 million most popular files in 10 weeks of usage of
eDonkey P2P, where we have a significant divergence between the best-fitting
Zipf’s law and the observed data (see table 13.1), the level of usage for the
1,000,000
th
most popular work is only 24% lower in the observed data than in
the model.
B.2 Reward functions
Fig. B.1. Rewards for the first 20,000 creators among one million rewarded creators for var-
ious reward functions, with a creator popularity distribution corresponding to a Zipf law
parameter of 0.9, and a minimum reward of $40. The cube root reward function was sug-
gested by Richard Stallman (Stallman 2009). If a non-proportional reward can be implemen-
ted, we favor the choice of a power law reward function with index 2,3, associated with a top-
off for the highest rewards.
the total cost of rewards and their distribution 197
Now we relax the assumption that the relation between popularity and reward is
necessarily proportional. This is not unusual: in most media publishing, the re-
muneration for creators is more than proportional to sales. A bestselling author
might get four times the percentage of royalties of an average essay writer, a fact
explained in part by economies of scale in the production and distribution of
books, but mainly by the stronger negotiating power of bestselling authors. In
the digital world, there are strong fairness and diversity motives for using less-
than-proportional rewards.
To allow for this, we introduce a reward function rewardðnÞ ¼ r p
n
ð Þ, where p
n
is the popularity of creator n relative to that of the least popular creator who will
be rewarded: p
n
¼ popðc
n
Þ,popðc
N
Þ. The reward is proportional if rðp
n
Þ ¼ p
n
. If
we want the reward to be proportional to the square root of popularity, we would
use rðp
n
Þ ¼
ﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃ
p
n
p
.
The total reward is now given by:
reward
tot
¼ reward N ð Þ Â

N
n¼1
ﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃ
N
c
n
c
_
¼ reward
min
N
c
2
H
N
ð
c
2
Þ
In other terms, square root rewards for a distribution of parameter c are the same
as proportional rewards for a distribution of parameter
c
2
. The same holds for any
power reward function.
198 sharing
C Modeling usage measurement
This appendix details the model from which affirmations on the precision reach-
able by the voluntary sample of Internet users component of our proposed mea-
surement system were derived.
C.1 General model
Let us first remark on a nice property of the constant cost reward system we
defined in chapter 7 and detailed in appendix B. The minimum relative level of
use (for all works by a person) that we need to measure is:
U
N
¼
1
H
N
ðcÞN
c
where N is the number of contributors we want to reward above the set threshold,
and H
NðcÞ
is the N
th
harmonic number for parameter c. This is precisely the figure
we made constant in order to define a constant cost reward system in equation in
section B.1. It thus seems that we can completely forget about how the observed
diversity will vary (or which power reward function we will adopt): the challenge
of measuring the minimum use that leads to a reward remains the same. Unfortu-
nately, for sake of rigor, we must consider a number of contextual factors that
force us to depart from this beautiful simplicity, at least if we are going to distri-
bute rewards independently for various media.
The first step is to find out for how many works we need the system to be
precise enough. The reward system as a whole has been calibrated to reward a
certain number of creators. From the processes described in chapter 9, we will
decide which share goes to each medium. From this, one can obtain a number R
of creators to be rewarded for the medium under study. At the time being, we
have to estimate this figure approximately: remember that we are just trying to
figure out which measurement system can work, not yet to actually distribute re-
wards. When we will reach that stage, we will know the figure precisely. For mu-
sic in the US, as an example, we estimated that a quarter of all rewardees would
be music artists at large, which gives us R ¼ 1. 050. 000 rewardees above the
minimum amount of $40. We consider that the diversity of attention to creators
in music is the same as that in the overall system when put in place (parameter of
Zipf’s law = 1.0).
199
We must then take into account the fact that creators are involved in several
works, and a work can have several creators. The compound result of the two
will be an estimate of the average number of works one needs to reward in order
to meet a stated objective of rewarding a number of creators. For instance, for
music, we estimated that one needs to reward N ¼ 3 ÂR works in order to re-
ward R creators, that is N ¼ 3. 150. 000. This leads to approximation: to derive a
minimal reward, titles that are below a third of $40 will be used. We will have to
consider this when interpreting the results.
1
Finally, we must acknowledge that not all relevant works will be registered for
rewards. We define
N’ ¼ kN
where k is a coefficient ensuring that within the kN most popular works, at least
N will be registered. For instance, for music, we predicted that almost all works
likely to lead to creator rewards will be registered for rewards (k ¼ 1.2, and
N’ ¼ 3. 780. 000).
We can now proceed to our main task: estimating the number of use clues that
will be received from the full sample of Internet users for works registered for
rewards and positioned at various levels of popularity.
In order to do so, we estimate the number of clues that would be reported on
average by a member of the voluntary sample for a registered work, based on
statistics of the average use of an individual or the average use of works, depend-
ing on which is more readily available.
We first consider an ideal situation in which all users would be members of the
sample. We have
j ÂN’ ¼ 0 ÂK ¼ totclues
where j is the average number of clues reported for one work, N’ the number of
works, 0 the average number of clues reported by one user in a year, K the num-
ber of users, and totclues the total number of clues.
If we know j, the share of the total number of clues CðnÞ that will be reported
for a work whose popularity rank is n in the medium under consideration is
sðnÞ ¼
j Âp
H
N’
ðcÞ Ân
c
where c is the parameter of Zipf’s law of the popularity distribution, and p is the
proportion of all use of the same set of works coming from participants in the
sample. The absolute number of clues will be:
CðnÞ ¼ sðnÞ ÂN’ ¼
j Âp ÂN’
H
N’
ðcÞ Ân
c
200 sharing
As we will see below, it is frequent for use of some media to be significantly high-
er for the likely participants in the sample.
If we know the average use for an individual, we can use equation to compute
the average number of clues per work:
j ¼
0 ÂK
N’
and then compute CðnÞ as follows:
CðnÞ ¼
0ÂK
N’
Âp ÂN’
H
N’
ðcÞ Ân
c
¼
0 Âp ÂK
H
N’
ðcÞ Ân
c
where p is the proportion of use of the same set of works coming from partici-
pants in the sample of all users.
Finally, when the number of clues for a work contributing to a minimal reward
is known, we have to go back to the clues for one creator (3 times more in the
music example).
Overall, we are assuming that:
1. the popularity distribution of works will actually be well-fitted by a Zipf law
2. we predicted the Zipf law parameter correctly,
3. the average number of clues for a given level of use is as we estimated,
4. the number of registered works is as predicted.
That’s a lot of conditions, but conditions 2 and 4 can be checked when the actual
numbers are in, in order to possibly adjust the number of rewarded works or
choose an adequate reward function.
Under these assumptions, we can estimate the precision with which the num-
ber of reported clues will follow this theoretical model: the central limit theorem
2
guarantees us that for large distributions (typically when CðnÞ 100), the num-
ber of reported clues for a work at a given popularity will be well approximated by
a normal law with mean CðnÞ and standard deviation
ﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃ
CðnÞ
_
. This means that the
probability of deviation greater than 2,
ﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃ
CðnÞ
_
is below 5%.
C.2 Music singles in the US
As explained above, we estimate that the number of works for which a usage
measurement has to be derived is N’ ¼ 3. 780. 000. One can be surprised at this
figure when there are 13 million tracks in iTunes alone.
3
Remember however that
we are considering only titles likely to be rewarded more than a third of $40. Our
own estimate is that only for about 2,100,000 iTunes titles do sales lead to a dis-
tribution of more than $13 to creators.
4
modeling usage measurement 201
We will use two sources of information in order to estimate how many use
clues we are likely to get from the voluntary user sample: listening time statistics
and digital sales.
For contents for which there is a significant commercial activity, statistics
about the annual time use of users are generally available. The US Census Bureau
2010 Statistical Yearbook, table 1094, reports 177h per person of listening to re-
corded music per year, that is 15 Â177 ¼ 2655 listenings to 4 minute tracks per
year. This figure summarizes music listening only when it is done as a main activ-
ity, while music listening is very frequently a secondary activity, particularly in the
youth. A gross estimate is that at least a quarter of listening occurs with shared
files. However, there are several downloads per listening in the file sharing uni-
verse. In addition, heavy Internet users spend three times more time listening to
music than the average member of the population.
5
Our estimate is that the aver-
age number of clues reported if all users were included in the sample would be
similar to the average number of listenings as reported by the time use statistics,
that is 0 ¼ 2655. We will take the proportion of all use of the same set of works
coming from participants in the sample to be twice the proportion of users parti-
cipating in the sample. As we consider the initial sample to be 1,400
th
of all
broadband Internet users in the US, we will have p ¼ 1,200 ¼ 0.005. We will
take the total number of users to be K ¼ 160. 000. 000.
We then apply our model
CðnÞ ¼
0 Âp ÂK
H
N’
ðcÞ Ân
c
CðnÞ ¼
2655 Â0.005 Â160. 000. 000
H
3.780.000
ð1.0Þ Ân
1.0
CðnÞ ¼
2. 124. 000. 000
H
3.780.000
ð1.0Þ Ân
In particular:
CðsignificantÞ ¼
2. 124. 000. 000
H
3.780.000
ð1.0Þ Â756000
$ 179
CðminimalÞ ¼
2. 124. 000. 000
H
3.780.000
ð1.0Þ Â3. 780. 000
$ 36
The number of clues per creator is then simply obtained by multiplying the above
numbers by 3: (536 and 107).
It is useful to cross that information with analyzing digital sales. In the last year
for which data is available, 3,600 million iTunes tunes were sold, which repre-
sents 277 sales per title on average. Assuming a distribution of popularity with a
202 sharing
Zipf law parameter of 1.0, this would correspond to an average of approximately
700 sales for the 3. 780. 000 most popular titles. With a ratio of 100 files shared in
a year per digital sale, we would have thus an average of j ¼ 70. 000 clues per
work if all Internet users were included in the voluntary sample. We will apply
our model again with the hypothesis that music listeners and file sharers will be
more represented in the voluntary sample (p ¼ 0.005):
CðnÞ ¼
j Âp ÂN’
H
N’
ðcÞ Ân
c
The number of clues for all users will be
CðnÞ ¼
70. 000 Â0.005 Â3. 780. 000
H
3.780.000
ð1.0Þ Ân
1.0
CðnÞ ¼
350 Â3. 780. 000
H
3.780.000
ð1.0Þ Ân
In particular, if we look at the number of clues for the least popular of the works
being rewarded at a significant level and the number of clues for the least popular
of all rewarded works:
CðsignificantÞ $ 111
CðminimalÞ $ 22
Going back to creators, we have more or less 3 times more clues from the P2P file
sharing data coming from the sample (333 and 66).
These estimates are obviously approximate and should be considered as indica-
tive only.
C.3 Blogs in France
Though there are collective blogs and some people have several blogs, overall one
blog = one person, which will simplify our modeling. As explained above in sec-
tion 10.4, we estimated the number of blogs to be rewarded at N ¼ 57. 500 and
considered that the registration rate could be relatively low (k ¼ 2,
N’ ¼ 115. 000). In addition, the diversity of attention to blogs is higher than for
other media, as they already anticipate the more diverse distribution which we
described as a longer-term perspective in chapter 7, that is corresponding to a
Zipf law of parameter c ¼ 0.8.
6
To our knowledge, there are no reliable statistics available on the blog reading
time use or number of readings for the full population of Internet users. We thus
have to turn to the average readership per blog. There are many contradictory
claims of the average number of readings per blog, but since we are considering
modeling usage measurement 203
here only the 115,000 most appreciated blogs (top 4.5% of all active blogs), it is
reasonable to assume for the number of readings per year to be at least 20,000.
7
When the blog under consideration is registered, we will assume 1.5 use clues per
reading by a member of the voluntary sample, thus on average j ¼ 30. 000 use
clues per year. Again, we consider that the original sample of 1,400
th
of all broad-
band Internet users, that is approximately 100,000 users, will account for twice its
share of total blog reading, as participation in the sample will appeal to the same
users. We thus have p ¼ 1,200 ¼ 0.005.
We are now ready to apply our model:
CðnÞ ¼
j Âp ÂN’
H
N’
ðcÞ Ân
c
CðnÞ ¼
30. 000 Â0.005 Â115. 000
H
115.000
ð0.8Þ Ân
0.8
CðnÞ ¼
17. 250. 000
H
115.000
ð0.8Þ Ân
0.8
In particular:
CðsignificantÞ ¼
17. 250. 000
H
1.150.00
ð0.8Þ Â23. 000
0.8
$ 118
CðminimalÞ ¼
17. 250. 000
H
115.000
ð0.8Þ Â115. 000
0.8
$ 32
C.4 Fraud prevention and detection
Precisely detailing the direct cryptographic anti-fraud mechanisms goes beyond
our competence and would be to some extent pointless, as they are bound to
evolve. We sketch some possible measures for indicative purposes only assuming
that in an option where participants accept that the data collection agency will
have knowledge (at the time of reception) of who is reporting, but trust that this
identifying information will be immediately deleted or stored only for investiga-
tion purposes.
The reporting of use clues by a participant in the sample could be done by
sending an electronically signed message to the data collection agency. The pur-
pose of using digital signature is to render the injection of fake members or fake
clues more complex and more risky.
The message will contain a number of use clues, with the work identifier and
nature of the clue. When the signature does not correspond to the user sending
the message, it will be stored for further investigation. When it matches, it will be
204 sharing
anonymized or stored in a safe store accessible only for later fraud investigation
purposes. This requires trust in the data collection agency to truly do so on behalf
of the user. This trust will be more readily granted when the user is given the
certainty that only data regarding access and upload are transmitted, and when
s/he has been given the opportunity to review the contents of the transmitted data
before sending it.
Sending fake clues will require access to the digital signature or registration as
a member. A key element in the prevention of fraud is making sending fake clues
as a registered member of the sample a complex and risky act. One possible ap-
proach is for the plug-ins to store clue data by encrypting it using a private key
kept secret. The user will still be able to decrypt it using a public key to check the
contents of the data. Keeping the private key secret will require obfuscation of the
code
8
for the plug-ins, and sufficiently frequent changes to the key. The compat-
ibility between such a situation and free software licenses such as the GNU Gen-
eral Public License version 3 will need to be studied further. It is possible that
similarly efficient schemes exist, that do not require obfuscation.
Finally, it is also important to elaborate on the notion of “making fraud less
attractive”: artificially downloading or uploading full files (a clue will be gener-
ated only when a download is completed) is not free, particularly for uploads. The
structure of reported clues will provide important indications of possible fraud, in
particular if the number of fake clues necessary for obtaining a motivating reward
is sufficiently high.
modeling usage measurement 205
Notes
1. Introduction
1. Following a widely adopted practice, we will write “file sharing” rather than “file-shar-
ing” throughout this book, even in contexts such as “file sharing software”. See
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_sharing.
2. The Internet and creativity debate
1. This expression was used by the French Culture Minister. The French language is
more open than English to the figurative use of words.
2. See http://www.lalliance.org.
3. Some of whom had made their own proposals ahead of the Alliance Public Artistes.
4. A special mention is due to Marc Le Glatin’s book, Internet: un séisme dans la culture?,
published in 2007 (LeGlatin 2007).
5. The reader will find an up-to-date account of the situation in the English-speaking
section of La Quadrature du Net’s website, see http://www.laquadrature.net/en.
6. Loi n° 2009-669 of 12 June 2009 and Loi n° 2009-1311 of 28 October 2009.
3. The value of non-market sharing
1. See section 5.3.
2. Orphan works are copyrighted works whose rights holders are not known or cannot
be contacted. It is thus impossible to obtain permission to use them. An impressively
large proportion of cultural works are orphan works, in particular for books.
3. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napster.
4. FTP sites and the Usenet news groups predated Napster by close to 20 years, and they
were widely used to share contents such as photographs or software.
5. Peer-to-peer file sharing is the sharing of files between one person and another using
various protocols (technical standards for machine to machine communication) on
peer-to-peer networks such as the Internet. A peer-to-peer network is a network where
every machine is considered as an emitter as well as a receiver.
6. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_file_sharing_applications.
7. By now the reader will understand that, when we talk of the recognition of sharing, we
mean the attribution of a right to practice it without having to request a specific
authorization from the authors or copyright owners.
8. For a more detailed definition of a many-to-all cultural society, see p. 50.
9. In the US, fair use provides someone accused of infringement with a defense against
prosecution based on the fact that the activities that took place constitute a fair use of
207
the work whose prohibition would damage other values (such as criticism, for in-
stance). Fair dealing is a weaker version in other common law countries such as the
UK. In civil law countries, exceptions and limitations to copyright were defined on a case
by case basis without a general overarching concept. In international harmonization,
exceptions and limitations were used as the federating principle, and the fair use
chapter is now under the exception and limitation chapter of copyright in the US
Code.
10. Most copyright infringement cases brought against non-commercial uses by individ-
uals were initiated by collecting societies, large companies or their lobby groups, or
financially greedy heirs of deceased artists, rather than by individual authors. The ex-
ceptions arose from some big income music groups, whose representation was dele-
gated to managers, or authors that were particularly keen on control. When cases
were brought, the outcome was geographically contrasted. In Europe, courts often
invoked exceptions or procedural issues to acquit defendants. When defendants were
found guilty of infringement but were not deemed to be aiming to make a profit, the
sanctions and damages were generally limited (Hugenholtz 2008). In the US, the large
number of cases initiated by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA)
against non-commercial file sharers led to sentences with enormous damages tags
(see section 5.2). In the end, this backfired against RIAA, which had to renounce
suing such cases in the face of public indignation. These situations led the media
industry interest groups and, in Europe, the collecting societies, to request stronger
(in comparison to the European practice) and automatic sanctions, bypassing the judi-
ciary by allowing private parties (such as Internet Service Providers or administrative
authorities) to set the sanctions, or using legal ordnances to limit the leeway of the
judges.
11. See http://www.worldwidewebsize.com/.
12. DVD disks and players were available starting in November 1996, but work on the
format started in 1993, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD.
13. See (FLOSSIMPACT, 2006, pp. 230-234, Lehman 1995) for the arguments brought
forward to justify such provisions.
14. See http://www.opencontent.org/opl.shtml. This license was discontinued when the
Creative Commons licenses became widely used.
15. See http://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl.html.
16. See http://creativecommons.org/licenses/.
17. See http://flickr.com.
18. See http://www.flickr.com/creativecommons/.
19. There are several files for the same work, but most files contain generally a full album.
20. In April 2008, the ITunes Store claimed to have 6 million song tracks available. See:
http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080419130713AAHHUum.
21. Since there are many different rights holders for film and TV works, the challenge of
identifying rights holders can be severe.
22. See http://openlibrary.org/
23. See http://wikisource.org/.
24. See http://www.gutenberg.org.
25. This conceptualization was suggested by Hervé Le Crosnier.
208 sharing
26. More precisely 1.104.
27. Another factor that can impact our analysis is that the unit of music sharing on P2P
tends to be a full album, while (Page-Garland 2009) studied single track commercial
sales. However, the sizes of the two universes are similar, which should limit the im-
pact of the different sharing unit.
28. We are extremely grateful to these researchers for providing us with advance access to
this data, which will be published as a paper in English by the time this book is pub-
lished.
29. See Appendix A and figure A.4 for explanations of the impact of the size of an universe
on the share of attention going to a given percentage of works for the same value of
the parameter of Zipf’s law.
30. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC%2B%2B.
31. Here the authors mean “downloading”.
32. Major book publishers are presently considering joining the war.
33. We assume here that other factors – such as promotion – are kept equal.
34. Our translation.
35. For the impact on download sales, see (Andersen-Frenz 2008, Marsouin 2008, Ober-
holzer-Strumpf 2010, Martikainen 2010) and the other studies referenced in section
1.2 of the Studies on File Sharing page of La Quadrature du Net site, See http://www.
laquadrature.net/wiki/Studies_on_file_sharing_eng.
36. This statement seems to apply to iTunes globally, not to SACEM members, as the total
number of titles generating download rights for SACEM was only 844,186 in 2009.
37. See below page 62.
4. Sustainable resources for creative activities
1. See http://www.senat.fr/leg/pjl07-405.html, our translation.
2. At the very most 20%.
3. The sale of physical carriers for information will remain – whatever some may say – a
significant activity: in a world where information is abundant and perpetually evol-
ving, we need carriers to freeze it in a stable form and store it. However, the turnover
of this activity will no doubt decrease compared to the time when information could
only be accessed via physical carriers.
4. Public subsidies by all levels of government represent 30–50% of the financing of
cultural activities in developed countries.
5. See in particular point 10 of the How-to for Sustainable Creativity of the Free Culture Forum,
See http://fcforum.net/sustainable-models-for-creativity/how-to-manual\#models.
6. The four elements listed may be understood as cumulative.
7. Such as performers, artistic and technical contributors.
5. Which rights for whom? A choice of models
1. Michael Goldhaber had already stressed this, explaining the greater value attached to
performance by the facts that the audience is “getting illusory attention from the ar-
tist”. Our work showed that the de facto economic value attached to live performance is
notes 209
up to 20 times greater than for DVD and 100 times greater than for live broadcast.
Whether or not they have the illusion of getting attention from the artist, individuals
make a great difference between physical presence and media.
2. At first sight, advertising appears to be paid by announcers, but the cost of it is ulti-
mately transferred to consumers of their products.
3. DVD anti-copy protection, known as content scrambling, was cracked as early as 1999
by the DeCSS software written initially by Jon Lech Johansen, a young Norwegian
programmer. DeCSS is widely distributed outside of the US and used world-wide for
playing DVDs with free software and recovering the ability to copy them. This software
was the object of a judiciary injunction in the US that led to a mobilization of the
programming community, with some humorous and artistic by-products. See for in-
stance (Touretzky 2004).
4. One of these cases, Viacom vs. Google, was settled in favor of Google, cf. US Southern
New-York DC, 23 June 2010, see http://www.google.com/press/pdf/msj_decision.pdf.
5. In some countries, such as France, the telecommunications competition regulatory
authority (ARCEP) broke the exclusivity of the contract and forced Apple to also offer
its products through other operators.
6. Apple iTunes Plus titles are sold without DRM. This means that users who wish will be
able to share them without major effort, the legality of this practice depending on
whether one remains or not within the realm of home copying laws. However, iTunes
software permits an easy sharing between iTunes users possessing Apple devices.
With a common configuration of the software, it even occurs automatically when var-
ious users connect their devices to the same computer.
7. See page 46.
8. The model can be extended to advertising-based sites, generally on the basis of the
payment of a share of the advertising revenues.
9. Laurent Petitgirard was re-nominated as President of SACEM on 15 June 2011.
10. In the European legal framework (2001/29/CE directive, art. 3.2), copyright holders,
performers and producers of phonograms (phonorecords in the US) and videograms
(videorecords in the US) are granted an exclusive right to authorize or not the act of
making works available to the public “in such a way that members of the public may
access them from a place and at a time individually chosen by them”.
11. Loi 95-4 du 3 janvier 1995 and Article L311-1 of the Code la propriété intellectuelle.
12. The first RIAA lawsuits against individual file sharers were launched on Sept. 8, 2003.
The number of these suits culminated in 2005 with close to 6,000 cases, then progres-
sively diminished over the years until RIAA announced at the end of 2008 that it was
abandoning this strategy (Kravets 2010).
13. All figures in this paragraph are extracted from the 2010 Statistical abstract of the US
Census Bureau; 2007 is the last year for which figures are available.
14. In France, the turnover of the 4 musical majors strongly decreased due to the shrink-
ing offer of titles, but their profit margins never stopped rising (particularly if mea-
sured in terms of profits per album or per title).
15. The collected sums for 2009 reached ¤762 million.
16. See http://slashdot.org.
210 sharing
17. “At least in the view of most Americans and Western Europeans, distributive justice
requires giving each person in a collective enterprise (whether it be a project, an in-
dustry, or a society) a share of its fruits proportional to his or her contribution to the
venture” wrote William Fisher in support of compensatory rewards. Important think-
ers (Bell 1973, Passet 1979, MoulierBoutang 2010), in both the US and Europe, share
the view that among the changes induced by the information revolution, one of the
most important is that it is no longer possible to determine the specific contribution
of a person to society or even to a precise venture. They defend a definition of distri-
butive justice not as opposed to contributive justice (to each according to his/her con-
tribution) but as complementary (to each according to what creates a better society ...
as far as we can know).
18. Bobbs-Merrill Co. v. Straus, 210 U.S. 339 (1908). Codified in 17 USC § 109.
19. Epuisement des droits in French. For the European case law, see CJCE, 20 January 1981,
Musik-vertrieb vs. GEMA.
20. Due to the predominance of these terms in international treaties, what remains of the
first sale doctrine is now encoded in the US Code as a limitation to exclusive rights.
21. 17 USC § 1008 and § 1003.
22. In France, for instance, Loi n°85-660 du 3 juillet 1985.
23. There is debate on whether this will be upheld in further court decisions and if it
would stand scrutiny in terms of compatibility with European law, but it stands unre-
butted until now.
24. For music, for example, re-distribution is done according to 3 criteria: sales of re-
cords, radio broadcast and phone polls of users. All three tend to re-distribute the
levies to a set of works which is much less diverse than those actually copied on blank
carriers, notwithstanding the fact that these carriers are also used for storing other
information such as personal photographs, data or software.
25. Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property that was part of the treaty
giving birth to the World Trade Organization.
26. The most visible criticism targeted consequences for access to drugs in poor coun-
tries.
27. When negotiating a contract that conditions the commercial access of one’s works to
the public, the balance of power is very unequal. We intentionally leave aside the case
of “work for hire” or other situations where copyright is from the start granted to an
investor, so that our reasoning applies regardless of whether the reader lives in a
country where a copyright tradition exists, or one that still considers itself to have an
author rights legislation.
28. 2001/29/CE.
29. COM(2008) 466/3, see http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/copyright/docs/copyright-
infso/greenpaper_en.pdf.
30. See below on page 117.
31. Under the adopted (but still to be ratified in Europe) Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agree-
ment and the announced European initiatives on IPR enforcement if they follow a
previously tabled and withdrawn proposal, this statement could constitute abetting
and inciting to infringements. Although these would not be profit-driven, they could
nonetheless be deemed to be of a commercial scale, because they allegedly cause
notes 211
commercially significant effects. As such, the authors of the offending sentence could
be subject to criminal sanctions, including jail.
32. See http://www.creationpublicinternet.fr.
33. See http://www.vgrass.de/?p=193.
34. See http://www.cptech.org/a2k/pa/ and http://www.tacd-ip.org/blog/the-paris-accord/.
35. See http://fcforum.net/fcf2010.
6. Defining rights and obligations
1. See http://www.keionline.org.
2. Francis Muguet’s sudden death in 2009 was a great loss.
3. Music radio broadcasting has very little diversity in France, due to the dominant posi-
tion of a few radio networks.
4. Transposition in French law of the 2001/20/CE European Directive on Copyright and
Neighbouring Rights in the Information Society.
5. In particular the aforementioned Pour le cinéma group, see http://pourlecinema.over-
blog.fr/.
6. Loi n°2009-669 du 12 juin 2009 favorisant la diffusion et la protection de la création
sur internet.
7. Three warnings of infringement, and you are out of the Internet.
8. The benefit of the financial reward is optional.
9. Council Directive 93/83/EEC. Whereas 28 reads: Whereas, in order to ensure that the smooth
operation of contractual arrangements is not called into question by the intervention of outsiders
holding rights in individual parts of the programme, provision should be made, through the ob-
ligation to have recourse to a collecting society, for the exclusive collective exercise of the authoriza-
tion right to the extent that this is required by the special features of cable retransmission; whereas
the authorization right as such remains intact and only the exercise of this right is regulated to some
extent, so that the right to authorize a cable retransmission can still be assigned; whereas this
Directive does not affect the exercise of moral rights. The last sentence is an interesting exam-
ple of Newspeak: it should read “in practice, the exercise of moral rights by authors will
be made de facto impossible beyond the simple refusal to have one’s work transmitted
by satellite (or even satellite and broadcast in the case of a simultaneous transmis-
sion)”.
10. A debate exists within the Creative Commons communities on how to handle moral
rights in CC licenses that authorize modifications. The present licenses for the French
jurisdiction do not waive moral rights: they can’t according to the theoretical inalien-
ability of moral rights. This leads to a degree of legal uncertainty for the user (if he or
she intends to create a derivative work). But this uncertainty is limited, provided the
user respects a few ground rules, as the practical implementation of moral rights in
courts pays much attention to the original intention of authors, and this intention is
not ambiguous: an author who authorizes modifications to a work ... knows the work
can be modified.
11. See chapter 10.
12. It could be a useful complement to the Creative Contribution, see page 64.
212 sharing
13. Part of this paragraph was published earlier on the author’s blog, see http://paigrain.
debatpublic.net/?p=1629&lp_lang_view=en.
14. Documents that were never the object of copyright or whose copyright is extinct.
7. How much?
1. This particular distinction is essential, because it influences the risk of a new round of
“regulatory takings” claims. See above page 76 and below page 117.
2. See http://www.laboiteverte.fr/.
3. Our translation.
4. See blublu.org, http://www.davidellis.org/ and http://vimeo.com/6555161 (License CC-
By-NC-ND).
5. Depending on the context, we use the terms creators, contributors or authors and other
contributors interchangeably to designate the producers of digital works that are freely
shared. We consider performers (in music, theater plays, dance or movies) to deserve the
name of creator on equal standing with authors or directors. More generally, we do
not put any special emphasis on the word creator.
6. The notion of an album will survive even if records disappear – which we do not
believe will happen – because it defines a listening unit, one particular form of a play-
list.
7. (Stiglitz 2009), our translation.
8. See http://magnatune.com/, http://www.jamendo.com/ and http://pragmazic.net/bin/
accueil.php?lang=en.
9. If a non-proportional reward function (see below page 94) is put in place, one will
need to consider how the coexistence of albums and tracks as work units might bias
the system.
10. Weighted by their relative contribution to each work in the case of works with several
contributors.
11. If one excludes royalties for neighboring rights of performing musicians, which al-
ready come from mutualized financing schemes.
12. In France, in 2003, only 8,700 authors and performers for all media received enough
royalties to induce them to pay contributions towards retirement benefits on the basis
of these royalties (Benhamou-Sagot-Duvauroux 2007).
13. Refer to the box on currencies on page 63 for explanations regarding how we deal
with currency equivalents in this book.
14. In developed countries.
15. Or more than 2% of the total adult population. Source: 2010 Statistical Yearbook of the
US Census Bureau, table 1123.
16. In other countries, a possible minimum would be for 0.8 to 1.0% of persons with
broadband Internet access to receive the purchasing power standard equivalent of
$200.
17. We come back to this issue when discussing the question of whether we are “monetiz-
ing the non-market” in FAQ 19 on page 167.
18. The number of broadband Internet subscribing households in each country was taken
from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_number_of_broadband_Inter
notes 213
net_users. The total number of subscribers for 2009 corresponds approximately to the
number of home subscribers at the beginning of 2011. For details on the implementa-
tion of the model in each case, see appendix B.
19. Zipf laws of parameter 1.0, 0.9 and 0.8.
20. According to the Wikipedia page: “Artists and repertoire (A&R) is the division of a
record label that is responsible for talent scouting and overseeing the artistic develop-
ment of recording artists. It also acts as a liaison between artists and the record la-
bel.”, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artists_and_repertoire. Independent labels are
responsible for most of the true A&R activities, major labels intervening mostly at a
later stage, to promote already known artists more widely. In this book, we consider
A&R to be at the core of the long-term role of publishers in Internet culture. Yet in
recent years, major labels have made major cuts in their A&R budgets, to make room
for more promotion expenses for established artists.
21. See http://www.kickstarter.com/help/faq\#SoThisIsnAbouInve.
22. See http://www.mymajorcompany.com/Artistes/gregoire.
23. See https://www.sellaband.com/.
24. See http://www.touscoprod.com/.
25. The US Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that, in 2009, the total of wages for 27-0000
Arts, Design, Entertainment, Sports, and Media Occupations category within the wider Industry
NAICS Newspaper, periodical and directory was close to $8,000 million. Subtracting the
book publishing sector (which we have accounted for already) and adding externalized
content production costs (such as syndicated works) would lead to a gross estimate of
$7,000 million.
26. Source: 2010 Statistical abstract, US Census Bureau, tables 1191.
27. We discuss this view in chapter 11.
28. Our global estimates include public grants. The lower per capita investment is mostly
due to a weakness of private investment in some sectors.
29. Cf. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flickr and http://www.flickr.com/creativecommons/.
The figure for Creative Commons photos is from March 2011 while the total figure is
from October 2009.
30. See http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos264.htm.
31. According to (Oberholzer-Strumpf 2010), the vast majority of Internet file sharing
traffic in data volume was already composed of video files in 2006.
32. (Oberholzer-Strumpf 2010) quotes (Ferguson 2006) as showing “that eDonkey traffic
levels were largely unaffected in 2006 when legal authorities forced closure of a large
network of servers”.
33. These three hypotheses are those described above, used to produce the figures quoted
in table 7.1, for the US.
34. Assuming that a quarter of all rewards would go to music.
35. The authors justify not analyzing the years after 2004 by a change in the coverage of
venues by Pollstar from 2005 (to include a much wider range of small venues). It
would have been interesting to get some insight into what happens in this new situa-
tion.
36. Between 1995 and 2002, data being unavailable for 2003 and 2004.
37. US Census Bureau 2010 Statistical Abstract, table 1102.
214 sharing
38. See The Numbers, http://www.the-numbers.com/
39. Syndicat de l’édition vidéo.
40. See http://www.sevn.fr/?page_id=6.
41. Source: Centre National de la Cinématographie, Statistiques sur la production cinéma-
tographique en France, 2010 data for 2009, “Investissements dans la production fran-
çaise”, see http://www.cnc.fr/CNC_GALLERY_CONTENT/DOCUMENTS/statistiques/
par_secteur_FR_pdf/ProductionCine.pdf.
42. Décret no 2001-1329 du 28 décembre 2001, http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.
do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000770601.
43. The box office is measured jointly for US and Canada.
44. Sources: The Numbers, Nash Information Services, http://www.the-numbers.com/mar
ket/. See also the Major film studios entry of Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Major_film_studio\#Today.27s_Big_Six.
45. To some degree: books can be photocopied, but with a significant loss of usability.
46. Source: http://www.bowker.com/index.php/press-releases-2007/146 and (Jones 2009).
Note that according to other methodologies, there are only between 170,000 to
200,000 books every year, but with similar trends.
47. See http://www.thebookseller.com/news/85891-self-publishing-takes-the-lead-in-us.
html.
48. Source: Livres Hebdo – Électre biblio/DEPS, http://www.lemotif.fr/fr/le-livre-en-ile-de-
france/chiffres-cles/bdd/article/49.
49. Source: http://www.sevn.fr/?page_id=6.
50. US Census Bureau 2010 Statistical Abstract, table 1096. The figures quoted in this
table, whose source is Mediamark Research Inc., should be interpreted with some
caution, as they are difficult to reconcile with table 1120, originating from the same
source.
51. See http://www.broadband.gov/plan/
52. See for instance article 14 of the 1996 Phonogram Treaty and its important limitation by
article 12.2, see http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/wppt/trtdocs_wo034.html\#P111_
13298.
53. “Technical protection measures” is a legal term. In media business contexts, TPM are
also called DRM, for Digital Rights Management, so as to disguise their true nature as
access and usage control devices.
54. The fate of this law proposal is uncertain at the time of writing, further to the nomina-
tion of a new Minister for Culture.
55. See above page 87.
56. The droit de retrait and droit de repentir exist only in France, Italy and Greece. They allow
the author to request the withdrawal of material that has already been divulged, in
exchange for a monetary compensation of the costs associated with this decision.
They are extremely rarely applied in practice. When they have been, it was usually for
dubious purposes, such as when Céline’s heirs requested the withdrawal of the anti-
semitic passages of his works.
57. Including media spending, attending cultural events and amateur artistic activities,
but excluding digital equipment.
58. US Census Bureau 2010 Statistical Abstract, table 1195.
notes 215
59. They note there was a strong growth in leisure services spending and a smaller de-
crease in leisure goods spending. This increase in services and decrease in goods is
noted in all fields impacted by information and communication technology.
60. Simply because households without a broadband connection are generally poorer or
live in rural areas.
61. See (ARCEP 2008): in 2007, the monthly expenditure was ¤55 on average for all
households and ¤72 for equipped households. As of 2010, almost all households have
become equipped.
62. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Consumer Expenditure Survey, http://www.bls.gov/
cex/cellphones2007.htm.
63. See for instance 2010 Statistical yearbook of the US Census Bureau, table 1120.
8. Sustainable financing for the commons
1. See the Knowledge Ecology International page on the WHO Negotiations on Public
Health, Innovation and Intellectual property, http://www.keionline.org/whoiplusa and
the funding of AIDS prevention and treatment by the first global tax on airborne pas-
senger transport.
2. The number of households is growing, due to the increase in single-person or small
households. However this also means that the average resources per household grow
much more slowly or even decrease, for instance for single-parent families.
3. Thus, a total amount of 5.5–7.7% of the investment in the production of an initial
copy of works in all covered media.
4. Even in comparison to the best first instance case law in Spain, the scope of legal
sharing will be clarified and extended.
5. See http://www.vgrass.de/?p=193. Brazil is a specific case because there is a wider
success of voluntary sharing in media such as music. See FAQ entry 16 in chapter 11
for an example.
6. We note that this leads to non-negligible economic development in country A. Given
the importance of a head-start in Internet-based activities, this is likely to be sustained.
7. See for instance New Zealand 1994 copyright act n° 143, art. 226, http://www.legisla
tion.govt.nz/act/public/1994/0143/latest/DLM346899.html, which explicitly excludes
geographical zoning from protection against circumvention.
8. Except if country B blocks all IP addresses based in country A, an option which defies
common sense but will certainly be considered by some interest groups in country B.
9. See chapter 10.
10. See http://www.plos.org.
11. For the former, see the Svalbard Global Seed Vault project where seeds are stored in a
vault in the permanently frozen ground of an island of the Spitsbergen archipelago.
For the second mode, see (Saunier-Meganck 1995) and the farmer’s seeds networks
coordinated by the journal GRAIN.
12. Because they required genetic homogeneity of seeds.
216 sharing
9. Organization and complementary policy measures
1. See http://www.laquadrature.net/en/Net_neutrality.
2. See above on page 62.
10. Usage measurement for equitable rewards
1. Bernard Miyet, CEO of SACEM, the collecting society for music authors and compo-
sers in France, expressed this point of view in a radio debate in which we participated.
2. Declarations of Eduardo “Teddy” Bautista, president of SGAE, the Spanish collecting
society for music composers, authors and publishers, and Pascal Rogard, CEO of the
SACD collecting society for audiovisual and theater authors in France, in public de-
bates with us.
3. Laurent Petitgirard, former president of SACEM, in a debate with us.
4. For statutory licensing to educational public broadcasting in the US, there are 8
classes of radio stations (CopyrightRoyaltyBoard 2007).
5. See http://www.wordpress.org.
6. Unemployment benefit for intermittent workers in the performing arts.
7. They are of course intrinsically unable to distinguish between a legitimate use of a
work and an illicit one.
8. See http://www.shazam.com.
9. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wike/Berne_Convention_Implementation_Act_of_1988
10. Meaning that the registrant is assumed to be entitled to register the work. This must
not be confused with another meaning of copyright entitlement that designates the
ability to enforce copyright without having to register the work.
11. See http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/trtdocs_wo001.html.
12. International Standard Book Number.
13. These patents can be challenged in Europe as informational patents whose validity is
not recognized in the Munich convention. Their validity could also be contested in the
US under recent case law regarding informational patents used in business methods.
Prior arts challenges could also be possible, as they are generally with any information
or software patent.
14. This must be done in a manner that does not prevent some modification of works for
adaptation to formats or dissemination channels, or derivative works when they are
authorized.
15. Some may be surprised that we use free/open source software, that is software that
users are authorized to modify, for a process that must be fraud-resistant. It is indeed
contrary to free software licenses to prevent users to modify it. However, it is perfectly
OK for the data collection agency to ignore data when it has indications that the criti-
cal parts of the reporting plug-in have been tampered with, and to make sure that
users cannot make such modifications without the data collection agency having a
good chance of knowing about it when the data is reported.
16. Noank Media was founded to implement the measurement systems described in (Fish-
er 2004). It does not appear to be active anymore.
17. See appendix C for the justification of these claims.
notes 217
18. The vast majority of French blogs are teenager blogs associated to the Skyblog site,
some of which of course have an original design or contents, but many are strongly
stereotyped. The source for the first 2 numbers is (Giazzi 2008). The number of the
“creative effort” blogs is our best guess: it does not matter for our purpose here if we
are mistaken by a factor of 2. By creative effort, we mean any form of personal origin-
ality in form, contents or ideas being expressed or facts being reported.
19. This is 50 times and not 100 times, because, in our model for the reporting by the
voluntary sample, we made the hypothesis that the members of the voluntary sample
would account for twice as many blog readings per person as the general population.
20. See http://www.kickstarter.com/help/faq.
11. Clarification and counter-arguments
1. For a better knowledge of the specificity of software and databases, it is useful to
remind oneself of how it entered in the realm of copyright. In the US, software and
databases became copyrightable after work by the CONTU Committee in the 1970s
(made available on the Web by (Hollaar 2003). In Europe, similar debates preceded
the adoption of the Munich European Patent Convention of 1972, which precluded
computer programs from being patentable inventions. During the debates, it was re-
cognized that software and databases differed from other entities covered by copy-
right, and some recommended that they remain in the public domain.
2. Directive 96/9/EC.
3. See http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/3.0/legalcode.
4. See the remarkable Gramophone record page of Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Gramophone_record.
5. The 2010 Brazilian copyright law proposal includes sanctions for music labels paying
radio to play particular music tracks (Colombo 2010).
6. This list corresponds to risks identified in the Lambrinidis report (Lambrinidis 2009),
which was adopted by the European Parliament in March 2009; in the French Conseil
constitutionnel Décision n 2009-580 DC of 10 June 2009 on the first HADOPI law, which
foresaw the implementation of the infamous “three-strikes and you are out of the
Internet” policy in France (Conseil Constitutionel 2009); and in the opinion formu-
lated by the European Data Protection Supervisor on the negotiations of the ACTA
treaty (Hustinx 2010).
7. Cf. intervention by Cay Wesnigk, member of VG Bild-Kunst, in the European Parlia-
ment event reported by (Cronin 2010).
8. See http://www.believedigital.com/.
9. See http://flattr.com/.
10. Censal voting is a system in which only richer people are allowed to vote, or have more
votes.
11. See http://www.lalliance.org and, for STIM, (OMahony 2008).
218 sharing
12. From proposal to reality
1. The International Federation of the Phonographic Industry and the Motion Picture
Association deserve a special mention. The latter conveniently deleted “of America”
from its name.
2. See http://www.keionline.org.
3. See http://www.cptech.org/a2k/pa/.
4. See http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/issue/view/197 and
http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/issue/view/200.
5. See above on page 34.
6. Although with a wider scope than just entertainment.
7. See http://www.kickstarter.com, http://www.yooook.net.
8. See the presentation video at http://flattr.com/register.
9. See http://2010.fcforum.net/en.
10. See http://fcforum.net/sustainable-models-for-creativity/how-to-manual.
11. See http://news.cnet.com/8301-30685_3-20000092-264.html.
12. See http://crenk.com/the-pirate-bay-torrent-search-engine-to-be-censored-in-italy/.
13. See http://creationpublicinternet.fr/blog/index.php?category/Ce-que-nous-proposons.
14. Statement by Ruth Hyeronimi in the “Future of Intellectual Property” Conference or-
ganized by the Goethe Institut and the Committee of Regions of the European Union
in Brussels, 23-24 April 2009.
15. In a 2005 interview (Kanellos 2005), Bill Gates declared that “No, I’d say that of the
world’s economies, there’s more that believe in intellectual property today than ever.
There are fewer communists in the world today than there were. There are some new
modern-day sort of communists who want to get rid of the incentive for musicians
and movie makers and software makers under various guises. They don’t think that
those incentives should exist.”
16. After a change of management, ADAMI later opposed such proposals.
17. See http://wikis.fu-berlin.de/display/fcrc/Home.
A. Diversity of attention for beginners
1. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zipf%27s\_law.
2. A probability density function is a mathematical function which one integrates over a
specific interval to obtain the probability that the quantity of interest lies in that inter-
val: P a X < b ½  ¼
_
b
a
f ðxÞdx. Integrating from a particular value to infinity gives the
probability that the quantity of interest exceeds that value, known as the cumulative
probability distribution: P X x ½  ¼
_
1
x
f ðx’Þdx’. Conversely, the probability density
function can be obtained by differentiating the cumulative probability distribution.
3. Vectorial text indexing for retrieval uses this property by giving a stronger weight to
rare words when indexing a text.
4. This normalization is needed because the finite sum of a power law depends on its
index.
5. This means that a Pareto’s law of parameter 1 and a Zipf law of parameter 1 are actu-
ally “the same”, but this is not true at all for parameters other than 1. For instance a
notes 219
Zipf law with parameter 0.5 corresponds to a power law of index 3, and thus to a
Pareto’s law of parameter 2.
6. Our method is based on directly optimizing the goodness of fit measured by a Kolmo-
goroff-Smirnoff distance on cumulated distributions. The source code for the corre-
sponding algorithm is distributed under the GNU GPL version 3 license (http://www.
fsf.org/licensing/licenses/gpl.html) on the book’s Web site at : http://www.sharing-the
book.net.
7. (Goldstein et al. 2004) propose a Maximum Likelihood Estimation method, where the
resulting goodness of fit is also measured by a Kolmogoroff-Smirnov distance on cu-
mulated distributions, with tables specifically adapted to their method of estimation.
8. Private communication at the First Monday 10th anniversary Conference on Openness:
Code, science and content, Making collaborative creativity sustainable, Chicago, 15-17 May
2006.
9. Works for which the rights holders cannot be identified or reached.
10. Files named SourceSearch.xml in the data set.
B. The total cost of rewards and their distribution
1. If c
i
did not contribute to w
j
at all, contribðc
i.w
j
Þ ¼ 0.
2. In figure 7.2, the size of the universe is kept constant, but in practice, it will vary: if the
total cost of the reward is fixed, spreading it more diversely (but still according to a
Zipf law) implies an enlarged set of rewarded creators.
3. They can be run interactively or downloaded at http://www.sharing-thebook.org.
C. Modeling usage measurement
1. If a better knowledge of the distribution of titles and shared per creator existed, one
could do a more rigorous modeling by convoluting this distribution with the popular-
ity distribution.
2. Possibly its variant for variables following power laws with infinite variance.
3. Source: Wikipedia iTunes Store page, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITunes_Store,
quoting Apple Inc. press releases.
4. Based on 3,600 million sales in a year for an average price of $1, of which 13% total
are redistributed to author, composers, performers and other contributors, or their
assignees.
5. See table 6 in (Veenhof 2009), http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/56f0004m/2006013/tbl/
tbl06-eng.htm.
6. Strictly speaking, we should also take it into account when computing N’, but this has
little impact. In reality, the most appreciated blogs stand a higher chance of being
registered, but we will also ignore this fact for sake of simplicity.
7. By readership per year we mean number of blog content page views, with the usual
exclusions of own access, robot access and RSS access without full content display.
8. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obfuscated_code.
220 sharing
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Index
A
absolute difference 188
absolute ranks 192
academia 102
academic research 177
access 146-147, 153
access control 121
access to education 162
access to knowledge 169
access without sharing 61
ACTA 24, 50, 74
actors 162
ADAMI 68, 167, 175
Adamic, Lada M. 181
additional policy measures 141, 143
AdSense 87, 143
advertising 45-46, 55, 60-61, 107, 142-
143, 165
advocacy 173
Aidouni, Frédéric 189
Aigrain, Suzanne 190
Albanel, Christine 49
album 32, 37, 91-92, 106, 165, 171, 175
Alliance Public Artistes 23
Alliance Public-Artistes 175
alternative financing systems 171
alternative reward systems 67, 69, 75
Amazon 61
analog distribution and performance
158
Anderson, Chris 37, 181, 191-192
Android 61
Anitelli, Fernando 7, 165
Apple 61, 163
archives 88, 181
archiving 108
collaborative 108
art market 108
artificial scarcity 142
artist income 111
artists and repertoire 102
attention 15
concentration 60, 94, 96, 184
diversity 8, 36, 43-44, 46, 94, 181,
184, 189, 191-194, 203
economy 59
attribution 86, 121
audience measurement intermediaries
147
authors 68, 115-116, 120, 131
automatic recognition systems 149
average individual use 201
average readership per blog 203-204
B
Badin, Raphaël 7, 190
Balázs, Bodó 7, 43
Barcelona 77, 171
Bautista, Eduardo 217
Bayart, Benjamin 163
Belgium 76, 129
Believe 165
Benkler, Yochai 7, 45, 74
Berkman Center for Internet &
Society@Berkman Center for
Internet & Society 7
Bern Convention 86
best-selling artists 167
bestselling authors 198
bibliometrics 184
BigChampagne 39
biodiversity 132
BitTorrent 32, 35, 40-44, 88, 113, 163
black hole scenario 44, 49, 107, 160
blanket licensing, see{license 81
blog reading time 203
231
blogs 29, 35, 69, 80, 82, 92, 98, 101,
143, 146-147, 153, 155, 172, 186, 203
Blu 90-91
Blu-Ray 113
Blur/Banff proposal 79
Bogotaj, Maja 7, 69
book photocopying 21, 66, 118
book publishing 105-106, 111, 115, 118
books 27, 29, 35, 81-82, 84, 88, 101,
116, 122, 171, 181, 186
box office 103, 113, 115
Boyle, James 74, 171
Branco, Juan 7
Branco, Paul 7
Brazil 76-77, 121, 129, 165, 172, 176
broadcasters 149, 172
broadcasting 107
broadcasting by the public 174
budget 166
C
cable networks 142
cam-cording 84
Canada 129, 175
capabilities 71, 74, 76, 98, 168
capability building 50, 69, 174
Carasso, Jean-Gabriel 7
Carvalho, Aline 7
CDU 173
censorship 131
centralized downloads 163
certification 132
Choruss 75
cinema 115
civic role 177
civil society 173
clarification 157
clues 147, 152-155, 165, 200-202, 204-
205
co-operative financing systems 170
collaborative media 29
collaborative news media 69, 102
collaborative rating 108
collecting 166
collecting societies 35, 39, 44, 46, 51,
66, 68, 76, 83, 97, 139, 145, 151, 164,
166-167, 175-176, 208
collective management 24, 137, 166-
167
collective means 168
collector sets 46
commenting 131
Commission d’avance sur recettes 114
common good 82
common goods 16, 71
commonism 174
commons 168
commons-based peer production 102
COMMUNIA Network 7
communism 174
compensation schemes, see
{compensatory approaches 65
compensatory approaches 54, 59, 65,
70, 89, 120, 128, 157
competition 69
competition policy 124, 141, 158, 161
competitive intermediaries 79, 104,
107, 160, 171
composers 68
compulsory contribution 53
concentration of sales 46, 116
concert 46, 84, 110, 112, 161, 164-165
concert tours 61, 69, 112
consultation processes 173
consumer groups 169
Consumer Protect on Technology 169
consumers 175
consumption
passive 75
personal expenditures for recreation
67
content sites 147, 153-155
content-hosting 108
continuum of positions 175
contract law 142
contracts 88, 118, 120, 159
contributors 120, 165
control 162, 176
232 sharing
convergence 81
copyright law 16, 56, 69, 71-72, 74, 77,
83-84, 92, 109, 122
copyright reform 75, 121, 171-172
copyright rewards 194
copyrightable databases 157-158
cost of operation 139
counter-arguments 157, 168
Création-Public-Internet 77, 173
Creative Commons 25, 29, 34-35, 69,
83, 85-86, 92, 107, 121, 159, 164-165,
170-171, 189
creative communities 169
Creative Contribution 16, 53-55, 82-84,
86, 88-90, 94-95, 97, 99-102, 104,
109, 111-112, 116-120, 122-125, 127-
129, 131-133, 137, 139, 142, 151-152,
157-158, 160-161, 164-166, 171, 173-
174, 192-194
creative ecosystem 49, 53, 167
creative writing workshops 91
credits 92-93
critical space 53
cross-checking 148
cryptographic integrity checks 151
cryptography 204
cultural commons 50, 54, 70-71, 76,
82, 142, 167-168, 170-171, 174
cultural craftsmanship 171
cultural diversity 15, 32-33, 36-37, 55,
192
cultural ecosystem 169
cultural empowerment 32
cultural heritage 174
cultural industries 16
cultural industry era 75
cultural studies 184
cumulative distributions 188, 190
D
DADVSI 81, 83
dance 91
Darnton, Robert 88
data 102, 157
data collection agency 153, 204
data protection 24
databases 158
DC++ 43
de Martin, Juan Carlos 7
de-zoning 130
decentralized P2P model 163
decision-making processes 139, 141,
167
DeCSS 121
Deezer 46
Dehorter, Nicolas 104
democracy 173
democratic governance 139, 141
derivative works 85
di Cosmo, Roberto 7, 92
differential contribution 130
differential pricing 130
digital distribution to the public 84
digital divulgation right 158
digital photography 107
digital recordings 111
digital sales 165, 202
Directive on Satellite Broadcasting and
Cable 85
distribution 161-162, 171, 198, 200
distribution channels 175
distribution keys 80
distributive justice 69, 111, 129, 174,
176
distributor monopoly 62
distributors 29, 45, 63, 65-66, 83, 85
diverse 154
DMCA 121
Doctorow, Cory 116
documentary 101, 107, 114
DOI 151
donations 55, 165
Donnat, Olivier 98
Doueihi, Milad 7
download 29, 32, 38-40, 43, 45, 50,
59, 62, 64, 87, 113, 147, 163
downloads 41, 45, 112
DRM 60, 83, 115, 121, 141, 169, 175
index 233
DRM-free 116
droit de retrait 122
dual digital society 76, 162
due process 162
Dulong-de-Rosnay, Mélanie 7
DVD 118, 121, 130
DVD sales 113-114
Dylan, Bob 91
E
eBook 115
economic rights 109
economies of scale 198
editorial activities 108
editorial selection 131
eDonkey 35, 40, 189-190
Eldorado 43, 49, 162
electronic books 81
Ellis, David 90-91
emerging artists 68
empowerment 173-174
eMule 41, 190
Endemol 33
entertainment industry 174-175
equitable distribution 176
Estoup, Jean-Baptiste 183-184
Europe 23-24, 27, 35, 45, 64-65, 68-
69, 72-75, 83, 87, 91, 98, 101, 113,
119-121, 123, 142, 174, 176, 208, 211
European Copyright Directive of 2001
74, 76
European Directive on the Legal
Protection of Databases 158
exceptions 65, 86
exceptions and limitations 34, 72-73,
109
exemplar 87-88, 122, 150
exhaustion of rights 72
see{first sale doctrine 27
existence of works 106
export sales 130
F
facts 157
fair dealing 33, 72
fair trade 141
fair trial 162
fair use 33, 72, 86, 109
fake clues 152, 154-155, 204-205
fake members 152, 204
fakes 31, 40, 187, 190
Fanning, Shawn 30
farmers 132
FCC 142
feature film 101
fees 55, 168
file sharing, see{sharing 15
film 81, 105, 118, 165
film and audiovisual 50
film and video production 104
film-makers 162
filtering 81
filters 102
financing of projects 90
financing schemes 23, 25, 177
financing sources 50
First Monday 169
first sale doctrine 27, 72
Fisher, William T. 7, 23, 66, 70, 81, 85-
86, 89, 145-146, 211
flat-rate 64-65, 71, 79-81, 85, 116, 119,
122, 145, 157, 165, 169-172, 175-176
Flattr 127, 153, 165-166, 170
Flickr 107-108
for the benefit of a few 166
formality 151
Forum d’Action Modernités 7
France 23-24, 37, 49, 53, 61, 63-64,
66, 68-69, 76-77, 81, 83-85, 98-100,
111, 113-116, 118, 123-124, 149, 153,
155, 162, 170, 173, 175, 203
Franz, Vera 7
fraud 17, 86, 97, 139, 145-149, 151,
153-155, 160, 204-205
in social systems 149
investigation 204
234 sharing
presumption of 149
prevention and detection 204-205
Free Culture Forum 7, 77, 171
Free Culture Research Conferences 177
Free Culture Research Workshop 2009
191
free/open source software 102, 152
freedom of expression 82, 162, 164
freedom of information 172
freely reusable 157
Fuster-Morell, Mayo 7
G
gag law 172
games 81, 101, 105-106
Garland, Eric 39
gatekeepers 60, 142
Gates, Bill 174, 219
GDP 45
geo-localization 107
Germany 63, 76-77, 99-100, 123-124,
129, 164, 166
Ghosh, Rishab A. 96
global cultural welfare 110-111, 119
GNU Free Documentation License 34
GNU General Public License version 3
205
Goldhaber, Michael 209
Google 61-62, 142
GoogleBook settlement 64
governance 128, 139, 160, 166-167, 171,
176
government-administered funds 103
government-administered rewards 66
Grassmuck, Volker 7
grassroots initiatives 174
grassroots intermediaries 165
Green 173
Grégoire 104
Griffin, Jim 7, 75, 175
guarantee fund 159
Guthrie, Woody 91
H
hacker spaces 91
HADOPI 150, 162-163, 173
Hammond, John 91
harmonic number 186
Harvard University 183, 191
health 132
heirs of deceased artists 68, 74
heirs of right holders 167
high-level benefits 149
home copying 72, 109, 112, 119
household
cultural expenditure 122-124
expenditure for mobile communica-
tions 122, 124
fixed Internet access expenditure
122, 124
poorer households 124-125
How-To for Sustainable Creativity 171
human confirmation 148
Hyeronimi, Ruth 219
I
identifying works 149
IMPALA 64
in-situ biodiversity preservation 132
inclusion
of media 80, 82
of works 82-83
income 182
income progressiveness 125
income tax 125
independent artists, writers and
performers 107
independent impact studies 173
independent production 103, 114-115,
175
India 115
indications of interest 147
individual preferences 79, 159, 174
information services 107
innovative market offers 164
integrity 122
intellectual rights 74
index 235
interest groups 174
intermediaries 84, 87
liability 24, 172
intermediate absolute popularity rank
192
intermediate popularity titles 141
intermediate popularity works 192
international aspects 100, 129-130
International Chamber of Commerce
169
Internet Archive OpenLibrary 36
Internet policy 169
Internet Service Providers 64, 122, 125,
138, 163, 208
Internet studies 184
Internet subscribing household 89
Internet-based participatory democracy
140
Internet-native media 43, 67, 69, 80
investigative reporting 101, 107
investment funds 103
investors 110, 167
iPad 62
iPhone 62
iPod 110
ISBN 151
Italy 53, 76, 129
iTunes 45, 106, 163
J
Jamendo 92, 108
Japan 119
Jenner, Peter 7
Johansen, Jon Lech 210
judicial procedure 82
K
keys 152
Kickstarter 103-104, 156, 170
Knowledge Ecology International 169
knowledge, environment and social
commons 127
Kolmogoroff-Smirnov distance 188,
190
Kolmogoroff-Smirnov distance 190
Krikorian, Gaëlle 7
Kulturflatrate 166, 173-174
L
La boîte verte 91
La Quadrature du Net 7, 207
labels 64, 103-104, 107, 165
laid-back entertainment 175
Lakatos, Zoltán 43
Lambrinidis, Stavros 218
Latapy, Mathieu 7, 189
Le Crosnier, Hervé 7, 208
Le Glatin, Marc 207
least-effort route 185
Lessig, Lawrence 7, 74, 171, 175
Levi, Simona 7
levies 55, 114, 118
on blank carriers 22, 72, 119-120
liability compensation 66
liberals 174
librarians 181
libraries 88
Library of Alexandria 30
Licence Art Libre 34
licence globale 23
license
blanket 23, 81
collective 64
legal 62
licensees 64
licensing
blanket 173, 175
collective 23, 87-88, 159
copyright licensing 65-66
for commercial use 165
legal 65
statutory 64, 83, 87, 147
limited popularity titles 191
linguistics 184
LIP6 189
live performance 59, 149, 165
236 sharing
living artists 68
locking-in 62
Long Tail theory 37, 181, 191
Love, James P. 7, 79, 169
M
magazine 122
Magnatune 83, 92, 165
magnetic cassette tapes 22
Magnien, Clémence 189
majors 83, 103, 114, 175
making fraud less attractive 205
management costs 155-156
mandatory inclusion 83
manifestations of interest 147
many-to-all
creative world 15
cultural society 50, 53, 93, 96, 104,
128
market segmentation 62, 64
mass registration 151
media 101
media chronology 84, 114, 130, 158
media criticism 86
media industry 111
media production 103
media publishing 193
MediaDefender 31
Megaupload 163
memory institutions 88
merchandising 60
mere conduit 172
misgovernance 167
Miyet, Bernard 217
mobile communications 142
moderately popular works 153
modification of works 159
Moglen, Eben 7
monetizing the non-market 167
monopoly price 162
moral rights 85, 121-122
Mortimer, Julie Holland 112
motion picture 61, 105, 111, 113, 175
movie theaters 69
moving image 107
Muguet, Francis 7, 79
multimedia 105
music 98, 101, 105, 107, 110-111, 147,
153-154, 161, 165, 171, 186
music singles 154, 201
musical recording 52, 60, 68, 92, 106
musicians 111-112
Musique Libre 38
mutualism 53
mutualization 53
mutualized financing 166
MyMajorCompany 104
N
Napster 23, 30, 87
Nashville Skyline 92
NBC Universal 115
negotiating power 198
Nesson, Charles 7
Netessine, Serguei 191
Netherlands 119, 129
network neutrality 142, 163, 176
news 101, 107-108, 121, 131, 142, 157,
165
Newscorp 115
newspaper 106
NEXA Center for Internet &
Society@NEXA Center for Internet &
Society 7
Noank Media 153
non-market 15, 28, 45, 47, 50, 154, 174
non-market commons 130
non-market use practices 148
normal exploitation 73-74, 117
notoriety 164
novels 101
O
O Teatro Mágico 165
Oberholzer-Gee, Felix 110
obfuscation 205
observation of Internet traffic 147, 153
index 237
observed usage 196
occurrence of words 183
Odlyzko, Andrew 148, 187
offer of titles 44
oligopoly 60-61, 175
omni-directional income channels 165
on-line encyclopedias 35
open publishing 131
open society 173
Open Society Institute 131
open standards 141
opposition procedures 150
orphan editorial activities 107, 109, 128
orphan works 29, 35-36, 88, 158-159,
189
out-of-publication works 35-36, 88,
158-159
O’Reilly (publisher) 118
P
P2P clients 152
P2P warfare 187
Page, Will 39
paper books 116
Pareto principle 182
Pareto, Vilfredo 181
Pareto’s law 181-183
Paris Accord 169
participant 154
participative financing 127, 160
participative intermediary 166
participative production 160, 165
participatory production 104, 127
participatory rewards 165
pecia 88
peer-managed funds 103
peer-to-peer
network 22, 31-32, 35-36, 46
P2P file sharing 23, 29, 40, 46, 110,
146, 187, 189
peer-to-peer file, P2P file sharing 163
performers 68, 120
lead performers 68
support performers 68
periodical 106
personal publishing 98
Petitgirard, Laurent 64, 217
Peugeot, Valérie 7
Phil Axel 7
philosophers 116
philosophical cafes 91
phonorecord publishing 105-106
photo-reporting 107-108
photographic gallery 92
photographs 80, 82, 98, 101, 108
photography 69, 107, 147
physical carriers 27
Pirate Bay 87, 127, 172
plug-ins 152
poetry 98
Pollock, Rufus 7
Pollstar 112
poorer countries 130
popularity 181, 200
commercial 129
of creators 193
of works 15, 36, 154, 184
pornography 31, 164
possession 146-147, 162
power law 183, 185-187
Pragmazic 92, 108
precision 148, 153-155, 199
preferences, for support to production
139
print on demand 171
privacy 82, 87, 152, 162
private consumption
of cultural goods 51
of cultural industry goods 51
of music 112
privileges 115
probability density function 183
probability distribution 182
producers 83, 120, 162
product placement 60, 143
production 16, 65, 76, 79-80, 89, 91,
103, 109, 111, 113-115, 133, 160, 162,
164-165, 167, 175, 198
238 sharing
financing 100
production costs 106
production investment 105-106
professional creators 175
progressive income tax 125
progressive start 128
Project Gutenberg 36, 170
promotion 25, 35, 41, 44, 46, 50, 60,
116, 141, 161, 187
proprietary journals 131
prosumers 76, 175
PRS for Music 39
public as distributor 23, 46, 161
public broadcasting 174
public domain 157, 189
public funds 160, 165
Public Library of Science 131
public performance of music 147
public sphere 131
published titles 116
publishers 29, 83, 102, 115-116, 118,
131, 167
publishing 107
ex post 53
pubs 91
purchasing power parities (PPS) 130
Q
quality 162
R
radio 64, 80, 83, 147, 161, 165
ranked distributions 183
ranked popularity 36, 93, 186, 188
rare works 44
Read-Write society 175
readers 115
recommendation 147, 153
record publishers 161
recorded music 202
listening time 67, 202
reference 153
régime des intermittents du spectacle
149
register 150
registered works 200-201
registers 138, 155
registrant 150
registration 150-151, 167
user 152
work 150, 203-204
registration of participants 148
relative use of works 153
remix rights 85, 159
remixes 85
remuneration for work done 65
reported usage 193, 196
reporting 148, 152, 167, 204
repositories 88
repression 162, 172
resource pooling
organized 53
social 170
society-wide 131, 171, 174
statutory 53, 125, 129
voluntary 53
retail 69
revenues 109, 111-113, 115-116, 118
review 129
of use data 152
revision 131
reward 65
calculation 167
financial rewards 16, 139, 142, 165
mechanism 50
minimum 93, 97
minimum relative level of use 199
model 54
system 16, 92
to the rewarders 148
total cost of rewards 193, 195-197,
220
unit 92
usage-based rewards 16, 55, 80, 93
reward distribution system 165
reward function 71, 92, 94, 197, 201
index 239
cube root 197
less-than-proportional 94, 96-97,
129, 166, 197-198
power 2/3 197
power function 198-199
proportional 195
square root 198
reward system 93, 120, 159
constant cost 196, 199
reward@reward, model 15
rewards
ex-post 90
financial 16
usage-based 80
RIAA 67, 175, 208
Ricolfi, Marco 7
right holders, cartel 62
right to share 23, 27, 54, 60-61, 64-66,
69, 74, 76, 79, 82, 85-86, 109, 117-
118, 120-122, 137, 141, 157-158, 161,
165-166, 171, 173
Rogard, Pascal 217
S
SACEM 44-46, 64, 68
salary 168
satellite 122
scale invariance 187
scanning 84
scarcity
of copies 49, 82, 111, 113, 161, 175
of titles 175
science 102
scientific publications 35, 82, 102, 157-
158, 170
scientific publishing 88, 131, 158
scores 162
search engines 107
seed banks 132
seeds 132
self-production 171
Sellaband 104
sharing
compatible 49, 53, 111, 121, 142,
169, 171, 175
de facto 33-34
decentralized 163
impact 43, 49-50, 67-68, 110
unauthorized 33, 35, 161, 175, 189,
193
voluntary 29, 33-34, 67, 108, 161,
169-171, 191
Shazam 150
short videos 80
SIAE 175
skill 94
Slashdot 69
SNE 116
social acceptability 122, 125
social and health insurance 149
social pact 56, 77
social public goods 132, 168
social rights 16, 54, 59, 70, 72, 138
social-democrats 174
SOFICA 114
software 102, 157-158
Sony 115
Spain 72
spam robots 148
SPD 173
specialized currency creation 132
SPEDIDAM 167, 175
Spidart 104
split between media 137, 139, 159
sponsorship 55
Spotify 46, 62-63
squats 91
Stallman, Richard M. 7, 22, 97, 197
statutory payment 125, 166
Stiglitz, Joseph 92
STIM 76, 167
stock archives 107-108
streaming 32-33, 46, 59-60, 62, 64, 87,
113, 163
Strumpf, Koleman 110
subscription 45-46, 55, 60, 62-63, 165
Sunde, Peter 7, 127, 170
240 sharing
Sundman, John 116
supply pattern 50
surveillance 162
surveys 139, 148
sustainable financing 127
Sweden 76, 96, 129, 175
T
TACD 77
tagging 150
takings doctrine 117-118
Tan,~Tom F. 191
tax 166
tax credits 114
teaching 46
technical protection measures 60
television 51
texts 101
theater plays 101
theater projection 46, 114
theater tickets 114
three-step test 73, 83, 117
three-strike approaches 24, 81, 162,
169
threshold of practical usefulness 98
time budget 71, 148
Time Warner 115
titles 161, 201
top-down cultural policy 174
topping-off 96, 111, 197
Touscoprod 104
TPM 121
Trama Virtual 165
transaction costs 28, 51, 83, 92, 97,
132, 151, 165, 167
transition scheme 120
transmission, of use data 152
transparency 139, 160
trust 205
TV 81, 105, 113-115, 122, 165
TV series 92
TV-based 116
U
UDHR 21, 27
UK 116, 129
unfair trade 141
Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) 150
unique identification code 150
universe size 195
University of Exeter 190
upload 43, 146-147, 153
US 23, 45, 61, 63, 67-68, 72, 75-76, 83,
91, 98-100, 106, 114-116, 121, 123-
124, 129, 142, 150, 153-154, 170-171,
174-175, 201, 208
US Copyright Act of 1976 72
US Copyright Register 150
usage
diversity 193, 196
measurement 15-16, 97, 140, 145,
156, 158, 160, 167, 199, 205
usage data 139, 166, 176
usage measurement 199
USB keys 29-30, 32, 43, 113
user preferences 167
user prerogatives 72, 86
user-generated content sites 153
V
vegetal varieties 132
Verizon 142
Vermont 137
vertical integration 62
Viacom 115
video 81, 101, 110, 113, 118, 165, 175
video and TV 105
video-bloggers 172
virtual corporations 137
visual art 101, 104-105
voluntary participatory rewards 165
voluntary sharing communities 153
voluntary user sample 146, 148, 152-
153, 155, 160, 199-200, 202
index 241
W
Walt Disney 115
war against piracy 65, 173
war against sharing 24, 43-44, 64, 75,
81, 168
Warner Music 75, 175
wealth 181-182, 185
wealth distribution 181-182
Web 152
Wesnigk, Cay 218
Wharton Business school 191
Wikipedia 69, 181
WikiSource 36
WIPO 34
WIPO 1996 treaties 119
WordPress 149, 155
writers 111, 115
writing 114
Y
Yooook 170
Z
Zelnik, Patrick 64
Zimmermann, Jérémie 7
Zipf, George K. 37, 183, 185
Zipf’s law 37-38, 40, 93-94, 96, 181,
183-197, 199-201, 203
242 sharing

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