First of all, certain elements must be examined if an under
standing of the differences between the planners' perception,
represented by the present scheme model, and the settler's
perception is to be reached. These may be divided into two
distinct groups - first the meaning of the original scheme plan,
its objectives, and the possible reforms and obstacles to its
understanding as seen by the two parties, and second the
resultant adaptive responses as expressed by the tenants
themselves, less directly in their poetry, and indirectly in
their health records and resource misuse. This problem can also
be reviewed through the ideas of what sort of improved model
would best meet the expectations of scheme participants. Finally
it is necessary to suggest an improved model midway between these
two perceptions so as to ensure a better performance of the
scheme within the framework of a comprehensive approach to
regional development in eastern Sudan.

TABLE 4. Perception of scheme's main objectives (Nubians
excluded)

Partially settled

Permanent
settlers

Average

Answer

No.

%

No.

%

%

1. Resettlement of Nubians

and then nomads

30

62.4

31

49.2

55.8

2. Government and settlers'
benefits

15

23.8

3. Use of Butane land and

Atbara River's water

3

6.3

10

15.9

11.2

4. Settlement of nomads only

15

13.3

7

11.1

21.2

Total

48

100.0

63

100.0

Source: 1981 field survey

TABLE 5. Why the scheme failed to achieve the set of
perceived objectives (Nubians excluded)

Answer

Partially
settled

Permanent
settlers

Average
%

No.

%

No.

%

1. Scheme plan did not
accomodate livestock

27

60.0

21

55.3

57.6

2. Government failed to meet
promises and people did not settle

9

20.0

10

26.3

23.2

3. Plan did not cater for
tenants' perception and socio-economic network

9

20.0

7

18.4

19.2

Total

45

100.0

38

100.0

Source: 1981 field survey

TABLE 6. Why plan did not accommodate livestock with the
crop rotation

Nomads

Nubian

Answer

(%)

(%)

1. Damage to crops,
especially cotton

41.5

44.5

2. Nomads will care for
animals more than crops

26.9

-

3. Not realizing economic
value of animals

15.9

-

4. Idea was to change nomads
to tenants only

8.5

22.2

5. To keep large herds of
animals away and avoid conflicts

7.3

33.3

Total

100.0

100.0

The results indicate general agreement about the scheme's set
objectives, despite some disagreement among participants that the
objectives were not the ones they aspired to. More than 56 per
cent of the respondents among nomads stated that the principal
scheme objective is the resettlement of the Nubian people in the
first place and then nomads (table 4). Well over 73 per cent of
the nomadic respondents stated that this is not the objective
they aspired to. This is clear from responses as to why the
scheme failed to achieve the set of objectives as they perceived
them (table 5). More than 58 per cent attribute this to the
failure of the scheme to accommodate livestock, 23 per cent to
government failure to keep promises, and 20 per cent to the
failure of the scheme plan to cater for the tenants' perception
and failure to take sufficient account of the social and culture
traditions of the settlers (socioeconomic network) (table 6).

As to the best way of integrating livestock into the scheme,
63 per cent of all nomads suggested the creation of special
animal breeding areas within the scheme, and 37 per cent
suggested incorporating fodder crops into the rotation and
developing mixed farming. Nubians were equally divided between
the two suggestions. Being more involved in animal breeding,
their attitude towards livestock in the scheme is less extreme
than it used to be.

Eighty-three per cent of the Nubians attribute the scheme's
failure to the original plan's neglect of the tenants'
perceptions and socioeconomic network. By this they mean
something different from the nomads, who have a livestock economy
in mind. The Nubians refer to the unregulated small-scale
agricultural system which they practiced in their original home
region. On the other side, three out of five top management
officials asserted the soundness of the original plan,
maintaining that it had the flexibility to consider the users and
to accommodate tenants' suggestions. They cited the opportunities
for participation in management through the Tenants' Association
and the recent acceptance of aura in the rotation and the
agreement to incorporate a specific number of animal units (five
sheep, one cow) for each tenant in the scheme. Tenants,
especially nomads, think that this is not due to flexibility in
the plan or to management attitude but rather is the result of
pressure exerted by the Tenants' Association. In fact the whole
series of differences in perception stem from disagreement over
this point of whether the original plan is sound or not. Nomads
consider the scheme plan not sound because it did not cater for
livestock and aura. However, 58.6 per cent of the partially
settled nomads consider the plan unsound compared with only 41
per cent of the permanently settled nomad tenants. This may
suggest a change in perception with change in culture and
contact, with a decreased reliance on the livestock economy among
permanent settlers, who in most cases lost their animal wealth
before coming into the scheme.

3. Planners think of a quick
return and think they have a national mission

16

28.6

Total

56

100.0

Source: 1981 field survey

Similar results were obtained in response to questions related
to the degree of achievement of expectations of the scheme as the
tenants had perceived them. Of permanent settlers, 58.2 per cent
felt that the scheme had succeeded in achieving for them some of
their objectives, i.e. permanent settlement, better services, and
increased income. Of the partially settled tenants, 44 per cent
thought that the scheme had satisfied some of their expectations,
i.e. increased income, better services, and available fodder. The
state of dissatisfaction was far higher among the Nubians, 83 per
cent of whom reported that scheme achievement is far behind their
expectations. This appears to be due to their high level of
expectation from the scheme compared with the nomads' more modest
expectation based on their perception that the scheme was not in
the first instance designed for them. This belief is evident from
responses relating to the image of the scheme when tenants first
joined. Only 58.7 per cent of the nomads expected it to be
successful and properly designed to meet their expectations,
while 31 per cent believed it would give them a chance of a
better life, and a further 10.3 per cent had no clear picture of
what the scheme could provide. By contrast, 97 per cent of the
Nubians expected the scheme to be successful and proper!y planned
to meet their aspirations.

The perception gap is more evident from the replies to
questions as to what the users think are the planners' and
management's image and perception of the scheme. Similar
questions were put to top management officials, asking what they
think is the nomads' perception of the scheme. The response of
the nomads is summarized in table 7. The present management still
adheres to the original assumption that nomads perceive, or
should perceive, development simply in terms of increased income
Three of the five top officials reported this, and the other two
believed that the nomads have no clear idea of what development
means at all. Answers by management are based on assumption and
not on substantial evidence or any in-depth study of the nomads'
socio-economic network. The top officials were divided when asked
the points at which their perception and that of scheme users
meet. Two of the respondents thought that they met in
"better life" and "more income" and the rest
thought this occurred at "full settlement and integration of
animals in the scheme". This last is a hopeful sign that in
future a compromise suitable to both sides can in fact be
reached.

This perception gap creates important obstacles to the
dissemination of information about the scheme to the users and to
understanding any feedback. Respondents thought the management
was basically not interested in the free flow of information to
them and from them because it follows a tight programme of work
as specified in the scheme's original plan. Ninety-eight per cent
of the partially settled nomads and 67.6 per cent of the
permanent settlers believed this. Reasons given for this lack of
interest in information flow and the best way of improving the
means of information flow are summarized in table 8.

TABLE 8. Participants' views on the dissemination of
information by management (Nubians excluded)

Answer

Partially
settled

Permanently
settled

No.

%

No.

%

A. Causes of poor
information flow

1. Management is not
interested in our ideas

27

75

21

35

2. Management inefficiency

9

25

16

26.7

3. Management has Iim ited
resources

-

-

14

23.3

4. Poor communication system
in the scheme

-

-

9

15.0

Total

36

100.0

60

100.0

B. Means of information
transmission

1. Village committee and
Tenants' Association

9

22.5

33

55.9

2. Field staff

10

25.0

17

28.9

3. Other sources

21

52.5

6

10.2

4. Personal contact

-

-

3

5.0

Total

40

100.0

59

100.0

C. Towards an improvement of
information transmission

1. Actual tenant
participation and efficient communication system

9

22.5

29

60.4

2. Power and training to
tenants under open-minded management

10

25.0

19

39.6

3. Joint meetings and more
contact with management

21

52.5

Total

40

100.0

48

100.0

Source: 1981 field survey

TABLE 9. Reasons for attachment to the scheme when it is
not financially rewarding (Nubians excluded)

Answer

Partially
settled

Permanent
settlers

No.

%

No.

%

1. Permanent settlement and
services

-

-

48

51.6

2. Hope for change

18

17.6

21

22.6

3. Base for other
activities, services, work, income,market, and water
supply