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Provide energy source: A fuel source when catabolized during cellular respiration. Energy is stored in the chemical bonds within the molecule and released during cellular respiration. Usually simple sugars.

Provide energy storage: Plants store energy in a complex carbohydrate form called starch (amylose). Animals store energy in a complex carbohydrate in their muscle tissue and liver in the called glycogen.

Structural Building Material: Plants build their cell walls of a complex carbohydrate material called cellulose. Animals such as arthropods build their exoskeletons of a complex carbohydrate called chitin. Chitin is also found in the cell walls of Fungi.

3. Polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates) are produced by joining many monosaccharides together by many dehydration synthesis reactions forming a polymer molecule. Examples: amylose, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin

They are classified according to the number of carbon atoms in their molecule.

5 carbons are called pentoses ex. Ribose

6 carbons are called hexoses ex. Glucose

Many forms exists as isomers. Isomers are molecules which have the same empirical formula (recipe) but have different structures (shapes) due to arrangement of the atoms in the molecule. This also gives them different properties. Glucose and fructose both have the empirical formula C6H12O6, but they have different structural formulas or shapes.

Polysaccharides are chains of monosaccharides that have been joined by many dehydration synthesis reactions.

The function of the polysaccharide depends on what type of isomer of glucose the polysaccharide is made. This determines how the glucose molecules bond together (linkage) and whether they can be used for energy storage or structural molecules.

Because cellulose has beta 1,4 linkage all animals lack the enzymes necessary to digest this material. In our case it simply passes through our gut and out of the body. We call it fiber or roughage. Animals such as termites and cows rely on simple, symbiotic, unicellular organisms such as protozoa or bacteria to carryout the job of digestion for them! In return the tiny organisms live in an ideal environment with a bountiful food supply.

A triglyceride is composed of an alcohol called glycerol covalently bonded to three fatty acid molecules by dehydration synthesis reactions. This process forms three ester groups between the alcohol and one with each fatty acid chain.

Is this a saturated or unsaturated

Fat? Why or Why not?

It is saturated because there are no double bonds between carbon atoms in the

When double bonds form in hydrocarbon chains it causes them to bend. In unsaturated fats this prevents the molecules from being able to “stack” or “pack” themselves tightly, thus they remain in a liquid state at room temperature such as oils. If the hydrocarbon chains are saturated, the chains are straight and pack themselves close together forming a solid at room temperature (animal fat, butter, tallow, lard).

Phospholipids are a special class of lipids composed of a phosphate group, glycerol

molecule, and two fatty acid chains. The phosphate region of the molecule is polar because it is negativley charged. This makes it attracted to water or hydrophilic because of waters bipolar nature. The fatty acid chain region is composed of hydrocarbon chains which are very non-polar, therefore this end is hydrophobic or repels water.

Because of their bipolar nature,when placed in water phospholipids orient themselves in small spheres or “bubbles” with their nonpolar (hydrophobic) regions oriented away from water and their polar (hydrophilic) regions exposed to water. These structure are called micelles and are similar in structure the cell membrane which is composed in part of a phospholipid bilayer.

Amino acids derive their name due to the presence of an amine group and a carboxylic group as part of their composition. They have a central carbon with the amine group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen, and a variable group (R group) attached to it. The variable group is what is different from amino acid to amino acid and it is what give the amino acid its identity. There are twenty different variable groups, therefore there are twenty different amino acids.

A peptide bond is the bond that is created when two amino acids are covalently bonded together. The carboxyl group of the first is bonded to the amine group of the second. This is carried out by a dehydration synthesis reaction with the loss of a water molecule. This forms a dipeptide.

The Secondary Level is due to interactions between amino acids in the chain, usually due to hydrogen bonding between oxygen and hydrogen atoms in different amino acids. Two general forms are taken. Alpha helix, a spiral structure, common in globular proteins, or a Beta pleated sheet structure, common in structural proteins.

The Tertiary Level is due to the “folding over” of the alpha helical or beta pleated sheet structure on itself. This configuration is due again to hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonding interactions, and the interaction of sulfur groups on the variable groups of some amino acids forming weak interactions called disulfide bridges.

Sickle-cell anemia is due to a change in protein structure at the primary level. Once the change is made at the primary level it has an effect on all subsequent levels. Resulting the formation or irregular hemoglobin protein that cause the molecule to take on an irregular form which in turns affects its normal function and the shape of the erythrocytes (red blood cells).

Nucleic acids are composed of many monomers linked together by dehydration synthesis. These monomers are callednucleotides (nucleosides). These monomers are composed of a monosaccharide (deoxyribose in DNA or ribose RNA), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The nitrogenous bases found in DNA are adenine A, Thymine T, Guanine G, and Cytosine C. The nitrogenous bases found in RNA are Adenine A, Guanine G, Cytosine C, and Uracil U, which replaces thymine.

The structure of DNA was discovered by an American scientist (James Watson) and a British scientist (Francis Crick) based on the work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins. In 1962 Watson and Crick received the Nobel Prize for their work. Wilkin later received a Nobel Prize for work relating to his contribution. Rosalind Franklin however, never received a Nobel Prize because she died of cancer before she was publicly recognized for her contributions to this effort.

DNA is a double stranded, alpha helical molecule. Each strand is composed of nucleotide covalently bonded between their phosphate groups and the deoxyribose sugar components in a 5,3 linkage between the sugars and phosphates. The nitrogenous bases point outward from the linear alternating sugar phosphate backbone.

When two strands of DNA join to form the alpha helix, it is due to hydrogen bonding between the complimentary purine and pyrimidine bases on each complimentary strand. Adenine forms hydrogen bonds with Thymine and Guanine forms hydrogen bonds with Cytosine. This is called Complimentary Base Pairing.