II. Argumentative Texts in Secondary English

Research on Argument in Secondary English

a. Importance

Three sources have been have played a remarkable role in helping secondary English learners (and indeed, western civilization) grasp arguments. Of these, the first one, Aristotle’s The Uses of Argument, is perhaps the most influential. Protégé of Plato and instructor to Alexander the Great, Aristotle was the archetypal learner-teacher whose contribution to modern writers were three rhetorical proofs:

pathos (emotions)

ethos (credibility)

logos (logic)

When combined with 21st century communication platforms, Aristotle's proofs shower rocket fuel on rhetorical efficacy. Using these rhetorical pillars, students can analyze how texts persuade and how unpersuasive texts can be reconfigured.

The second, Stephen Toulmin, a British Philosopher and educator who wrote The Uses of Argument, created a model of argumentation that contains six interrelated components for analyzing an argument:

The third is George Hillocks, Jr.’s Teaching Argument Writing, Grades 6-12, a text that shows how to teach students the relationship between evidence, claims, and warrants, how to judge a complex argument, and how to help students ask questions to understand the subtle points of argument.

Let’s explore Toulmin’s contribution further. The British philosopher defined the six parts of an argument as follows:

Claim: the position or claim being argued for; the conclusion of the argument.

Grounds: reasons or supporting evidence that bolster the claim.

Warrant: the principle, provision or chain of reasoning that connects the grounds/reason to the claim.

Backing: support, justification, reasons to back up the warrant.

Rebuttal/Reservation: exceptions to the claim; description and rebuttal of counter-examples and counter-arguments.

Qualification: specification of limits to claim, warrant and backing. The degree of conditionality asserted.[i]

Being able to understand and evaluate arguments is important for being a literate citizen who is able to support a democracy; you are less likely to be influenced by poor arguments and can confront people who are trying to influence you through rhetorical tricks. As Graf says in Clueless in Academe, “For American students to do better—all of them, not just twenty percent—they need to know that summarization and making arguments is the name of the game in academia” (p.3).] Finally, understanding (and using) arguments is a critical part of career and college readiness.

Another problem is that adolescents are often unable to support their opinions. According to George Hillock’s, Jr. “In my experience and in my research, teenagers see no reason to question or substantiate claims in any context.” Many adolescent essays are, in fact, filled exclusively with claims.

One of the big challenges for students who are listening to a speech or reading an argument is identifying logical fallacies--parts of an argument that can be enormously convincing, but are inherently flawed. Here are some examples:

“Either or fallacy” - which reduces alternatives to a binary, when there are usually more alternatives. Example: Hitler said, “We must destroy the Jews or allow the German empire to fall from greatness.”

“Hasty generalization” –which proves insufficient evidence. Example: “Women, with their constant chatter, never get to the point.” This example is also a stereotype.

“Bandwagon appeal” –which implies that a claim should be accepted because a large number of people believe it to be true. Example: “CBS has the highest quality of TV shows because it attracts the most viewers.” Source.

There are, beyond the fallacies mentioned, many others that students need to identify in order to successfully comprehend and evaluate the efficacy of an argument.

c. Challenges for Teachers

Argumentative texts are often conflated with persuasive essays—because both genres have many features in common. Both make claims, for example. The contrasted features, however, are expressed in the following t-chart

The truth is, most arguments also contain characteristics of persuasion. Those two categories can effectively make a powerful case for a claim.