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Tuesday, October 21, 2008

A program I saw on one of the educational channels challenged the long held belief that Cleopatra killed herself with an asp, claiming her mausoleum was too close to the palace where Octavian was staying for her to have died from a snake bite in the less than 20 minutes it took for Octavian to receive her message and rush to her death bier. Now that Dr. Zawi Hawass thinks he has discovered her mausoleum on the outskirts of modern Alexandria, much farther from her seaside palace as originally thought, perhaps the timing issue is now discredited. Anyway, I still find information about ancient poisons and the ancient drug trade fascinating. I thought this paper's mention that Nero started a School for Poisoners particularly interesting!

POISONS, POISONING AND THE DRUG TRADEBy L Cilliers & F P Retief

The history of poisons and poisoning goes back about 5 000 years to the earliestwritten records of the human race. Menes, first of the Pharaohs, approximately 3 000years BC studied and cultivated poisonous and medicinal plants – an interest retainedby the Egyptian court (Smith 1952:153), until the last Pharaoh, Cleopatra, probablydied of suicide by poisoning (Retief & Cilliers 1999:8-11). The cuneiform writings ofearly Mesopotamia mention the use of poisons – a topic also dealt with in the writtenrecords of ancient India and China. Early Greek myths tell of poisoners like Medeaand Hercules’ wife Deianira, and in the 5th century BC execution by poison wasaccepted in Athenian law courts. In the Hippocratic oath, nevertheless, the students ofthe great master are made to swear that they will not use poison (Lloyd 1983:67). ThePersian court was proficient in the art of poisoning (Smith 1952:155), whileMithridates VI, king of Pontus at the turn of the first century BC and Attalus III, lastking of Pergamum in the second century, experimented with poisons on condemnedprisoners (Bloch 1987: 761-763).

In Rome the first record of poisoning dates back to 331 BC when a largenumber of women were executed for suspected mass poisoning. Although we shallnever know its true incidence, there is good evidence that poisoning occurred moreand more frequently among all levels of society, reaching a peak in the 1st and 2ndcenturies AD. In 80 BC the dictator Sulla promulgated strict laws against poisoning.At the end of the 1st century AD the satirist Juvenal and others denounced theirdecadent society, claiming that poisoning had become a status symbol, an acceptedway for mothers to get rid of husbands and stepchildren, and for children to get rid ofrich fathers who lived too long (Juv. 1.73-76; 6.133 and 602-643; 7.169; 14.250-255).Kaufman (1932:156) states that the word venenum (venom) is derived fromVenus and originally meant a love potion. In actual usage it later had three meanings:remedy, poison and magic drug or abortive; in fact, venenum is such an ambiguousword that jurists demanded that “the user of the word venenum must add whether it isbeneficial or harmful”.2 The Greek word pharmakon likewise referred to herb or drugin general without distinguishing between its beneficial or harmful effects(Horstmanshoff 1999:43). Veneficium meant poisoning or practicing sorcery, whileveneficus or venefica referred to a poisoner or preparer of drugs. The word scelus(crime) is actually used by historians like Tacitus to indicate murder by poison (Ann.1.5.2; 4.10.2; 6.33.1; 12.66.3). Poisons were also used for suicide – royalty inparticular kept a supply for emergencies (Kaufman 1932:160). Pliny considered itquite proper for the infirm elderly to end his or her miserable life by taking poison,and opium in particular (NH 2.197; 20.197-199).

Differentiation between producers of drugs (including poisonous substances), sellersand prescribers of drugs in antiquity was much less clear cut than today. There were,however, distinct intermediaries in this drug trade who played specific roles, assummarised by Nutton (1985:138-145).

The Marsi or “travelling people” were at one end of the production chain.Inhabiting the Abruzzi (central mountainous area of Italy), they had a reputation ofbeing wild and warlike with strange and archaic religious practices. They lived inpoverty, were excellent soldiers in the Roman army, but their only civilian attributeslay in almost legendary magical powers as snake hunters and charmers, and druggists.

In many ways they were marginal people, who paid periodic visits to the cities,selling their wares in the markets and performing daring acts as snake charmers. Theywere reputed to have immunity against snake venom, and Galen admits to consultingthem on the value of drugs and antidotes. The Psylli, Nasamones and Palaeothebanswere similar peoples living elsewhere in the Mediterranean region, respected for theirskills with drugs, but frowned on by the early Christians who felt that they should notbe admitted to the flock without the greatest circumspection.

The so-called rootcutters (rhizotomoi) were much more acceptable to society

as true herbalists who knew and collected plant products, which were sold tophysicians and other interested parties. Some of them were recognized experts,including the respected 1st century BC pharmacologist, Crataeus, assistant toMithridates. Most large cities had quarters frequented by the sellers of drugs(including those inducing euphoric trances and poisons) and hawkers (called anagurtês, “the man who attracts a crowd” or ochlagôgos, “seducer of the crowd”), aswell as physicians in search of remedies, and a motley crowd in search of pleasuresassociated with the variety of ointments, perfumes and spices. Gradually the drugtrade became very lucrative and expanded by way of contact with the Far East, Egypt,Arabia, North Africa and Spain. In Rome these imported products were stored inapothecae (derived from a Greek word which literally means “storeroom”), where thestoreman (apothecarius) would list them.

Eventually the lucrativeness of the drug trade led to widespread fraud andincompetence. Galen and others insisted that physicians should prepare their ownmedicines, and not rely on herbalists to do so. As poisoning increased, there was agrowing trade in mithridatum, theriac and other so-called antidotes to poison.However, Nutton (1985:144-145) points out that wide-spread and basic ignoranceabout the action of medications led to the situation where the drug trade wasfinancially profitable, but from a medical point of view ineffective and evendisastrous.

As from the late 1st century BC certain persons (mostly women) becameinfamous as dispensers of poison. The poet Horace (Sat. 2.1.56) tells of Canidia whoterrorized her opponents with her efficiency at poisoning.

Tacitus (Ann. 2.69-74; 3.7) relates that when the emperor Tiberius’ nephew Germanicus died under suspicious circumstances (AD 19), it was suspected that the notorious poisoner, Martina, a close friend of Plancina, the wife of governor Piso who had quarreled with Germanicus, was partially responsible. Martina was sent to Rome where the Senate planned aninvestigation into Germanicus’ death. She suddenly died on the way. Her body bore no signs of suicide, but poison was found hidden in a knot of her hair.

[Image: Death of Germanicus by Nicholas Poussin. 1628 CE]

Apollodorus, a rhetorician of Pergamum, was convicted as poisoner, but he escaped to Massiliawhere he opened a school (Kaufman 1932:165). Locusta was the most infamous of these poisoners (Suet. Nero 33.3; 34; Claudius 44). Convicted of many crimes during Claudius’ reign, she was not immediately executed, and subsequently approached by Agippina, second wife of Claudius, to prepare a poison for her husband. When Claudius died, he was immediately succeeded by Nero, Agrippina’s own son – who then engaged Locusta to prepare a poison for his younger half-brother, Britannicus.

After the latter’s murder, Nero suspended Locusta’s death penalty and kept her as the emperor’s adviser on poisons. He even organized a school of poisoning where she could train others in her art. Locusta was allowed to test her poisons on animals and convicted criminals. - More

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I am passionate about technology, education and history, particularly ancient history. I am constantly exploring ways to use technology to enhance the learning environment and am particularly ecstatic when I can develop a technology to advance the study of ancient history.Follow me on Twitter! Comments or Questions: mharrsch@uoregon.edu

Artist/Historian George S. Stuart creates Marius' Mule for New York collector

In addition to creating figures for museum exhibition, artist historian George S. Stuart also produces commissioned figures for serious collectors. One of his collectors requested this figure of a Roman legionary serving in the legions under the command of Gaius Marius. Marius is recognized for totally restructuring the Roman Army and introducing new training regimens. He changed the army from a voluntary militia to a professional force, allowing men from all classes of Roman society to join and make a career of military service.
See a full length view of this amazingly detailed figure at the Gallery of Historical Figures!