4 Contents Series Editors' Foreword Prologue Researching Practice and Practicing Research: A Critique of Distance Education Research and Writing Epilogue: Reviewing Recent Research and Writing in Distance Education From Campus to Cyberspace: The Transition of Classroom Faculty to Distance Education Roles Epilogue: Facilitating the Evolving Role of Faculty The Instructor s Changing Role in Distance Education Epilogue: The Professoriate in the New Century Distance Education Leadership for the New Century Epilogue: Distance Education Leadership Appraising Theory and Advancing Practice A New Professoriate for the New Millennium Epilogue Perspectives on Education in the New Century Reflections on the Future of Distance Education Name Index Index of Journals and Institutions Subject Index

5 Acknowledgments Chapter 2.1: Researching Practice and Practicing Research: A Critique of Distance Education Research and Writing was first published in American Center for the Study of Distance Education Research Monograph No. 4 (1991). University Park: Pennsylvania State University. Chapter 3.1: From Campus to Cyberspace: The Transition of Classroom Faculty to Distance Education Roles was first published in Educational Pathways 1(6), May (http://www.edpath.com/research.htm); a version was also published in CONNECTION: New England's Journal of Higher Education and Economic Development 17(1), Chapter 4.1: "The Instructor s Changing Role in Distance Education was first published in The American Journal of Distance Education 4(2), (1990), pp Chapter 5.1: Distance Education Leadership for the New Century was first published in the Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration 6(2), Summer Slightly different versions were also published in The Journal of Leadership Studies 8(3), Winter 2002, and in M. Moore & W. Anderson (Eds.) (2003), The Handbook of Distance Education. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Chapter 6.1: A New Professoriate for the New Millennium was first published in DEOSNEWS 8(5),

6 Series Editors Foreword The Arbeitsstelle Fernstudienforschung (ASF) the unit for distance education research at Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg is a joint venture of the Center for Distance Education and the School of Education. In supporting research and developments in distance education one of the significant outcomes was the creation of the ASF Series contributing to the overall scholarship in the field of distance education. Volume 8 with Michael Beaudoin's Reflections on Research, Faculty and Leadership in Distance Education, in addition to being of general interest to practitioners and scholars in the field, also serves as a reader for students in the course Management of Distance Education 2: Leadership in D.E. in the online Master of Distance Education (MDE) program, jointly offered by the University of Maryland University College (UMUC) and Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg. Distance education is a complex approach to provide education for learners in their homes or at their workplace. It includes operational functions such as (i) identifying the target population and their needs, (ii) choosing, managing, and administering the type of system as well as the appropriate technology for the presentation of the course materials and their delivery, (iii) recruiting, enrolling, tutoring and supporting students, (iv) assessing students, (v) evaluating and assuring quality. Successful distance education practices are predominantly largescale operations and are a significant component of educational and training systems in both developed and developing countries. In order to allow large numbers of learners to achieve their goals in a distance teaching and learning environment, the provision of this type of educational opportunity indispensably requires strategic planning, leadership and effective management. The rapidly evolving field of distance education has increased the importance and role of leadership in order to overcome barriers and obstacles to change. Despite the relevance of effective leadership it is surprising how few contributions have been made to the literature that address the critical area of leadership in distance education. Michael Beaudoin is one of the few distinguished scholars in this field. From his early works on The Instructor's Changing Role in Distance Education, published in the American Journal for Distance Education in 1990 and his Researching Practice and Practicing Research: A Critique of Distance Education Research and Writing, published by the American Center for the Study of Distance Education in its Research Monograph series in 1991 the bow can be spanned to his most recent publications From Campus to Cyberspace: The Transition of Classroom Faculty to Distance Education Roles, published in Educational Pathways in 2002 and Distance Education Leadership for the New Century, published in The Handbook of Distance Education, edited by Moore and Anderson in The ASF Series' 5

7 editors are grateful for Michael Beaudoin's compilation of these important contributions and making them available in this volume, along with several recent additional works and commentaries. Michael Beaudoin is Professor of Education at the University of New England in Portland, Maine, USA, where he was previously founding dean of a new college offering graduate, continuing and distance education programs and courses. He has held senior administrative positions at institutions in Maine, Massachusetts, Washington, DC and Germany and has written extensively on distance education issues and related topics, has presented at conferences and frequently serves as an evaluator of distance education programs and courses. He is on the editorial board of two distance education journals and is the book review editor for the American Journal of Distance Education. Since 2001 Michael Beaudoin has taught as an adjunct professor in the online Master of Distance Education program. His contributions on research in distance education, faculty transition from the classroom to distance education environments, and critical leadership issues in distance education invite students as well as all interested practitioners to take part in his elaborated approach to conducting research and reflecting on distance education practices. Franziska Vondrlik deserves our the series' editors as well as the author's gratitude for her enduring editorial assistance. The Editors May,

8 1. Prologue This introductory essay is intended to set a context and provide a rationale for this volume. Having been involved, over the past twenty years, in distance education activities, as a planner, administrator, course designer, teacher, evaluator, consultant, researcher, writer and presenter, I now find that my practice has evolved from one of primarily an activist in the field to one of increased reflection. This is perhaps as it should be; a generation of educators and administrators labor mightily in a variety of settings to bring distance education to the next phase of its evolution through ambitious program development and implementation, then gradually moves into a mode whereby its contributions are more consultative, sharing experience and insights through reflection, research and writing. It is in this vein that I undertake the present task, in hopes of offering some cumulative wisdom based on my own activities and ideas as these have evolved during two decades of teaching and learning about distance education. In 1983, I attended a national conference on adult and continuing education, presenting an invited paper on distance education. It was the only paper at this event that focused on any aspect of this topic, and I speculated as to whether or not there would be much interest in such an esoteric area. In fact, there was a respectable turnout at my session, and to my great surprise, it elicited considerable interest and discussion. In 1985, I authored a piece that was featured on the back page of The Chronicle of Higher Education 1, long before this publication introduced its weekly segment on Instructional Technology with some half dozen articles on various aspects of distance education. This op-ed essay also generated a fair amount of attention, including communiqués from academics as far away as India, in that pre-internet era. From these early experiences, as a practitioner and scholar in the field, it occurred to me that perhaps the work I was doing was not quite as unique as I may have thought, and that many other educators were also engaged in, or at least exploring, alternative ways of designing and delivering learning opportunities to those who might otherwise have limited access due to time and place constraints. I was pleased to be making a small contribution to this exciting and emerging area, and eager to acquire additional knowledge and skill related to the theory and practice of distance education. During this period, I also became more exposed to the research and writing of others, and interacted with an expanding network of practitioners attempting with varying degrees of success to advocate and advance these exciting new initiatives. Now, nearly twenty years since those early efforts to share my own ideas and experiences with other distance educators, I reflect on the research and literature 1 Beaudoin, M. (1985). Independent Study: A Bum Rap for Too Long. The Chronicle of Higher Education, April 25, p. 80 7

9 Prologue that has been added to our repertoire, with modest contributions from myself, as well as from many others who have expanded and enriched the body of knowledge so critical to improving practice in this rapidly evolving field of anytime-anywhere teaching and learning. Certainly, despite some lacunae, much insightful and useful material has been added, appearing in varied venues that include journals and conferences specifically dedicated to distance education; workshops and programs of study offering training to those who recognize new occupational opportunities in the field of distance education; books based on research and practice; and other professional publications that increasingly include pieces on the application of technology for instruction in diverse community and corporate settings. The proliferation of information related to distance education over just the past two decades has accelerated at an impressive pace, and the appetite for new and more innovative ideas and approaches continues. In fact, with so much current literature now available, electronically and in print, to both veteran practitioners and student scholars in the field of distance education, it is possible that valuable lessons from the literature of the relatively recent past is now being ignored, with the view that if it hasn t been published within the past five years or so, it really can t be very relevant, except perhaps for its historical perspective. I offer here a case in point to illustrate this phenomenon. I have been privileged, for the past two years, to serve as adjunct faculty in a program offering certificate and master s level credentials, via online study, to students world-wide who are seeking education and training to enter or advance in the field of distance education. One responsibility as mentor of the course entitled Foundations of Distance Education, was to select and assign readings that provide students with an introduction, from both theoretical and practical perspectives, to the body of literature in the field. One of those readings is an article that I authored which was published in a 1990 issue of The American Journal of Distance Education (cf. chapter 4.1.). While obviously not the most recent work on the topic, I feel it is still a useful piece to expose students to in their initial study of distance education pedagogy. However, in reviewing students comments on strengths and weaknesses of the course at the end of the semester, I noticed that quite a few of them had observed that this particular reading, along with one or two others I had assigned, were approximately ten years old, causing them to wonder about the value of such dated material, especially in a field that was constantly and rapidly changing. Initially, I took some slight offense to these remarks, and even eliminated one or two of the pieces in question from the required readings. Subsequently, however, I realized an opportunity here to test these students opinion of the 1990 article by attaching a small assignment to the reading: I asked them to specifically comment on the piece s relevance today in view of its publication date. Interestingly, nearly all responded by acknowledging that it seemed to them to be just as germane today as it might have been some ten years ago. 8

10 Prologue This experience has since caused me to reflect on the larger question of whether the literature in a field of study and practice that is perceived to be so fast-paced retains its currency and usefulness as well as information and ideas in other disciplines. I speculated about this both in terms of my own published work, as well as the much larger body of literature appearing in the field of distance education over the past ten to twenty years. Certainly, there are key concepts in the literature of distance education, as with any other area of investigation, that easily survive the test of time, and continue to be viewed as truly seminal contributions to our understanding. An obvious example of this is Michael Moore s notion of transactional distance, which has no doubt been cited hundreds of times in the distance education literature since its formulation and promulgation over twenty-five years ago. Such ideas prevail, despite many other new and important contributions presented since, because they are so fundamental to our overall understanding of distance education theory and practice. But what of lesser known works? Does much worthwhile research and writing in distance education die of loneliness and neglect simply because it is presumed to be passé? In an era when many researchers conduct their literature reviews exclusively in online venues, is a great deal of data important to an overall understanding of the field being largely ignored? This question prompted me to conduct a citation search of some of my own published work since While gratified to discover that several pieces that have appeared in print since that date have been occasionally referenced, I was struck by how often the previously mentioned 1990 article has been cited over the past dozen years. While not convinced that this particular piece qualifies as a seminal article, as it was once described by one of the editors of the American Journal of Distance Education, I did speculate as to why this article tended to attract more attention then certain others, and also how it managed to gain some notoriety after a decade in print. Why, in view of so much new literature being published in the field of distance education between 1991 and 2003, has an article discussing distance education pedagogy that was written before the Internet was in use, continued to receive a fair amount of attention? Are these earlier pieces still relevant and useful to practitioners and scholars of distance education at a time when there seems to be, finally, an abundance of new material available in this field? In re-reading my own work some years later, would I still find it worthwhile? Would I be inclined to offer similar ideas and opinions after another dozen or so years of additional experience and reflection in the field? Would I feel comfortable in referring any or all of these pieces to colleagues or students? Or would I be tempted to be my own worst critic, as I often am, and find flaws with what I had articulated at an earlier point in my career? And what of more recent publications, like those of the past four to five years? In re-examining these, would I find them to be acceptable contributions to a maturing field of study and practice? Would I make apologies 9

11 Prologue for certain statements, and offer caveats, citing circumstances that existed at the time of initial publication that made my comments and conclusions entirely defensible at the time, even though they might seem wanting at a later juncture? Finally, if given an opportunity, would I want to do substantial re-writes of these essays in light of present-day developments in the field? Certainly, enough has transpired in the field of distance education over the past decade that some might argue that most literature, especially research-based material, that was published ten years ago or more, is of questionable value to today s scholars and practitioners. Thoughtful observers could cite a number of significant developments in the distance education arena that received little if any attention just a few years ago. These include: emphasis on learner-centered teaching; focus on students as consumers; partnerships to launch and sponsor new programs; intellectual property issues; new infrastructures to deliver online products and services; evolving faculty roles; and principles of good practice. The more recent convergence of information and technology has surely changed the circumstances and conditions in which we now do business in many fields, and nowhere more conspicuously so than in the education sector. Despite continuing resistance in many settings, we have nonetheless witnessed that distance education, in all of its permutations, has gone from a peripheral to ubiquitous activity in many educational institutions and training organizations, with the teaching-learning process undergoing profound change at nearly every level of instruction and in nearly every discipline. Thus, it occurred to me to launch an exercise that has resulted in this publication. I proposed to assemble a number of selected pieces, published in various venues during the past dozen or so years, into a single volume encompassing what I considered to be critical issues in distance education then, and which I contend remain as important topics for continuing dialogue today. Each essay addresses a distinct area of distance education as it relates to students, faculty, organizations, or in some cases, the intersection of all of these. The ASF series on distance education, published by the Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg (Germany) emerged as the ideal forum for the project. Also, as this project was conceived, it gradually occurred to this author and to the editor of the series, that some overarching theme to connect the essays might be an appropriate and useful context. Thus, this presentation has a second purpose - to recognize the relative paucity of material on the topic of leadership in distance education, and to address this lacuna by presenting a deliberate focus on this particular aspect, either by offering essays devoted primarily to leadership, or by showing how leadership is critical to each of the pieces, even if some do not seem to ostensibly address this theme. Through this approach, it is hoped that critical issues in distance education leadership emerge to the fore, and that further attention to this area by scholars and practitioners in the field is encouraged. 10

12 Prologue Some observers of the education scene still seem to view distance learning as immature and experimental. Certainly, it needs to further evolve and develop, yet its impact on education to date, particularly higher education, has been so pervasive and so powerful, that it can hardly be characterized as a new or unfamiliar phenomenon. It is a process that elicits intense opinions; which is transforming the role of the professoriate and the shape of our institutions; which is generating fierce competition for resources and students; and which is prompting a call for appropriate policies and practices. And although digital resources such as the Internet have now permeated academia as tools for transmitting communications, instructional purposes and for storing information, they remain disruptive technologies in many educational settings. In such a climate of transition, there is a fundamental need for effective leadership in this arena. This volume identifies, examines and analyzes selected aspects of distance education leadership. The format utilized in this volume is as follows: selected articles relating to various aspects of distance education, published between 1990 and 2002 in various venues, are presented here as individual chapters and in their entire and original version. Immediately following each chapter, an epilogue appears. These recent essays, all written in the past year, are defined as epilogues because, as in a play or other literary works, the epilogue is intended to comment on the future of characters appearing in the original work. In this case, these epilogues serve somewhat the same purpose; that is, to comment, with benefit of what has since transpired in the field, on why I feel the pieces can be re-affirmed, or perhaps why they ought now to be revised, or at least augmented. Some epilogues begin by describing the context in which each of the earlier pieces was initially conceived, noting the status of distance education at the time, especially as it relates to the particular topic under discussion, and offering a rationale for why the piece was developed, and why it seemed a worthwhile endeavor at the time. In those instances where a piece does not seem to be directly related to leadership, the relevance to leadership of the ideas, observations and references presented will hopefully become apparent. To make the connection more explicit, certain epilogues conclude with implications or advice for distance education leaders. Through the epilogues, I function, in effect, as my own devil s advocate, at times implicitly arguing the point of whether or not the piece is as germane today as it presumably once was and, if not, why not, then offering additional research or commentary I consider relevant at this time. As one who has previously authored articles critiquing distance education research and writing, it only seems appropriate that I now subject myself to this same scrutiny. The first two companion chapters (2.1. and 2.2.), following the Prologue, critique distance education research and writing, particularly as it relates to the topic of leadership, and considers how, if at all, these contributions have influenced practice in the field. The next chapters (3.1. and 3.2) address faculty 11

13 Prologue related issues: first, the transition of faculty from classroom to distance education venues and how these faculty perceive their new activities, followed by some thoughts on how best to facilitate this process. Chapters 4.1. and 4.2. offer analyses of changing instructional roles in distance settings. The following dual chapters (5.1. and 5.2.) examine leadership practice in distance education, and argue that effective leadership is critical to the further advancement of distance education. The pair of chapters (6.1. and 6.2.) take a forward look at how educational institutions might function in this increasingly digitized new century. The final chapter (7.) is intended as a culminating essay offering the reflections of a distance educator involved in diverse leadership roles in varied venues over some twenty years. It attempts to sum up where we have been, where we are at the moment, and where those who now lead or aspire to lead might be headed in this important work during the next twenty years or so of distance education. It is my hope, by engaging in this activity, that I can augment and enhance whatever value may have been associated with the original essays, and thus make a further contribution to the field of distance education as it continues to evolve into a world-wide phenomenon engaging increasing numbers of teachers and learners, and attracting those who will assume leadership roles. This endeavor is dedicated to colleagues, both known and unknown who, through their good work in distance education, have provided learning opportunities to learners of diverse age, ability, experience and location who might otherwise not have been served. The abolitionist Wendell Phillips, when once asked Why are you so on fire? responded I am on fire because I have mountains of ice before me to melt. Though the barriers to distance education may have receded somewhat, those who lead this effort must continue to direct their fire toward the ice if we are to ultimately succeed in the important work we do. Hopefully, volume 8 of this ASF series provides some ideas and inspiration to achieve this worthwhile purpose. Cliff Island, Maine Spring

14 2.1. Researching Practice and Practicing Research: A Critique of Distance Education Research and Writing 2 At this juncture in the development and documentation of distance education as an emerging worldwide phenomenon, new contributions to the corpus of research-oriented literature are critical. While intended to provide validated data for additions to the literature in the field, research has important other benefits: it can be useful in setting agendas and focusing issues for practitioners; in generating action strategies through informed discussions; and in providing bases for greater common understanding among individuals and organizations engaged in distance education activities. Finally, after a long legacy of distance education practice, we are just now beginning to formulate a coherent definition that distinguishes it as a distinct field of educational practice; to recognize that it is a necessary component of state and national educational delivery systems; that it is a normal means of providing access to education for working adults; and that it is a legitimate field of academic inquiry. Despite noticeable gaps, the literature on distance education grows at an encouraging pace. The new Jossey-Bass book, Distance Education: The Foundations of Effective Practice (Verduin & Clark, 1991, pp ), lists twenty-six pages of reference works, most on some aspect of distance education. Still, our imagination in researching and evaluating distance education practice has not kept pace with our innovation in applying distance education principles. At present, research data remains embarrassingly thin in some areas where there is an especially strong need for convincing evidence to document and demonstrate practice outcomes. For example, in identifying the most essential skill sets for effective distance instruction, we continue to rely largely on anecdotal data based primarily on personal experience, expert opinion, and conventional wisdom rather than on any systematic evaluative data. In documenting the effectiveness of various distance education technologies, little empirical evidence is presented to support claims. Comparative studies on the effectiveness of distance education vs. classroom-based instruction seldom cite criteria used to measure results. A particularly thorough review of distance education literature on the topic of learner achievement at the K-12 level yielded 503 documents, yet only fourteen (14) of these were research-based studies, and even these provided little empirical evidence to support their conclusions (Moore & Thompson, 1990, p. 7). 2 This article was first published in Beaudoin, M. (1991). Researching Practice and Practicing Research: A Critique of Distance Education Research and Writing. American Center for the Study of Distance Education Research Monograph No. 4. University Park: Pennsylvania State University 13

15 Researching Practice and Practising Research: A Critique of Distance Education Research and Writing A review of distance education research conducted by Cookson in 1989 confirmed that descriptive and prescriptive articles far outnumber reports of systematic inquiry. Those reports that can be categorized as empirical research studies largely address two topics: the effects of specific distance education methods and student outcomes as a measure of program effectiveness. The most often studied distance education outcome is attrition in an attempt to identify factors related to student performance. These studies are pragmatic in orientation and seldom utilize previously developed concepts of adult learning theory. Yet to be examined in any detail is the nature of the adult learning process in the distance education context (Cookson, 1989, pp ). A computerized national search of all books catalogued under "distance education (OnLine Computer Library Center, Inc.) published since 1989 yielded fourteen titles that could be categorized as substantive, research-based works. Of these, three were published in 1989, three in 1990, and eight published in Eight of the fourteen publications presented research data on a single program. The remaining six volumes appear to have examined instructional and distance learner issues from a more "generic" perspective. From this admittedly informal survey we can arrive at two tentative and arguable conclusions: 1) that researchbased, book-length works on distance education topics appear to be growing in number judging from the almost 300% increase in titles in 1991 over each of the two previous years; and 2) that a good deal of the research being added to the literature on distance education continues to be confined to findings based on individual programs rather than more comprehensive research studies. Despite the introduction of several research-oriented journals on distance education which have resulted in much useful and well-regarded writing in the field, a good deal of content still focuses on case studies of individual programs that rely on anecdotal information and observation rather than empirical data. For example, a randomly selected recent issue of The American Journal of Distance Education a refereed publication devoted to research and practice, contained five articles of which only two were research based; the others focused attention on practices utilized in a particular program (Moore, 1990). Most so-called research in distance education is still evaluative or comparative and is often not useful or interesting to others than those connected with the program under review. We are studying distance education to influence decisions regarding practice, policy, strategy; yet, most data has limited external validity, does not formulate hypotheses, and does not offer results that can be reliably generalized to other situations. The practitioners complain that distance education research language is too abstract and without practical value, but scholars argue that practical concerns do not readily lead to important research questions. Coldeway offers an important distinction between evaluative case studies of individual programs and theory-based research - that the latter is more 14

16 Researching Practice and Practising Research: A Critique of Distance Education Research and Writing generalizable to other programs and practices. He also notes that we are seeing and reading a lot about distance education, but we still do not know much about its quality because we focus on media, on completion rates, on which technology works best, and on how distance education compares with traditional modes of instruction. But we still do not really know much about learners in distance education contexts, or how they learn and how best to teach them (Coldeway, 1990, pp. 387 ff.). Research attention to the international context of distance education is particularly lacking. For example, the International Centre for Distance Education undertook a survey of all institutions involved in distance learning, and published its report, The State of Distance Learning Worldwide (Perry, 1984); to date, there has been no further research effort by the Centre or by any other individual or organization to update this index. That so few individuals involved in distance education in the U.S. are aware of the long legacy of distance education in several foreign countries suggests that there has been an inadequate dissemination of literature reporting on research and practice outside the United States. To be sure, the studies conducted by the British Open University documenting its practices throughout the 1970s and 1980s have contributed significantly to the body of distance education literature, and indeed served as a catalyst to draw increased attention to a mode of study which, while it had a long legacy in many other countries for decades, remained relatively obscure until the British Open University began documenting its work and raising important questions about its impact on individual learners as well as the society at large. The paucity of research-supported writing on key distance education topics contributes to lingering skepticism, prevalent myths, and continuing doubts about the credibility of out-of-classroom instruction. In a recent discussion with an academic colleague, reference was made to an institution that offers graduate degrees in education through directed independent study. When my associate brought up the dreaded "M-O-D" phrase (i.e., mail order degree), I pointed out that there are now well over one hundred accredited postsecondary programs in the U. S. offering degrees through external study. He responded by pointing out how little literature there seemed to be on the subject, even, in the popular professional press, that might make conventional educators a bit more open minded about distance education practices. (Since 1982, I have noted less than a dozen articles related to distance education in The Chronicle of Higher Education.) A good deal of popular writing on distance education learning is still preoccupied with defending out-of-classroom instructional methods as noble and efficacious, but most authors seem to leave it to others to provide the data to support their contentions. Ten years ago the excuse was that there was not yet enough data available; unfortunately, we still do not have at our disposal sufficient evaluation research to document our work. Advancing distance 15

17 Researching Practice and Practising Research: A Critique of Distance Education Research and Writing education demands adaptive policies to meet changing circumstances and new needs; this requires persuasive evidence derived from ongoing research, but we must be willing to document, analyze and understand our failures as much as our successes. Most distance education literature today follows the pattern of adult education literature in vogue twenty-five years ago (i.e., case studies with little, if any, empirical data). As distance education programs became more prevalent into the 1980s, much of the early research literature was in the form of evaluation studies designed to present data that could be used to fend off skeptics and critics of this growing phenomenon. As was the case with adult educators, planners and administrators attempting to introduce innovation into traditional settings during the "let a thousand flowers bloom" em in higher education during the 1960s and 70s, distance educators in the 1980s were so preoccupied with establishing effective programs and practices, that relatively little attention has been devoted to research. While more insightful writing and analysis supported by data is now common in adult education (e.g., Brookfield, 1988), few distance education authors have moved in this direction. At the 1991 Research Symposium on Distance Education, current literature in the field was characterized as: descriptive, ad hoc, non-generalizable, evaluative, nontheoretical, applied, historical, quantitative and methodologically poor. Perhaps we have not yet adequately discerned what is really important to learn through research, or what theories can be derived from practice. In our zealousness to examine methodological matters, we have largely ignored ideological issues in distance education. We focus on instructional delivery systems, but we eschew contextual considerations, particularly if there are paradoxical or political considerations to address. And we certainly have not integrated much that can be learned from the rich research and writing in the adult education arena. Consequently, we have accumulated much data related to practice, but we have little to guide us in formulating policy. Although ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center) contains 1400 documents relating to distance education, we have yet to create commonly accepted language and definitions governing distance education; we have yet to establish a national agenda or statewide models for distance education; and we have yet to identify the organizing principles and concepts that unify distance education. Hopefully, we are not too far away from agreeing upon and articulating acceptable principles of good practice in distance education that are derived from reliable research in the profession. Conference presentations and proceedings also reveal conspicuous lacunae. We have observed the proliferation of state, regional, national, and international conferences on distance education with participants representing an amazing array of programs engaged in all manner of education at a distance. Yet, unless it is an event specifically designed to review and report on recent research results, presentations typically are of the "show and tell" variety. For example, 16

18 Researching Practice and Practising Research: A Critique of Distance Education Research and Writing the 1988 and 1989 proceedings Innovations in Distance Learning of the Northeast Distance Education Conference (Le Baron, 1991) included thirty-four papers; only fourteen percent of these included research references and fortyfive percent of the papers were limited to an overview of a single program. This event was widely attended by distance educators and administrators from the entire northeastern region of the country, yet the overall quality of papers left much to be desired in making a respectable contribution to research literature in the field. It is not only the lack of adequate attention to solid research in the field that is troubling; there are also very basic issues regarding the soundness of research methods utilized to assess distance learning outcomes. White (1991) has made some particularly insightful observations about the state of evaluation research in distance education, especially with regard to the effectiveness of instruction on student learning. She notes that we do not yet know if technology-assisted instruction aids student learning because it has not yet been tried at sufficiently high enough levels and frequency to test its impact; because the curricula in use today is inappropriate to the skills students need for the future; and because our evaluation research methods are archaic. For example, we teach via imagery then attempt to measure learning outcomes with pencil tests. White argues that because distance education is primarily a visual teaching medium, visual evaluation is most appropriate. In short, she advised that we use the same medium to test as is used to teach. This deceptively simple yet fundamental rule should apply to all our evaluation efforts in distance education-match research methodologies to instructional modalities (White, 1991, p. 285). Evaluation research needs to address new areas of inquiry and move beyond the standard questions regarding student attrition and which technology works best. Following is a suggested research agenda around instruction-related issues (developed at The Second American Symposium on Research in Distance Education, The Pennsylvania State University, May, 1991): How do we best evaluate quality of materials? Are certain media more suitable to the learning styles of certain students? How do we best facilitate interaction in distance education settings? What incentives are most effective to facilitate interaction? What facilitates or impedes effective learning regardless of the medium? How do we integrate the teacher s dual role of instructing and processing? What should we ask distance learners about what is helpful for them? What can we learn from the earlier low-technology/external degree/distance education programs? What are the critical teacher support systems needed to enhance distance instruction? 17

19 Researching Practice and Practising Research: A Critique of Distance Education Research and Writing What conditions are essential for creating a supportive learning environment? How do we attract non-distant learners and classroom-bound teachers to utilize distance education options? What "Principles of Good Practice" for distance educators can we derive from current research? Despite significant additions to the corpus of literature on distance education during the past decade, there are numerous other critical questions regarding this mode of learning which have yet to be adequately researched. At this stage in the distance education research agenda, questions about which technology works best is not a priority research issue. We need systematic and collaborative research relevant to the future of distance education, and we need to ask new and fundamental questions relating to pedagogy: Can independent learners fully develop the skills necessary for learning without face-to-face interaction with the teacher? If direct experience, augmented by lectures, discussions, and peer interaction is important for learning, can the independent study environment provide the necessary conditions for the learning process to thrive? Does learning at a distance allow for reflective learning which some learners utilize for optimum cognitive development? If face-to-face classroom encounters are increasingly replaced by tutors and students performing their respective roles at a distance, if instructors are steadily replaced by machines, and if learners work in isolation from one another, will the affective skills largely developed through human interaction be lost? What impact will the changing role of teaching at a distance have on the image and status of teachers accustomed to a visible and dominant presence in the classroom? How can we more reliably assess resources and determine needs in order to effectively implement the most appropriate distance learning approaches in developing countries? Further, once established, do distance education programs have any significant impact in ameliorating social problems and stimulating change in emerging nations? Can such efforts contribute to both individual advancement and social goals? In countries where major distance learning systems have been implemented and have been in operation for some time, have such efforts contributed to greater self-sufficiency and movement away from the oppressive social control that permeates many societies? Or, when linked with pervasive mass media, have such systems become powerful tools to teach people what to think rather than assist them in developing democratic skills? If a primary rationale for distance learning is to increase access to educational opportunity for greater numbers without time and place constraints, yet at the same time requiring the purchase of home-based learning aids well above the typical cost of books and other printed materials, then will technologically assisted learning be limited to the more affluent learners of a society? 18

20 Researching Practice and Practising Research: A Critique of Distance Education Research and Writing It is important to recognize and acknowledge that research in distance education, as in other areas of inquiry, has an action-oriented dimension to it. Through research, we can isolate lacunae and be guided toward new and provocative questions which can ultimately enhance our practice. Even more immediate applications of research findings are possible when we reflect on our current practice, intervening and altering our approaches as appropriate with the benefit of the data at hand. In this way, we are able to research our practice and concurrently practice our research. This paradigm is convincingly explicated by Donald Schön in his work, The Reflective Practitioner (1983). Schön advocates that practitioners in the various service professions reflect in action as a dynamic means of enhancing their practice. A practitioner who engages in reflective practice can question the definition of his/her task, the training and the theories he/she brings to it, and the measures and outcomes of performance. In this process, the practitioner reflects on the elements of knowledge and skill he/she brings to bear on practice, and thus may arrive at new insights regarding the assumptions, techniques, values, and purposes imbedded in his/her initial presumptions and ongoing training to function effectively in a particular profession. Reflection-in-action is an essential process by which professionals can assess the efficacy of their practice and initiate appropriate interventions and adjustments designed to enhance their roles. It can lead to new concepts of how to better integrate research and practice and how to impact upon the learning systems of professional institutions. It is also a means by which the practitioner can identify areas in which continuing professional training and further research is required. Both researchers and practitioners of distance education can make significant new contributions to the field by synthesizing action and reflection. Although distance learning programs now exist in diverse forms within and beyond the United States, their proliferation still has not led to the establishment of any fully recognized and reliable source of expertise that institutional planners and decision makers may rely upon for guidance. Distance education, as a distinct profession, will remain undefined and undervalued until there exist more widely accepted principles of good practice for distance educators. A more comprehensive theory of distance education must be articulated through additional research and evaluation that is derived from practice if we are to increase the awareness of others to the philosophy, methods, and efficacy of learning at a distance. 19

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