Clarendon (typeface)

Clarendon is the name of a slab-serif typeface that was released in 1845 by Thorowgood and Co. (or Thorowgood and Besley) of London, a letter foundry often known as the Fann Street Foundry. The original Clarendon design is credited to Robert Besley, a partner in the foundry, and was originally engraved by punchcutter Benjamin Fox, who may also have contributed to its design.[1][2] Many copies, adaptations and revivals have been released, becoming almost an entire genre of type design.

Clarendons have a bold, solid structure, similar in letter structure to the "modern" serif typefaces popular in the nineteenth century for body text (for instance showing an 'R' with a curled leg and ball terminals on the 'a' and 'c'), but bolder and with less contrast in stroke weight.[3][4][5][6] Clarendon designs generally have a structure with bracketed serifs, which become larger as they reach the main stroke of the letter. Mitja Miklavčič describes the basic features of Clarendon designs (and ones labelled Ionic, often quite similar) as: "plain and sturdy nature, strong bracketed serifs, vertical stress, large x-height, short ascenders and descenders, typeface with little contrast" and supports Nicolete Gray's description of them as a "cross between the roman [general-purpose body text type] and slab serif model". Gray notes that nineteenth-century Ionic and Clarendon faces have "a definite differentiation between the thick and the thin strokes", unlike some other more geometric slab-serifs.[7]

Slab serif typefaces had become popular in British lettering and printing over the previous thirty-five years before the original Clarendon’s release, both for display use on signage, architectural lettering and posters and for emphasis within a block of text.[8] The Clarendon design was immediately very popular and was rapidly copied by other foundries to become in effect an entire genre of type design. Clarendon fonts proved extremely popular in many parts of the world, in particular for display applications such as posters printed with wood type, they are therefore commonly associated with wanted posters and the American Old West.[9][10] A revival of interest took place in the post-war period: Jonathan Hoefler comments that "some of the best and most significant Clarendons are twentieth century designs" and highlights the Haas and Stempel foundry's bold, wide Clarendon display face as "a classic that for many people is the epitome of the Clarendon style."[4][1]

Contents

Clarendon in a Fann Street Foundry specimen book of c. 1874, showing its use for emphasis within body text.

Slab serif lettering and typefaces originated in Britain in the early nineteenth century, at a time of rapid development of new, bolder typefaces for posters and commercial printing. Probably the first slab-serif to appear in print was created by the foundry of Vincent Figgins, and given the name “antique”.[4] Others rapidly appeared, using names such as “Ionic” and “Egyptian”, which had already also used as a name for sans-serifs. (At the time typeface names were often adjectives, often with little purpose to their name, although they may have been in this case reference to the “blocky”, geometric structure of ancient architecture. There was limited separation between the name of typefaces and genres; if a font proved popular it would often be pirated and reissued by other foundries under the same name.[11])

Compared to Figgins' "antique", the Clarendon design uses somewhat less emphatic serifs, which are bracketed rather than solid blocks, that widen as they reach the main stroke of the letter.[7] Besley's design was not the first font with this style by at least three years, as typefaces labelled "Ionic" had already appeared in this style (other typefaces would copy this name), but the Clarendon design was particularly popular and its name rapidly copied. Historian James Mosley suggests that an inspiration for these designs may have been the style of handlettered capitals used by copper-plate engravers.[7]

Monotype Modern, a nineteenth-century text face, next to Haas Clarendon Bold, a display face. Both fonts show classic nineteenth-century design features, for instance on the ‘Q’, ‘R’, ‘r’, ‘a’ and ‘c’. However, the Clarendon is much wider with a higher x-height, and contrast between thick and thin strokes has been reduced.

Besley's original Clarendon design was quite compressed, unlike most later 'Clarendons' intended for display setting, which are often quite wide. One of the original target markets for Besley's Clarendon design was to act as a bold face within body text, providing a stronger emphasis than the italic type that had been used for centuries for this purpose, and in this it matches the quite condensed body text faces of the period. (The modern system of issuing typefaces in families with a companion bold of matched design did not develop until the twentieth century.[12]) Slab serifs had already begun to be used for bold type by the 1840s, but they were often quite lumpy in design and quite poorly matched to the body text face they were intended to complement. Mosley has written that "the Clarendon type of the Besley foundry is indeed the first type actually designed as a ‘related bold’ – that is, made to harmonize in design and align with the roman types [regular weight typefaces] it was set with…Before the launch of Clarendon type printers picked out words in slab-serifs or any other heavy type."[3] However, because of the Clarendon design's strong reputation for quality, it was rapidly copied. Historian Nicolete Gray considered the earlier "Ionic" face from the Caslon Foundry in the same style more effective than Besley's: "[Besley's] became the normal, but it was certainly not the first…in 1842 Caslon have an upper and in 1843 a lower case with the characteristics fully developed, but of a normal width…Besley's [more compressed] Clarendon is much less pleasing, it has lost emphasis and confidence, and gains only in plausibility."[8]

Clarendon-style type on the body text of an 1890 poster.

Besley registered the typeface in 1845 under Britain's Ornamental Designs Act of 1842,[13][14] the patent expired three years later, and other foundries quickly copied it.[7] Besley was nonetheless successful in business, and became the Lord Mayor of London in 1869.[15] Theodore De Vinne, a printer who wrote several influential textbooks on typography in the late nineteenth century, wrote that its name was a reference to the Clarendon Press in Oxford (now part of Oxford University Press), who he claimed immediately used it for dictionaries, although later authors have expressed doubt about this.[1]

With its growing popularity for display use, new versions often changed these proportions. By around 1874, the Fann Street Foundry (now Reed and Fox) could offer in its specimen book Clarendon designs that were condensed, "thin-faced" (light weight), extended, "distended" (extra-wide) and shaded.[16] Revivals continued in the twentieth century, particularly in the 1950s.

Monotype Modern with three fonts inspired by this style of design. At the bottom, Haas Clarendon shows reduced contrast and a wide, display-oriented structure, the text faces Century Schoolbook and especially Linotype Excelsior, a variant on Linotype Ionic, have text-oriented structures with narrower letterforms and smaller serifs than the Clarendon, but they show reduced contrast and more open letterforms to increase legibility compared to the Modern, particularly visible on Excelsior’s ‘e’, ‘c’ and ‘a’.[a]

The label "Ionic", originally also used for display faces, has become associated with typefaces with some Clarendon/slab-serif features but intended for body text, following the success of several faces with this name from first Miller & Richard (intended to be slightly bolder than contemporary expectations for body text proportions[17]) and then Linotype (its 1922 release Ionic No. 5, extremely successful in newspaper printing).[18][7][b] Millington notes that "Ionic became a distinct design in its own right" while Hoefler comments that it is now "chiefly associated with bracketed faces of the Century model".[20][4] A decline of interest in Clarendons for display use did, however, take place in the early twentieth century: by 1923, American Type Founders, which specialised in creating demand for new designs of display face, could argue "Who remembers the Clarendons[?]" in its specimen book, and did not show them (aside from some numerals) in its 1,148 pages.[21] In addition, the market of slab serifs was disrupted by the arrival of new "geometric" slab-serifs inspired by the sans-serifs of the period, such as Beton and Memphis.[22] However, a revival of interest did appear after the war both in America and Europe.[23]

A variety of Clarendon revivals have been made since the original design, often adapting the design to different widths and weights, the original Clarendon design, a quite condensed design, did not feature an italic, and many early Clarendon designs, such as wood type headline faces, have capitals only with no lower-case letters, leaving many options for individual adaptation. An italic is particularly important in any design intended to be used for extended text, and so designs have variously attempted to create an italic or offered obliques instead, a less conventional option for serif typefaces in which the characters are simply slanted.[4]

The original Clarendon became the property of Stephenson Blake in 1906, who marketed a release named Consort, cutting some additional weights (a bold and italics) in the 1950s,[3] the original materials were transferred to the Type Museum collection when Stephenson Blake left the printing business in 1996.[24] Designs for wood type copying Clarendon were made from the mid-1840s onwards.

Most hot metal typesetting companies offered some kind of slab serif; Linotype offered it duplexed to a roman type so that it could be easily switched in for emphasis. The typeface was reworked by Monotype, with a redesigned release as "New Clarendon" in 1960.[25][26] Hermann Eidenbenz cut a version in the early 1950s issued by Haas and Stempel, and later Linotype.[27][28][29] Freeman Craw drew the Craw Clarendon family, a once popular American version, released by American Type Founders, in 1955, with light, bold and condensed variants.[30][31]

The italic of Egizio, intended to complement the pre-existing Clarendon design concept.

Aldo Novarese drew the Egizio family for Nebiolo, in Turin, Italy. The design included matching italics.[4] David Berlow, of the Font Bureau, developed a revival as Belizio in 1998,[32][33] the Clarendon Text family with italics inspired by Egizio, was released by Patrick Griffin of Canada Type.[34]

Ray Larabie, of Typodermic, released the Superclarendon family in 2007, using obliques instead of italics. A wide, display-oriented design with small caps and Greek and Cyrillic support, it is bundled with OS X.[37]

Sentinel, from Hoefler & Frere-Jones, another typeface family based on Clarendon with italics added, was designed in 2009.[38] Intended to have less eccentric italics suitable for body text use, it has been featured heavily in President Barack Obama's 2012 campaign website advertisements.[39]

In the late nineteenth century the basic Clarendon face was radically altered by foundries in the United States, resulting in the production of the 'French Clarendon' type style, which had enlarged block serifs at top and bottom, this style is also traditionally associated with wild-west printing; it is commonly seen on circus posters and wanted notices in western movies.[40][41] However, it was actually used in many parts of the world at the time.

The concept, now called as reverse-contrast or reverse-stress type, predated Clarendon altogether. It began, possibly around 1821 in Britain, as a parody of the elegant Didone types of the period, it was created by inverting the contrast of these designs, making the thin strokes thick and the thick strokes thin.[42][43][44] The result was a slab serif design because of the serifs becoming thick. (In the 19th century, these designs were called Italian because of their exotic appearance, but this name is problematic since the designs have no clear connection with Italy; they do slightly resemble capitalis rustica Roman writing, but this may be a coincidence. For similar reasons they were also called Egyptian or Reversed Egyptian, Egyptian being an equally arbitrary name for slab serifs of the period.)[45][46]

Intended as attention-grabbing novelty display designs rather than as serious choices for body text, within four years of their introduction the printer Thomas Curson Hansard had described them as 'typographic monstrosities'.[47] Derivatives of this style persisted, and the concept of very thick serifs ultimately merged with the Clarendon genre of type, the advantage of French-Clarendon type was that it allowed very large, eye-catching serifs while the letters remained narrow, suiting the desire of poster-makers for condensed but very bold type.[15] Fine printers were less impressed by it: DeVinne commented in 1902 that "To be hated, it needs but to be seen."[46]

Because of their quirky, unusual design, lighter and hand-drawn versions of the style were popular for uses such as film posters in the 1950s and 60s.[48] A variety of adaptations have been made of the style, Robert Harling's Playbill and more recently Adrian Frutiger's Westside, URW++'s Zirkus and Bitstream's P. T. Barnum.[49]

A radically different approach has been that of Trilby by David Jonathan Ross, who has written on the history of the genre.[50] Released by Font Bureau, it is a modernisation reminiscent of Clarendon revivals from the 1950s, it attempts to adapt the style to use in a much wider range of settings, going so far as to be usable for body text.[51][52][53][54]

The following terms have been used for Clarendons and related slab serifs. Common meanings have been added, but they have often not been consistently applied. Many modern writers as a result ignore them and prefer the term slab-serif, providing individual descriptions of the features of specific designs.

Clarendon - often particularly used to refer to slab-serifs with 'bracketed’ serifs.[7]

Antique - the first name used for slab-serifs, but in France often used for sans-serifs. Sometimes taken to mean slab-serifs in the nineteenth-century style with Didone letterforms and thick, square slab-serifs.[4]

Egyptian/Egyptienne - mostly used for slab-serifs generally, although first used by the Caslon Foundry in naming their sans-serif, the first made. Continued to be used as a name for "geometric" slab-serifs appearing in the twentieth century, and so several geometric slab-serifs had Egyptian-themed names, including Memphis, Cairo and Karnak.[22]

Ionic - in the nineteenth century used as a name for slab-serifs. In the twentieth century this term became used to mean text faces with some Clarendon-style features, because of an influential body text face of this name from Linotype - this followed from previous faces of the same name only slightly bolder than text proportions from Miller & Richard.[17]

A heavy bold Clarendon was used for the cast brass locomotive nameplates of the Great Western Railway,[56] this was however drawn within the Swindon drawing office, not by a type foundry, and this 'Swindon Egyptian' differed in some aspects, most obviously the numerals used for the cabside numberplates.

^Twyman, Michael. "The Bold Idea: The Use of Bold-looking Types in the Nineteenth Century". Journal of the Printing Historical Society. 22 (107-143).

^ abcMosley, James. "Comments on Typophile thread "Where do bold typefaces come from?"". Typophile. Retrieved 16 December 2016. For the record, the Clarendon type of the Besley foundry is indeed the first type actually designed as a ‘related bold’ – that is, made to harmonize in design and align with the roman types it was set with. It was registered in Britain in 1845...but the idea of a ‘bold face’ goes back much further. Before the launch of Clarendon type printers picked out words in slab-serifs or any other heavy type; in the 18th century they used ‘English’ or ‘Old English’ types, which is why they became known as ‘black letter’. John Smith says in his Printer’s grammar (London, 1755). ‘Black Letter … is sometimes used … to serve for matter which the Author would particularly enforce to the reader.’

^Tracy, Walter. Letters of Credit. pp. 65–6. The other kind of secondary type, the related bold face, is a twentieth-century creation. Although the use of bold type for emphasis in text began when display advertising became a feature of the family magazines of the mid-nineteenth century, the bold types themselves were Clarendons, Ionics and Antiques quite unrelated to the old styles and moderns used for the text, as late as 1938 the Monotype Recorder, a distinguished British journal of typography, could say, “The ‘related bold’ is a comparatively new phenomenon in the history of type cutting.”

^Ridler, Vivian. "Two Egyptians". Motif: 82–3. The zeal that brought in reformed roman types and elegant sans serifs swept out the Cheltenhams and Clarendons from many a progressive composing room, and one felt at the time that the reformation would be permanent. But the inevitable counter-reformatino now shows that unprogressive printers who held on to their old-fashioned repertoire were doing the right thing, if for the wrong reasons. What seemed pestiferous thirty year ago is now regarded as rugged, virile and essential for an advertising agency's self-respect.

1.
Typeface
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In metal typesetting, a font is a particular size, weight and style of a typeface. Each font was a set of type, one piece for each glyph. In modern usage, with the advent of digital typography, font is frequently synonymous with typeface, in particular, the use of vector or outline fonts means that different sizes of a typeface can be dynamically generated from one design. The word font derives from Middle French fonte melted, a casting, the term refers to the process of casting metal type at a type foundry. In a manual printing house the word font would refer to a set of metal type that would be used to typeset an entire page. Unlike a digital typeface it would not include a definition of each character. A font when bought new would often be sold as 12pt 14A 34a, meaning that it would be a size 12-point font containing 14 uppercase As, given the name upper and lowercase because of which case the metal type was located in, otherwise known as majuscule and minuscule. The rest of the characters would be provided in quantities appropriate for the distribution of letters in that language. Some metal type characters required in typesetting, such as dashes, spaces and line-height spacers, were not part of a specific font, line spacing is still often called leading, because the strips used for line spacing were made of lead. In the 1880s–90s, hot lead typesetting was invented, in which type was cast as it was set, either piece by piece or in entire lines of type at one time. In European alphabetic scripts, i. e. Latin, Cyrillic and Greek, the main properties are the stroke width, called weight, the style or angle. The regular or standard font is sometimes labeled roman, both to distinguish it from bold or thin and from italic or oblique. The keyword for the default, regular case is often omitted for variants and never repeated, otherwise it would be Bulmer regular italic, Bulmer bold regular, Roman can also refer to the language coverage of a font, acting as a shorthand for Western European. Different fonts of the same typeface may be used in the work for various degrees of readability and emphasis. The weight of a font is the thickness of the character outlines relative to their height. A typeface may come in fonts of many weights, from ultra-light to extra-bold or black, four to six weights are not unusual, many typefaces for office, web and non-professional use come with just a normal and a bold weight which are linked together. If no bold weight is provided, many renderers support faking a bolder font by rendering the outline a second time at an offset, the base weight differs among typefaces, that means one normal font may appear bolder than some other normal font. For example, fonts intended to be used in posters are often quite bold by default while fonts for long runs of text are rather light, therefore, weight designations in font names may differ in regard to the actual absolute stroke weight or density of glyphs in the font

2.
Serif
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In typography, a serif /ˈsɛərəf/ is a small line attached to the end of a stroke in a letter or symbol. A typeface with serifs is called a serif typeface, a typeface without serifs is called sans-serif or sans serif, from the French sans, meaning without. Some typography sources refer to sans-serif typefaces as Grotesque or Gothic, serifs originated in the Latin alphabet with inscriptional lettering—words carved into stone in Roman antiquity. Another theory is that serifs were devised to neaten the ends of lines as they were chiseled into stone, the origin of the word serif is obscure, but apparently is almost as recent as the type style. The standard also proposed that surripsis may be a Greek word derived from συν, the printer Thomas Curson Hansard referred to them as ceriphs in 1825. The oldest citations in the Oxford English Dictionary are 1830 for serif and 1841 for sans serif, the OED speculates that serif was a back-formation from sanserif. Websters Third New International Dictionary traces serif to the Dutch noun schreef, meaning line, stroke of the pen, related to the verb schrappen, to delete, schreef now also means serif in Dutch. The OEDs earliest citation for grotesque in this sense is 1875 and it would seem to mean out of the ordinary in this usage, as in art grotesque usually means elaborately decorated. Other synonyms include Doric and Gothic, commonly used for Japanese Gothic typefaces, serifed fonts are widely used for body text because they are considered easier to read than sans-serif fonts in print. However, scientific study on this topic has been inconclusive, colin Wheildon, who conducted scientific studies from 1982 to 1990, found that sans serif fonts created various difficulties for readers that impaired their comprehension. According to Kathleen Tinkel, studies suggest that most sans serif typefaces may be less legible than most serif faces. The difference can be offset by careful setting, other studies have found no significant difference in readability for serif or sans serif. Serifed fonts are overwhelmingly preferred for lengthy text printed in books, newspapers, for such purposes sans-serif fonts are more acceptable in Europe than in North America, but still less common than serifed typefaces. Sans-serif are considered to be legible on computer screens, according to Alex Poole, we should accept that most reasonably designed typefaces in mainstream use will be equally legible. A study suggested that serif fonts are more legible on a screen but are not generally preferred to sans serif fonts, another study indicated that comprehension times for individual words are slightly faster when written in a sans serif font versus a serif font. Most web pages employ sans-serif type, hinting information, spatial anti-aliasing, and subpixel rendering technologies have partially mitigated the perception of serif fonts on screen. Due to the constraint of screen resolution the serifs in some fonts can be difficult to discern on screen. Some serif fonts, such as Georgia, are designed for web readability, employing higher x-heights in the letters

3.
Vox-ATypI classification
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In typography, the Vox-ATypI classification makes it possible to classify typefaces in eleven general classes. Originally a ten-part classification, Vox revised his proposal within months to a more compact nine-part scheme. Although the Vox-ATypI classification defines archetypes of typefaces, many typefaces can exhibit the characteristics of more than one class, the classicals can be broken down into humanist, Garald and transitional categories, and are characterized by triangular serifs, oblique axis and low stroke contrast. In other classification systems, this group is referred to as oldstyle. Humanist, humanistic, or humanes include the first Roman typefaces created during the 15th century by Venetian printers and these typefaces sought to imitate the formal hands found in the humanistic manuscripts of the time. These typefaces are inspired in particular by the Carolingian minuscule, imposed by Charlemagne during his reign of the Holy Roman Empire, examples of Humanes include Centaur and Cloister. Also called Aldine, this group is named in homage to Claude Garamond, in general, the garaldes have finer proportions than the humanists, and a stronger contrast between downstroke and upstroke. The weight of the garaldes are distributed according to an oblique axis, in France, under King Francis I, the garaldes were the tool which supported the official fixing of grammar and orthography. Examples of Garaldes include Bembo and Garamond, the transitional, realist or réales are the typical typefaces of the traditional period, particularly embodying the rational spirit of the Enlightenment. Contrast between main and connecting strokes is marked more than in the first two groups, weight is distributed now according to a quasi-vertical axis. The term realist is unrelated to the artistic movement realism, and derives from the Spanish for royal, examples of realist typefaces include Baskerville, Times Roman, and other contemporary redesigns of traditional faces. The moderns can be broken down into Didone, mechanistic and linear categories, the Didones or modern typefaces draw their name from the typefounders Didot and Bodoni. They correspond to the Didot of the Thibaudeau classification, the didones in particular made it possible for the First French Empire to employ typefaces very different from the typefaces used by the kings from the Ancien Régime. Examples of Didones include Bodoni and Walbaum, the principal characteristics of these typefaces are a very low contrast and rectangular slab serifs. They correspond to the Egyptiennes of Thibaudeau classification and this category includes both typefaces with bracketed serifs and typefaces with square or unbracketed serifs. Examples of mechanical typefaces include Clarendon, Egyptienne, Ionic No, lineals, or linéales, combine all typefaces without serifs, all of which correspond to the Antiques of the Thibaudeau classification. The British Standard 1961 broke this group into 4 subcategories, Grotesque, Neo-Grotesque, Geometric, Grotesque typefaces are sans serif typefaces that originate in the nineteenth century. There is some degree of contrast between thick and thin strokes, the terminals of curves are usually horizontal, and the typeface frequently has a spurred G and an R with a curled leg

4.
Slab serif
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In typography, a slab serif typeface is a type of serif typeface characterized by thick, block-like serifs. Serif terminals may be blunt and angular, or rounded. Slab serifs were invented in and most popular during the nineteenth century, Slab serifs form a large and varied genre. Some such as Memphis and Rockwell have a design with minimal variation in stroke width. Others such as those of the Clarendon genre have a more like most other serif fonts, though with larger. These designs may have bracketed serifs which increase width along their length before merging with the strokes of the letters. Slab serif fonts were also used in typewriters, most famously Courier. Slab serif typefaces appeared rapidly in the nineteenth century, having little in common with previous typefaces. As the printing of advertising material began to expand in the nineteenth century, new. Poster-size types began to be developed that were not merely magnified forms of book type, some were developments of designs of the previous fifty years, such as bold and ultra-bold types such as fat faces, which were related to Didone types but much bolder. Others had completely new structures, reverse-contrast letterforms, sans-serif and slab-serif were new departures at this period, some of the designs appearing around this time may be based on signpainting traditions, or vice versa. Adobe Systems has released a collection of digitisations inspired by nineteenth-century wood type. At first in Britain Egyptian was used for sans-serifs and Antique for slab-serifs, following Napoleons Egyptian campaign and dissemination of images and descriptions via publications like Description de lÉgypte an intense cultural fascination with all things Egyptian followed. Suites of contemporary parlor furniture were produced resembling furniture found in tombs, multicolored woodblock printed wallpaper could make a dining room in Edinburgh or Chicago feel like Luxor. While there was no relationship between Egyptian writing systems and slab serif types, either shrewd marketing or honest confusion led to slab serifs often being called Egyptians, historian James Mosley has shown that the first typefaces and letters called Egyptian were apparently all sans-serifs. However, Egyptian came to refer to slab serifs by the mid, some twentieth-century slab serifs, have Egyptian names as a reminder of this, Cairo, Karnak, and Memphis are examples of this. The term Egyptian was adopted by French and German foundries, where it became Egyptienne, a lighter style of slab serif with a single width of strokes was called engravers face since it resembled the monoline structure of metal engravings. The term slab-serif itself is recent, possibly twentieth-century

5.
Type foundry
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A type foundry is a company that designs or distributes typefaces. Todays digital type foundries accumulate and distribute typefaces created by type designers, Type foundries may also provide custom type design services. In England, type foundries began in 1476, when William Caxton introduced the printing press, thereafter the City of London became a major centre for the industry, until recent times when famous metal-based printing districts such as Fleet Street came to the close of their era. The industry was important in Victorian times, when education became available to all due to the new school boards. The St Bride Printing Library in the City of London encourages wider public interest in the history of type founding for the printed book, Adobe Type, a division of Adobe Systems Apple Inc

6.
Fann Street Foundry
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The Fann Street Foundry was a type foundry that was located on Fann Street, City of London. On his death in 1820, the business was bought by William Thorowgood with the help of money he had won in a lottery. Thorowgood was the first to use the term Grotesque to describe a Sans-Serif typeface, in 1838, the typographer Robert Besley joined the Fann Street Foundry. He created Clarendon in 1845, the first patented typeface, in 1842, Charles Reed co-founded the firm of Tyler & Reed, printers and typefounders. He became a partner in the Fann Street Foundry in 1861, the Fann Street business formed the basis for his own typefounding business, Sir Charles Reed & Sons, which had an office at 33 Aldersgate Street. In 1881, following his fathers death, the author and typefounder, by then he had begun his monumental History of the Old English Letter Foundries, published in 1887, which was hailed as the standard work on the subject. Talbot Baines Reed died in 1893, aged only 41, Fann Street Foundry closed in 1906, after which its designs passed to the Sheffield-based Stephenson Blake. Founded in 1818, Stephenson Blake was the last active type foundry in the UK at the time of its closure in 2005, selections from the Specimen Book of the Fann Street Foundry. Anthony Camp, On the Citys Edge, a history of Fann Street, London ISBN 978-0-9503308-3-9

7.
Punchcutting
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Punchcutting is a craft used in traditional typography to cut letter punches in steel from which matrices were made in copper for type founding in the letterpress era. Cutting punches and casting type was the first step of traditional typesetting, the cutting of letter punches was a highly skilled craft requiring much patience and practice. Often the designer of the type would not be involved in the cutting. The angle of the side of the punch was particularly significant, the punchcutter begins by transferring the outline of a letter design to one end of a steel bar. The outer shape of the punch could be cut directly, but the curves of a small punch were particularly difficult as it was necessary to cut deep enough. While this can be done with cutting tools, a counterpunch, a counterpunch could be used to create this negative space, not just where the space was completely enclosed by the letter, but in any concavity. Of course, the counterpunch had to be harder than the punch itself and this was accomplished by annealing the punch blank, and hardening and tempering the counterpunch. Such a tool solved two issues, one technical and one aesthetic, that arose in punchcutting, often the same counterpunch could be used for several letters in a typeface. For example, the space inside an uppercase P and R is usually very similar. Counterpunches were regularly used in this way to give typefaces a more consistent look, the counterpunch would be struck into the face of the punch. The outer form of the letter is then shaped using files, to test the punch, the punchcutter makes an imprint on a piece of paper after coating the punch with soot from an open flame. The soot left by the flame acts like ink to create an image on the paper, once the punches are ready a mold could then be created from the punch by using the punch on a softer metal to create a matrix. Then, type metal, an alloy of lead, antimony, one characteristic of type metal that makes it valuable for this use is that it expands as it cools, keeping the accurate dimensions of letters. This characteristic is shared by the used to cast sculptures. Bradford Industrial Museum Commemorative coin Letterpress printing Amoretti Brothers

8.
Didone (typography)
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Didone is a genre of serif typeface that emerged in the late 18th century and is particularly popular in Europe. It is characterized by, Narrow and unbracketed serifs, strong contrast between thick and thin lines. Some stroke endings show ball terminals, the category is also known as modern or modern face serif fonts, in contrast to old style serif designs, which date to the Renaissance period. Didone types were developed by printers including Firmin Didot, Giambattista Bodoni and Justus Erich Walbaum, whose eponymous typefaces, Bodoni, Didot and these trends were also accompanied by changes to page layout conventions and the abolition of the long s. Historian Talbot Baines Reed called the style trim, sleek, gentlemanly, later developments of this class have been called Scotch Modern and show increasing Didone influence. A particular development in this direction was the poster type genre known as fat faces, extremely bold designs intended for posters and it matched the desire of advertisers for eye-catching new kinds of letters that were not merely enlarged forms of body text fonts. While printers often used Didone typefaces, some old style continued to be sold. From around the 1840s onwards, interest began to develop among artisanal printers in the typefaces of the past and it has always been the case in the arts that, after periods of extravaganza and bizzarerie, there has been a recurrence to sound taste. Positive retrogession is against nature and any tendency in this direction will most assuredly correct itself, historian G. Willem Ovink has described late nineteenth-century Didone types as “the most lifeless, regular types ever seen”. Didone fonts began to decline in popularity for use, especially in the English-speaking world. The rise of the serif and sans-serif genres displaced Didone type from much display use. This trend, influenced by the Arts and Crafts movement, rejected austere, classical designs of type, others such as Old Styles from Miller and Richard, Goudy Old Style and Imprint were new designs on the same pattern. An early example of the distaste some printers had for the type style was French printer Louis Perrin. He wrote in 1855, You ask me what kind of whim leads me to revive types of the sixteen century today…I often have to reprint old poetry, frederic Goudy, an Arts and Crafts movement-inspired printer turned type designer, had similar reservations about the lettering style. While he mentioned Bodoni in his book Elements of Lettering, he wrote that it was a style for which the writer cannot develop any enthusiasm, adding and he hoped this design, Goudy Open, would leave a lighter colour on the paper. Nonetheless, Didone designs have remained in use, and the genre is recognised on the VOX-ATypI classification system of typefaces and by the Association Typographique Internationale. Typefaces of the period have often been revived since for cold type and digital composition, while modern typefaces along the lines include Filosofia. They are used often for general-purpose body text, such as book printing

9.
Roman type
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In Latin-script typography, roman is one of the three main kinds of historical type, alongside blackletter and italic. During the early Renaissance, roman and italic type were used separately, today, roman and italic type are mixed, and most typefaces are composed of an upright roman style with an associated italic or oblique style. Popular roman typefaces include Bembo, Baskerville, Caslon, Jenson, Times New Roman, History of western typography Gaelic type Bringhurst, Robert, The Elements of Typographic Style. Often referred to simply as Bringhurst, Elements is widely respected as the current English-language authority on typographic style, nesbitt, Alexander The History and Technique of Lettering, Dover Publications, Inc. The Dover edition is an abridged and corrected republication of the originally published in 1950 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. under the title Lettering, The History

10.
Boldface
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In typography, emphasis is the exaggeration of words in a text with a font in a different style from the rest of the text—to emphasize them. It is the equivalent of prosodic stress in speech, the most common methods in Bold fall under the general technique of emphasis through a change or modification of font, italics, boldface and small caps. Other methods include the alteration of letter case and spacing as well as color, the human eye is very receptive to differences in brightness within a text body. Therefore, one can differentiate types of emphasis according to whether the emphasis changes the “blackness” of text. With one or the other of these techniques, words can be highlighted without making them out much from the rest of the text. This was used for marking passages that have a different context, such as words from languages, book titles. By contrast, a bold font weight makes text darker than the surrounding text, for example, printed dictionaries often use boldface for their keywords, and the names of entries can conventionally be marked in bold. Small capitals are used for emphasis, especially for the first line of a section, sometimes accompanied by or instead of a drop cap. If the text body is typeset in a typeface, it is also possible to highlight words by setting them in a sans serif face. It is still using some font superfamilies, which come with matching serif and sans-serif variants. In Japanese typography, due to the legibility of heavier Minchō type. Of these methods, italics, small capitals and capitalisation are oldest, with bold type, the house styles of many publishers in the United States use all caps text for, chapter and section headings, newspaper headlines, publication titles, warning messages, word of important meaning. Capitalization is used less commonly today by British publishers. All-uppercase letters are a form of emphasis where the medium lacks support for boldface, such as old typewriters, plain-text email, SMS. Culturally all-caps text has become an indication of shouting, for example when quoting speech and it was also once often used by American lawyers to indicate important points in a legal text. Another means of emphasis is to increase the spacing between the letters, rather than making them darker, but still achieving a distinction in blackness and this results in an effect reverse to boldface, the emphasized text becomes lighter than its environment. This is often used in typesetting and typewriter manuscripts. On typewriters a full space was used between the letters of a word and also one before and one after the word

11.
Wanted poster
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A wanted poster is a poster distributed to let the public know of an alleged criminal whom authorities wish to apprehend. They will generally either a picture of the alleged criminal when a photograph is available or of a facial composite image produced by police. The poster will usually include a description of the wanted person, there will usually be a reward of money give to the person that catches the wanted criminal that will be advertised on the poster. Wanted posters also might include rewards for providing aid in the capture of the wanted person and these types of posters were also referred to as reward posters. In 2007, the FBI began posting wanted posters on electronic billboards starting with 23 cities and this allows them to instantly post a wanted notice in public view across the US. The FBI now claims to have access to over 5,200 billboards nationwide, Wanted posters for particularly notorious fugitives frequently offer a bounty for the capture of the person, or for a person who can provide information leading to such capture. Bounties provided an incentive for citizens to aid law enforcement, either by providing information, more modern wanted posters may also include images of the fugitives fingerprints. People who chased wanted men with intent to collect their bounties were often referred to as bounty hunters, thus one would get a reward for either bringing the person or their body to the authorities. This could indicate that the person was an outlaw, and that it was permissible to kill them, alternatively it might mean that it was permissible to kill them if they resisted arrest. Wanted posters have used by media sources to cast prominent figures as wild west criminals. Popular examples of this include the September 4,1939 Edition of the British newspaper the Daily Mirror and this idea was also used by The Times in their global search for Osama Bin Laden in 2001. All-points bulletin Americas Most Wanted Pittura infamante Rewards for Justice Program Clarendon Mug shot publishing industry Most wanted list

12.
American Old West
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Frontier refers to a contrasting region at the edge of a European-American line of settlement. American historians cover multiple frontiers but the folklore is focused primarily on the 19th century west of the Mississippi River. As defined by Hine and Faragher, frontier history tells the story of the creation and defense of communities, the use of the land, the development of markets, and the formation of states. They explain, It is a tale of conquest, but also one of survival, persistence, thus, Turners Frontier Thesis proclaimed the westward frontier as the defining process of American history. As the American frontier passed into history, the myths of the West in fiction and film took firm hold in the imagination of Americans, America is exceptional in choosing its iconic self-image. David Murdoch has said, No other nation has taken a time and place from its past, the frontier line was the outer line of European-American settlement. It moved steadily westward from the 1630s to the 1880s, Turner favored the Census Bureau definition of the frontier line as a settlement density of two people per square mile. The West was the settled area near that boundary. Thus, parts of the Midwest and American South, though no longer considered western, have a frontier heritage along with the western states. In the 21st century, however, the term American West is most often used for the area west of the Mississippi River, in the colonial era, before 1776, the west was of high priority for settlers and politicians. The American frontier began when Jamestown, Virginia was settled by the English in 1607, English, French, Spanish and Dutch patterns of expansion and settlement were quite different. Although French fur traders ranged widely through the Great Lakes and mid-west region they settled down. French settlement was limited to a few small villages such as Kaskaskia. They created a rural settlement in upstate New York. Areas in the north that were in the stage by 1700 generally had poor transportation facilities. The wealthy speculator, if one was involved, usually remained at home, the class of landless poor was small. Few artisans settled on the frontier except for those who practiced a trade to supplement their primary occupation of farming, there might be a storekeeper, a minister, and perhaps a doctor, and there were a number of landless laborers. However frontier areas of 1700 that had good river connections were transformed into plantation agriculture

13.
Jonathan Hoefler
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Jonathan Hoefler is an American typeface designer. Hoefler founded The Hoefler Type Foundry in 1989, a foundry in New York. In 1999 Hoefler began working with type designer Tobias Frere-Jones, perhaps his best-known work is the Hoefler Text family of typefaces, designed for Apple Computer and now appearing as part of the Macintosh operating system. He also designed the current wordmark of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, Hoefler and Frere-Jones have been profiled in The New York Times, Time Magazine, and Esquire Magazine, and appearances on National Public Radio and CBS Sunday Morning. Hoeflers work is part of the Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museums permanent collection, jonathan Hoeflers types include, Hoefler & Frere-Jones Friedl, Frederich, Nicholas Ott and Bernard Stein. Typography, An Encyclopedic Survey of Type Design and Techniques Through History

14.
Vincent Figgins
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Vincent Figgins, born in Peckham, England, was a British punch-cutter and type-founder. He started his career as an apprentice to Joseph Jackson from 1782 until Jacksons death in 1792, Figgins was expected to take over Jacksons foundry, but due to financial restraints he could not afford it. The foundry was then bought by William Caslon III, a close friend of Jacksons, John Nichols encouraged Figgins to open his own foundry. Nichols had witnessed Figgins’ work and talent many times, Figgins followed his advice and the fact that Caslon bought Jacksons foundry this did not slow Figgins down, that same year he was able to open his own foundry. Later on in his career, after he became successful he wrote to Nichols. Vincent Figgins would run his foundry until 1836 when he retired and he would leave his foundry to his two sons Vincent and James. They were met with the success as their father. They published their first specimen book in 1838, after his first son, Vincent II died in 1860 the business and the foundry were continued by his brother James. The family owned foundry would then live on more, after James died the foundry was taken over by his son James II. In 1868 he was elected to Parliament, he retired from the business, the foundry then moved to 3-7 Ray Street, Clerkenwell in 1865. The building still retains the original cast iron railings bearing a VJF monogram and his first important commission was to make a facsimile type for Macklins Bible. Bensley, the printer of the Macklin’s Bible had decided to renew the type and have it correspond with the original, instead of going to Caslon, who had Jacksons matrices, he asked Figgins. Figgins was then able to make a recreation of the type. He then worked on a job to finish the Double Pica type in Robert Bowyer’s edition of David Humes The History of England. This was being worked on by Jackson at the time of his death, in 1793 he issued his first specimen book, which included a long bodied English typeface. This consisted of five leaves and was printed by Bensley and he followed this by producing a number of Roman types for English and Scottish printers. He is credited with the design of the first slab serif or Egyptian typeface, the first Slab Serif typeface was an outrage to the public. This was designed from scratch without historical reference, not everyone disliked the new form of type, though

15.
Sans-serif
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In typography and lettering, a sans-serif, sans serif, gothic, or simply sans letterform is one that does not have extending features called serifs at the end of strokes. Sans-serif fonts tend to have less line width variation than serif fonts, in most print, they are often used for headings rather than for body text. They are often used to convey simplicity and modernity or minimalism, Sans-serif fonts have become the most prevalent for display of text on computer screens. On lower-resolution digital displays, fine details like serifs may disappear or appear too large, the term comes from the French word sans, meaning without and serif of uncertain origin, possibly from the Dutch word schreef meaning line or pen-stroke. Before the term became common in English typography, a number of other terms had been used. One of these terms for sans serif was gothic, which is still used in East Asian typography and sometimes seen in font names like Century Gothic, Highway Gothic. Sans-serif fonts are sometimes, especially in older documents, used as a device for emphasis and this group features most of the early sans-serif designs. Influenced by Didone serif fonts of the period and signpainting traditions, the early sans-serif typefaces often did not feature a lower case or italics, since they were not needed for such uses. They were sometimes released by width, with a range of widths from extended to normal to condensed, with each different, meaning to modern eyes they can look quite irregular. Grotesque fonts have limited variation of stroke width, the terminals of curves are usually horizontal, and many have a spurred G and an R with a curled leg. Capitals tend to be of uniform width. Cap height and ascender height are generally the same to create a more regular effect in such as titles with many capital letters. Most avoid having a true italic in favour of a more restrained oblique or sloped design, Akzidenz Grotesk Old Face, Knockout, Grotesque No.9 and Monotype Grotesque are examples of digital fonts that retain eccentricities of early sans-serif types. The term realist has also applied to these designs due to their practicality and simplicity. As the name implies, these modern designs consist of an evolution of grotesque types. They are relatively straightforward in appearance with limited width variation, unlike earlier grotesque designs, many were issued in extremely large and versatile families from the time of release, making them easier to use for body text. Helvetica is an example of this, others such as Univers are less regular. Neo-grotesque type began in the 1950s with the emergence of the International Typographic Style and its members looked at the clear lines of Akzidenz Grotesk as an inspiration to create rational, almost neutral typefaces

16.
X-height
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In typography, the x-height or corpus size refers to the distance between the baseline and the mean line of lower-case letters in a typeface. Typically, this is the height of the x in the font, as well as the v, w. One of the most important dimensions of a font, x-height is used to define how high lower-case letters are compared to upper-case letters, display typefaces intended to be used at large sizes, such as on signs and posters, vary in x-height. Many have high x-heights to be read clearly from a distance and this, though, is not universally the case, some display typefaces such as Cochin intended for publicity uses have low x-heights, to give them a more elegant, delicate appearance. Many sans-serif designs that are intended for display text have high x-heights, such as Helvetica or, more extremely, medium x-heights are found on fonts intended for body text, allowing more balance and contrast between upper- and lower-case letters and a brighter page. They then increase again for optical sizes of font designed for print, such as captions. More recently, some such as Mrs Eaves and Brandon Grotesque have been issued with distinctively low x-heights to try to create a more elegant appearance. While computers allow fonts to be printed at any size, professional font designers such as Adobe issue fonts in a range of optical sizes optimized to be printed at different sizes. As an example of this, Mrs Eaves exists in two versions, an original style intended to give an elegant, bright appearance, and a less distinctive XL design intended for body text, for the same reason, some sign manuals discourage all-capitals text. In computing, one use of x-height is as a unit of measurement in web pages, in CSS and LaTeX the x-height is called an ex. The use of ex in dimensioning objects, however, is less stable than use of the em across browsers, thus, the exact ratio of ex to em can also vary by font size within a browser if the determined values are rounded to the nearest whole unit. For example, a browser calculating an x-height of 45% on a font 10 pixels tall may round ex to either 4 pixels or 5 pixels or leave it at 4.5 pixels. The ratio of the x-height to the height is one of the major characteristics that defines the appearance of a typeface. The height of the letters is referred to as Cap height. Em En Small caps Typographic unit Definition of x-height at typophile. com In the search of ideal line-height

17.
Emphasis (typography)
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In typography, emphasis is the exaggeration of words in a text with a font in a different style from the rest of the text—to emphasize them. It is the equivalent of prosodic stress in speech, the most common methods in Bold fall under the general technique of emphasis through a change or modification of font, italics, boldface and small caps. Other methods include the alteration of letter case and spacing as well as color, the human eye is very receptive to differences in brightness within a text body. Therefore, one can differentiate types of emphasis according to whether the emphasis changes the “blackness” of text. With one or the other of these techniques, words can be highlighted without making them out much from the rest of the text. This was used for marking passages that have a different context, such as words from languages, book titles. By contrast, a bold font weight makes text darker than the surrounding text, for example, printed dictionaries often use boldface for their keywords, and the names of entries can conventionally be marked in bold. Small capitals are used for emphasis, especially for the first line of a section, sometimes accompanied by or instead of a drop cap. If the text body is typeset in a typeface, it is also possible to highlight words by setting them in a sans serif face. It is still using some font superfamilies, which come with matching serif and sans-serif variants. In Japanese typography, due to the legibility of heavier Minchō type. Of these methods, italics, small capitals and capitalisation are oldest, with bold type, the house styles of many publishers in the United States use all caps text for, chapter and section headings, newspaper headlines, publication titles, warning messages, word of important meaning. Capitalization is used less commonly today by British publishers. All-uppercase letters are a form of emphasis where the medium lacks support for boldface, such as old typewriters, plain-text email, SMS. Culturally all-caps text has become an indication of shouting, for example when quoting speech and it was also once often used by American lawyers to indicate important points in a legal text. Another means of emphasis is to increase the spacing between the letters, rather than making them darker, but still achieving a distinction in blackness and this results in an effect reverse to boldface, the emphasized text becomes lighter than its environment. This is often used in typesetting and typewriter manuscripts. On typewriters a full space was used between the letters of a word and also one before and one after the word

18.
Italic type
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In typography, italic type is a cursive font based on a stylized form of calligraphic handwriting. Owing to the influence from calligraphy, italics normally slant slightly to the right, italics are a way to emphasise key points in a printed text, or when quoting a speaker a way to show which words they stressed. One manual of English usage described italics as the print equivalent of underlining, the name comes from the fact that calligraphy-inspired typefaces were first designed in Italy, to replace documents traditionally written in a handwriting style called chancery hand. Aldus Manutius and Ludovico Arrighi were the type designers involved in this process at the time. Different glyph shapes from roman type are usually used – another influence from calligraphy –, an alternative is oblique type, in which the type is slanted but the letterforms do not change shape, this less elaborate approach is used by many sans-serif typefaces. Italic type was first used by Aldus Manutius and his press in Venice in 1500, Manutius used italic not for emphasis but for the text of small, easily carried editions of popular books, replicating the style of handwritten manuscripts of the period. The choice of using italic type, rather than the type in general use at the time, was apparently made to suggest informality in editions designed for leisure reading. Manutius italic type, cut and conceived by his employee, punchcutter Francesco Griffo, replicated handwriting of the following from the style of Niccolò de Niccoli. The first use in a volume was a 1501 edition of Virgil dedicated to Italy. Manutius italic was different in some ways from modern italics, unlike the italic type of today, the capital letters were upright capitals on the model of Roman square capitals, shorter than the ascending lower-case italic letters. While modern italics are more condensed than roman types, historian Harry Carter describes Manutius italic as about the same width as roman type. To replicate handwriting, Griffo cut at least sixty-five tied letters in the Aldine Dante, Italic typefaces of the following century used varying but reduced numbers of ligatures. Manutius type rapidly became popular in its own day and was widely imitated. The Venetian Senate gave Aldus exclusive right to its use, a patent confirmed by three successive Popes, but it was widely counterfeited as early as 1502. Griffo, who had left Venice in a dispute, cut a version for printer Girolamo Soncino. The Italians called the character Aldino, while called it Italic. Italics spread rapidly, historian Hendrik Vervliet dates the first production of italics in Paris to 1512, chancery italics faded as a style over the course of the sixteenth century, although revivals were made beginning in the twentieth century. Chancery italics may have backward-pointing serifs or round terminals pointing forwards on the ascenders, Vervliet comments that among punchcutters the main name associated with the change is Granjons

19.
Lord Mayor of London
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The Lord Mayor of London is the City of Londons mayor and leader of the City of London Corporation. This office differs from the Mayor of London, which is an elected position. However, the legal and commonly used title remains Lord Mayor of London, the Lord Mayor is elected at Common Hall each year on Michaelmas, and takes office on the Friday before the second Saturday in November, at The Silent Ceremony. One of the worlds oldest continuously elected civic offices, the Lord Mayors main role nowadays is to represent, support and promote the businesses and residents in the City of London. As leader of the Corporation of the City of London, the Lord Mayor serves as the key spokesman for the local authority, all Lord Mayors of London are apolitical. The Lord Mayor of London typically delivers dozens of speeches and addresses per year, many incumbents of the office make overseas visits while Lord Mayor of London. Currently serving is the 689th Lord Mayor Dr Andrew Parmley Of the 69 cities in the United Kingdom, the City of London is among the 30 that have Lord Mayors. The Lord Mayor is entitled to the style The Right Honourable, the same privilege extends only to the Lord Mayors of York, Cardiff and Belfast, the latter prefix applies only to Privy Counsellors. A woman who holds the office is known as a Lord Mayor. The wife of a male Lord Mayor is styled as Lady Mayoress, a female Lord Mayor or an unmarried male Lord Mayor may appoint a female consort, usually a fellow member of the corporation, to the role of Lady Mayoress. In speech, a Lord Mayor is referred to as My Lord Mayor, and it was once customary for Lord Mayors to be appointed knights upon taking office and baronets upon retirement, unless they already held such a title. This custom was followed with a few inconsistencies from the 16th until the 19th centuries, however, from 1964 onwards, the regular creation of hereditary titles such as baronetcies was phased out, so subsequent Lord Mayors were offered knighthoods. Furthermore, foreign Heads of State visiting the City of London on a UK State Visit, for example, in 2001, Sir David Howard was created a Grand Cordon of the Order of Independence of Jordan by King Abdullah II. Recently Lord Mayors have been appointed at the beginning of their term of office Knights or Dames of St John, as a mark of respect, by HM The Queen, Sovereign Head of the Order of St John. The office of Lord Mayor was instituted in 1189, the first holder of the office being Henry Fitz-Ailwin de Londonestone. The Mayor of the City of London has been elected by the City, rather than appointed by the Sovereign, the title Lord Mayor came to be used after 1354, when it was granted to Thomas Legge by King Edward III. Lord Mayors are elected for terms, by custom, they do not now serve more than one consecutive term. Almost 700 people have served as Lord Mayor, Dame Mary Donaldson, elected in 1983, and Dame Fiona Woolf, elected in 2013, are the only women to have held the office

20.
Oxford University Press
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Oxford University Press is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the known as the delegates of the press. They are headed by the secretary to the delegates, who serves as OUPs chief executive, Oxford University has used a similar system to oversee OUP since the 17th century. The university became involved in the print trade around 1480, and grew into a printer of Bibles, prayer books. OUP took on the project became the Oxford English Dictionary in the late 19th century. Moves into international markets led to OUP opening its own offices outside the United Kingdom, by contracting out its printing and binding operations, the modern OUP publishes some 6,000 new titles around the world each year. OUP was first exempted from United States corporation tax in 1972, as a department of a charity, OUP is exempt from income tax and corporate tax in most countries, but may pay sales and other commercial taxes on its products. The OUP today transfers 30% of its surplus to the rest of the university. OUP is the largest university press in the world by the number of publications, publishing more than 6,000 new books every year, the Oxford University Press Museum is located on Great Clarendon Street, Oxford. Visits must be booked in advance and are led by a member of the archive staff, displays include a 19th-century printing press, the OUP buildings, and the printing and history of the Oxford Almanack, Alice in Wonderland and the Oxford English Dictionary. The first printer associated with Oxford University was Theoderic Rood, the first book printed in Oxford, in 1478, an edition of Rufinuss Expositio in symbolum apostolorum, was printed by another, anonymous, printer. Famously, this was mis-dated in Roman numerals as 1468, thus apparently pre-dating Caxton, roods printing included John Ankywylls Compendium totius grammaticae, which set new standards for teaching of Latin grammar. After Rood, printing connected with the university remained sporadic for over half a century, the chancellor, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, pleaded Oxfords case. Some royal assent was obtained, since the printer Joseph Barnes began work, Oxfords chancellor, Archbishop William Laud, consolidated the legal status of the universitys printing in the 1630s. Laud envisaged a unified press of world repute, Oxford would establish it on university property, govern its operations, employ its staff, determine its printed work, and benefit from its proceeds. To that end, he petitioned Charles I for rights that would enable Oxford to compete with the Stationers Company and the Kings Printer and these were brought together in Oxfords Great Charter in 1636, which gave the university the right to print all manner of books. Laud also obtained the privilege from the Crown of printing the King James or Authorized Version of Scripture at Oxford and this privilege created substantial returns in the next 250 years, although initially it was held in abeyance. The Stationers Company was deeply alarmed by the threat to its trade, under this, the Stationers paid an annual rent for the university not to exercise its full printing rights – money Oxford used to purchase new printing equipment for smaller purposes

21.
Oxford
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Oxford is a city in the South East region of England and the county town of Oxfordshire. With an estimated 2015 population of 168,270, it is the 52nd largest city in the United Kingdom, the city is situated 57 miles from London,69 miles from Bristol,65 miles from both Southampton and Birmingham and 25 miles from Reading. The city is known worldwide as the home of the University of Oxford, buildings in Oxford demonstrate notable examples of every English architectural period since the late Saxon period. Oxford is known as the city of dreaming spires, a term coined by poet Matthew Arnold, Oxford has a broad economic base. Its industries include motor manufacturing, education, publishing and a number of information technology and science-based businesses. Oxford was first settled in Saxon times and was known as Oxenaforda, meaning Ford of the Oxen. It began with the establishment of a crossing for oxen around AD900. In the 10th century, Oxford became an important military frontier town between the kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex and was on several occasions raided by Danes, Oxford was heavily damaged during the Norman Invasion of 1066. Following the conquest, the town was assigned to a governor, Robert DOyly, the castle has never been used for military purposes and its remains survive to this day. DOyly set up a community in the castle consisting of a chapel. The community never grew large but it earned its place in history as one of Britains oldest places of formal education and it was there that in 1139 Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote his History of the Kings of Britain, a compilation of Arthurian legends. Mary at Oseney and to the canons serving God in that place and we have made this concession and confirmation in the Common council of the City and we have confirmed it with our common seal. These are those who have made this concession and confirmation, a grandson of King John established Rewley Abbey for the Cistercian Order, and friars of various orders all had houses of varying importance at Oxford. Parliaments were often held in the city during the 13th century, the Provisions of Oxford were instigated by a group of barons led by Simon de Montfort, these documents are often regarded as Englands first written constitution. Richard I of England and John, King of England the sons of Henry II of England, were born at Beaumont Palace in Oxford, on 8 September 1157 and 24 December 1166 respectively. A plaque in Beaumont Street commemorates these events, the University of Oxford is first mentioned in 12th century records. Of the hundreds of Aularian houses that sprang up across the city, what put an end to the halls was the emergence of colleges. Oxfords earliest colleges were University College, Balliol and Merton and these colleges were established at a time when Europeans were starting to translate the writings of Greek philosophers

22.
Legibility Group
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The Legibility Group is a series of serif typefaces created by the American Mergenthaler Linotype Company and intended for use in newspapers on Linotypes hot metal typesetting system. They were developed in-house by Linotypes design team, led by Chauncey H. Griffith, Linotype carried out a surveys of opometrist as part of their research process. The family became a group due to the creation of slightly different designs for different printing conditions. An intention was to create a design with more body than the rather spindly Didone typefaces previously often used in newspaper printing, ionic No.5 Textype - similar but with a lower x-height, giving a more delicate structure with more contrast between letters with and without ascenders. Excelsior - a relatively wide design, intended for rubber-roller presses, Linotype has described its use as most common in Europe, where newspaper columns are wide. The News 701 typeface by BitStream is an unofficial digitisation, opticon - heavier, to compensate for printing that deliberately underinks to favour halftones. Paragon - lighter, to compensate for newspapers that deliberately overink to favour text, corona Although not part of the family, Linotype marketed its sans-serif Metro and slab serif Memphis as effective complements for headings. Three chapters in the development of clarendon /ionic typefaces, archived from the original on November 25,2011. ISBN 1-58115-320-1, ISBN 978-1-58115-320-0 Hutt, Allen, changing Newspaper, Typographic Trends in Britain and America 1622–1972. ISBN 0-900406-22-4, ISBN 978-0-900406-22-5 Macmillan, Neil, ISBN 0-300-11151-7, ISBN 978-0-300-11151-4 Excelsior Font Family - by Chauncey H. Griffith Font Designer - Chauncey H. Griffith

23.
Century type family
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Century is a family of serif type faces particularly intended for body text. The family originates from a first design, Century Roman cut by American Type Founders designer Linn Boyd Benton in 1894 for master printer Theodore Low De Vinne, ATF rapidly expanded it into a very large family, first by Linn Boyd and later by his son Morris. Its design emphasises crispness and elegance, with ending in fine tapers, ball terminals and crisp. However, compared to many earlier typefaces in the genre, stroke contrast is low, creating a less sharp. With ATF no longer operating, a variety of variants and revivals with varying features. Despite originating in the century, use of the typeface remains strong for periodicals, textbooks. The Supreme Court of the United States requires that briefs be typeset in Century family type, according to Charles Shaw, The rugged simplicity of the Century family of types has made it an enduring favorite of American typographers for almost one hundred years. Beginning as foundry type, Century has withstood a series of transformations into Linotype, Monotype, Ludlow, phototype, transfer type, digital type. Characteristics of this typeface are, lower case, curl ending in a terminal on top of letter c. Ball terminal on hook of f, ear of g, and tail of j. upper case, curled tail on the capital R and reflexive curled tail on the capital Q. Prominent top spur on capital C. figures, curl ending in a terminal on both tails of 3, and on single tail of 2,5,6 and 9. Theodore Low De Vinne, publisher of the Century Magazine, wanted a more legible font for his magazine and he commissioned his friend Linn Boyd Benton from the newly formed American Type Founders to devise such a face. Over the course of the century, largely because of the influence of Bodoni, common printing fonts had become thin. De Vinne and aesthete William Morris decried this “growing effeminacy” and called for a reversion to blacker faces and this was made only in foundry type and later an accompanying face of normal width was produced by L. B. Benton, called variously Century Broad Face or Century No.2, despite being the original member of the Century family, it is not popular compared to the later members of the family with more normal proportions. Following this, he was given the task of adapting Century No.2 to meet the Typographical Union standards of the time. Records now in the Smithsonian show that M. F. Benton not only re-designed his fathers face, the result was Century Expanded, which proved hugely successful. Catalog no longer offered the original Century Roman, while displaying 64 pages of samples of other members of the Century family, the faces were issued over a period of ten years, all of which were designed by Benton and issued by A. T. F

24.
American Type Founders
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American Type Founders was a business trust created in 1892 by the merger of 23 type foundries, representing about 85% of all type manufactured in the United States. ATF was the dominant American manufacturer of metal type from its creation in 1892 until at least the 1940s, it continued to be influential into the 1960s. Many fonts developed by American Type Founders in its period of dominance, including News Gothic, Century Schoolbook, Franklin Gothic, Hobo, by the beginning of the final decade of the nineteenth century type founding was in a state of crisis. With the introduction of the Linotype, which could cast whole lines of body type in-house, throughout the late 1880s prices were maintained by an informal cartel of foundries, but as the number of foundries increased and with the invention of hot metal type, prices dropped dramatically. Additionally, type at this time was not standardized, either to body size or to base line, leaders in the industry, notably Joseph W. Phinney of the Dickinson Type Foundry in Boston, set up a committee to address these problems, eventually recommending consolidation. By the late 1880s, there were some 34 foundries in the United States, in 1892,23 foundries were brought together to form the American Type Founders Company. Key to the success of this merger was the inclusion of MacKellar, Smiths, with the inclusion of the Barth Caster and the Benton Pantograph, ATF immediately became the largest and the most technologically advanced foundry in the world. Conditions for the first few years were chaotic, while 12 foundries ceased separate operations immediately member foundries continued to operate as if they were independent firms. Real consolidation did not begin until 1894, when Robert Wickham Nelson, principal owner of the Throne Typesetting Machine Company and he immediately began to liquidate unprofitable ventures, eliminate duplications, and force the various branches to do business under the ATF name instead of retaining their former ones. Linn Boyd Benton’s son, Morris Fuller Benton, was given the job of purging obsolete and duplicated type faces from the catalogs, Joseph W. Young Benton was then commissioned to finish Lewis Buddy’s Elbert Hubbard inspired Roycroft, another successful introduction. While Phinney often used free-lance designers, like Will Bradley, T. M, cleland, Walter Dorwin Teague, Frederic Goudy, and Oz Cooper, the bulk of ATF’s catalog through the 1930s was the creation of Morris Fuller Benton. Though he never became known, even within the printing industry, Benton enjoyed a record of successful type introductions unparalleled by anyone. Another key player at ATF at this time was the advertising manager Henry Lewis Bullen and this collection was turned over to Columbia University in 1936. The books are integrated into the main Columbia collection, but there is an archive of ATF materials as well in Columbias special collections, in 1901, Nelson consolidated casting operations in a purpose-built factory in Jersey City and the branches remained only as distribution centers. By the 1920s, ATF had offices in 27 American cities and Vancouver, British Columbia, where it not only type. It printed large specimen books, with examples of good layout as examples for the advertising market. In 1923, at a cost of $300,000, ATF produced its largest and most superlative type catalog. Sixty thousand of these opulent books, printed extensively in color, were distributed, the first paragraph of its preface boasted, The printing of 1923 is greatly superior to that of 1900

25.
Oblique type
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Oblique type is a form of type that slants slightly to the right, used for the same purposes as italic type. Unlike italic type, however, it not use different glyph shapes, it uses the same glyphs as roman type. Oblique designs may also be called slanted or sloped roman styles, Type designers have described oblique type as less organic and calligraphic than italics, which in some situations may be preferred. Italic designs are not just the slanted version of the style, they are influenced by handwriting, with a single-story a. Some may even link up, like cursive handwriting, obliques by contrast are simply sloped. In addition, italic styles are often quite noticeably narrower than roman type, few typefaces have both oblique and italic designs, as this is generally a fundamental design choice about how the font should look. A font designer normally decides to design their font with one or the other, notable typefaces in this style include Bookman Old Style in metal type, Linn Boyd Bentons self-spacing type and the Central Type Foundrys De Vinne wedge-serif display face. European examples included Genzsch Antiqua from Genzsch & Heyse, the printing historian and executive Stanley Morison was for a time interested in the style, which he felt stood out in text less than a true italic. Ultimately, he found the less pleasing than at first. Many sans-serif typefaces use oblique designs instead of italic ones. This is especially true with grotesque designs like Helvetica, which have a spare, industrial aesthetic, humanist sans-serif typefaces, however, often use true italic styles since they are more influenced by calligraphy and traditional serif fonts. Notable humanist sans-serif typefaces include Gill Sans, Goudy Sans, FF Meta and FF Scala Sans, adrian Frutiger and other prominent designers have defended obliques as more appropriate for the aesthetic of sans-serif fonts, while Martin Majoor has supported the use of true italics. Some computer programs handling text may simply generate an oblique form and it may not be clear to the user where the oblique form comes from unless they check their installed fonts. Typographica, Aint What ITC Used to Be Compare Univers 65 Bold Oblique and Univers 66 Bold Italic CSS font-style, oblique vs italic

26.
Stephenson Blake
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Stephenson Blake is an engineering company based in Sheffield. The company was active from the early 19th century as a founder, remaining until the 1990s as the last active type foundry in Britain. The type foundry began operations in July 1818 by silversmith and mechanic William Garnett and toolmaker John Stephenson and that November, news came that the breakaway Caslon foundry was put up for sale by William Caslon IV. In 1819 the deal was concluded and Blake, Garnett & Co. were suddenly in charge of one of England’s most prestigious typefoundries, in 1829 Garnett left to become a farmer. The company was renamed Blake & Stephenson in 1830, but Blake died soon after and it became Stephenson, Blake & Co. in 1841-1905. John Stephenson died in 1864, the year after he handed control to his son Henry, in 1905 the firm purchased Sir Charles Reed and Sons Ltd. It was then known as Stephenson, Blake & Co. and Sir Charles Reed, in 1914, without any change in proprietorship, the business was converted into a private limited liability company. Fann Street Foundry Fry’s Type Street Letter Foundry via merger of Sir Charles Reed & Sons in 1905, there are plans to turn the former premises into an apartment complex. In December 2007, Stephenson & Blake acquired Nu-Gauge engineering, who are a manufacturer to the glass gauge industry in the United Kingdom. Nu-Gauge engineering has been merged to within Stephenson & Blake, in December 2009, Stephenson & Blake acquired the steel rule tooling business from DR Tooling Ltd, They now design and manufacture steel cutting tools alongside their High Frequency Welding tools. In 2010 Stephenson & Blake acquired the Brass Welding/High Frequency Welding rule business from Caslon, Stephenson & Blake now manufacture the whole of Caslons High Frequency Welding Rule range alongside their own inventory. Sheffield council uses a font, Wayfarer, commissioned from designer Jeremy Tankard that is based on Stephenson Blakes sans-serif Granby. Website Stephenson Blakes original Impact brochure The Impact of Impact, pages 1,2,3,4

27.
Monotype Imaging
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Monotype Imaging Holdings, Inc. is a Delaware corporation based in Woburn, Massachusetts. It specialises in digital typesetting and typeface design as well as text, Monotype developed many of the most widely used typeface designs, including Times New Roman, Gill Sans, Arial, Bembo and Albertus. Monotype has carried out a series of acquisitions from 2000 onwards of companies such as Linotype GmbH, International Typeface Corporation, Bitstream Inc. and FontShop. This has gained it the rights to many further widely known designs, including Helvetica, ITC Franklin Gothic, Optima, Avant Garde, Palatino and it also owns the MyFonts online retailer used by many independent font design studios. The Lanston Monotype Machine Company was founded by Tolbert Lanston in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Lanston had a patented mechanical method of punching out metal types from cold strips of metal which were set into a matrix for the printing press. In 1896 Lanston patented the first hot metal typesetting machine and Monotype issued Modern Condensed, the licenses for the Lanston type library have been acquired by P22, a digital type foundry based in Buffalo, New York. In a search for funding, the set up a branch in London in 1897 under the name Lanston Monotype Corporation Ltd. In 1899 a new factory was built in Salfords near Redhill in Surrey where it has located for over a century. The company was of sufficient size to justify the construction of its own Salfords railway station, the Monotype machine worked by casting letters from hot metal as pieces of type. Thus spelling mistakes could be corrected by adding or removing individual letters and this was particularly useful for quality printing - such as books. In contrast, the Linotype machine formed a line of type in one bar. Editing these required replacing an entire line, but Linotype slugs were easier to handle if moving a complete section of text around a page. This was more useful for quick printing - such as newspapers, the typesetting machines were continually improved in the early years of the 20th century, with a typewriter style keyboard for entering the type being introduced in 1906. This arrangement addressed the need to vary the space between words so that all lines were the same length, the keyboard operator types the copy, each key punching holes in a roll of paper tape that will control the separate caster. A drum on the keyboard indicates to the operator the space required for each line and this information is also punched in the paper. Before fitting the tape to the caster it is turned over so that the first holes read on each set the width of the variable space. The subsequent holes determine the position of a frame, or die case, each matrix is a rectangle of copper recessed with the shape of the letter. Once the matrix is positioned over the mould that forms the rest of the piece of type being cast, Monotypes role in design history is not merely due to their supply of printing equipment but due to their commissioning of many of the most important typefaces of the twentieth century

28.
Aldo Novarese
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Aldo Novarese was an Italian type designer who lived and worked mostly in Turin where he produced an impressive number of unique designs. After learning woodcutting, copper engraving, and lithography at the Scuola Arteri Stampatori] in Turin and he became art director there in 1952. He taught at the Scuola Vigliardi Paravia for ten years beginning in 1948, by 1977, foundry type had become largely obsolete, and Novarese left Nebiolo to become a freelance designer. Novarese designed a range of typefaces. His most famous design is probably Eurostile, a geometric sans-serif design and it became very popular as a typeface that evokes technology. This was an expansion and development of the earlier design Microgramma typeface, novareses designs were innovative and classical, and those still available display great variety and memorable characteristics. Jaspert, W. Pincus, W. Turner Berry and A. F. Johnson, friedl, Ott, and Stein, Typography, an Encyclopedic Survey of Type Design and Techniques Throughout History. Black Dog & Levinthal Publishers,1998, font Designer - Aldo Novarese Novarese, Aldo - A French website about Aldo Novarese tipografia, Aldo Novarese Identifont, Aldo Novarese

29.
Turin
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Turin is a city and an important business and cultural centre in northern Italy, capital of the Piedmont region and was the first capital city of Italy. The city is located mainly on the bank of the Po River, in front of Susa Valley and surrounded by the western Alpine arch. The population of the city proper is 892,649 while the population of the area is estimated by Eurostat to be 1.7 million inhabitants. The Turin metropolitan area is estimated by the OECD to have a population of 2.2 million, in 1997 a part of the historical center of Torino was inscribed in the World Heritage List under the name Residences of the Royal House of Savoy. Turin is well known for its Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neo-classical, many of Turins public squares, castles, gardens and elegant palazzi such as Palazzo Madama, were built between the 16th and 18th centuries. This was after the capital of the Duchy of Savoy was moved to Turin from Chambery as part of the urban expansion, the city used to be a major European political center. Turin was Italys first capital city in 1861 and home to the House of Savoy, from 1563, it was the capital of the Duchy of Savoy, then of the Kingdom of Sardinia ruled by the Royal House of Savoy and finally the first capital of the unified Italy. Turin is sometimes called the cradle of Italian liberty for having been the birthplace and home of notable politicians and people who contributed to the Risorgimento, such as Cavour. The city currently hosts some of Italys best universities, colleges, academies, lycea and gymnasia, such as the University of Turin, founded in the 15th century, in addition, the city is home to museums such as the Museo Egizio and the Mole Antonelliana. Turins attractions make it one of the worlds top 250 tourist destinations, Turin is ranked third in Italy, after Milan and Rome, for economic strength. With a GDP of $58 billion, Turin is the worlds 78th richest city by purchasing power, as of 2010, the city has been ranked by GaWC as a Gamma World city. Turin is also home to much of the Italian automotive industry, the Taurini were an ancient Celto-Ligurian Alpine people, who occupied the upper valley of the Po River, in the center of modern Piedmont. In 218 BC, they were attacked by Hannibal as he was allied with their long-standing enemies, the Taurini chief town was captured by Hannibals forces after a three-day siege. As a people they are mentioned in history. It is believed that a Roman colony was established in 27 BC under the name of Castra Taurinorum, both Livy and Strabo mention the Taurinis country as including one of the passes of the Alps, which points to a wider use of the name in earlier times. In the 1st century BC, the Romans created a military camp, the typical Roman street grid can still be seen in the modern city, especially in the neighborhood known as the Quadrilatero Romano. Via Garibaldi traces the path of the Roman citys decumanus which began at the Porta Decumani. The Porta Palatina, on the side of the current city centre, is still preserved in a park near the Cathedral

30.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world

31.
Font Bureau
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The Font Bureau, Inc. or Font Bureau is a digital type foundry based in Boston, Massachusetts, United States. The foundry is one of the designers of typefaces, specializing in type designs for magazine. Font Bureau was founded in 1989 by Roger Black and David Berlow, before founding Font Bureau, Roger Black was an established publications designer and consultant. David Berlow is a type designer. The New York Times Magazine, Newsweek, Esquire Magazine, Rolling Stone, apart from Black and Berlow, other prominent designers at Font Bureau have included Tobias Frere-Jones, later of Hoefler & Frere-Jones, and Cyrus Highsmith. Matthew Carter has been a frequent collaborator with the foundry, in October 2009, news sources reported that Font Bureau was suing NBC Universal for at least $2 million over the entertainment companys use of its fonts. Font Bureau claimed NBC broke its license agreement in its use of the fonts Antenna, Bureau Grotesque, in 2016-07-06, The Font Bureau, Inc. announced all its retail typefaces are sold exclusively at Type Network, withdrawing sales in Fonts. com, MyFonts, FontShop. Webtype. com, It is a joint venture by The Font Bureau, Inc. Type Network, It is a joint venture of Font Bureau, Webtype, Petr van Blokland Studio, and Type Networks foundry partners, opened in 2016-06-01. The following foundry types were issued by Font Foundry, Foundry Type Fonts of German Type Foundries at the End of the Nazi Era Pro

32.
MacOS
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Within the market of desktop, laptop and home computers, and by web usage, it is the second most widely used desktop OS after Microsoft Windows. Launched in 2001 as Mac OS X, the series is the latest in the family of Macintosh operating systems, Mac OS X succeeded classic Mac OS, which was introduced in 1984, and the final release of which was Mac OS9 in 1999. An initial, early version of the system, Mac OS X Server 1.0, was released in 1999, the first desktop version, Mac OS X10.0, followed in March 2001. In 2012, Apple rebranded Mac OS X to OS X. Releases were code named after big cats from the release up until OS X10.8 Mountain Lion. Beginning in 2013 with OS X10.9 Mavericks, releases have been named after landmarks in California, in 2016, Apple rebranded OS X to macOS, adopting the nomenclature that it uses for their other operating systems, iOS, watchOS, and tvOS. The latest version of macOS is macOS10.12 Sierra, macOS is based on technologies developed at NeXT between 1985 and 1997, when Apple acquired the company. The X in Mac OS X and OS X is pronounced ten, macOS shares its Unix-based core, named Darwin, and many of its frameworks with iOS, tvOS and watchOS. A heavily modified version of Mac OS X10.4 Tiger was used for the first-generation Apple TV, Apple also used to have a separate line of releases of Mac OS X designed for servers. Beginning with Mac OS X10.7 Lion, the functions were made available as a separate package on the Mac App Store. Releases of Mac OS X from 1999 to 2005 can run only on the PowerPC-based Macs from the time period, Mac OS X10.5 Leopard was released as a Universal binary, meaning the installer disc supported both Intel and PowerPC processors. In 2009, Apple released Mac OS X10.6 Snow Leopard, in 2011, Apple released Mac OS X10.7 Lion, which no longer supported 32-bit Intel processors and also did not include Rosetta. All versions of the system released since then run exclusively on 64-bit Intel CPUs, the heritage of what would become macOS had originated at NeXT, a company founded by Steve Jobs following his departure from Apple in 1985. There, the Unix-like NeXTSTEP operating system was developed, and then launched in 1989 and its graphical user interface was built on top of an object-oriented GUI toolkit using the Objective-C programming language. This led Apple to purchase NeXT in 1996, allowing NeXTSTEP, then called OPENSTEP, previous Macintosh operating systems were named using Arabic numerals, e. g. Mac OS8 and Mac OS9. The letter X in Mac OS Xs name refers to the number 10 and it is therefore correctly pronounced ten /ˈtɛn/ in this context. However, a common mispronunciation is X /ˈɛks/, consumer releases of Mac OS X included more backward compatibility. Mac OS applications could be rewritten to run natively via the Carbon API, the consumer version of Mac OS X was launched in 2001 with Mac OS X10.0. Reviews were variable, with praise for its sophisticated, glossy Aqua interface

33.
Hoefler & Co.
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H&Co develops fonts for both the retail market and for individual clients. Clients include The New York Times, The Guardian, The Sun, The Times, the company was founded in 1989, and created original typefaces on commission for Rolling Stone, Sports Illustrated, Harpers Bazaar and The New York Times. Because of its connection to New York City history, its Gotham typeface was selected in 2004 for the cornerstone of One World Trade Center, bloomberg Businessweek commented that Hoefler and Frere-Jones bonded over a dislike of so-called grunge typography, which trafficked in angst and messiness. Neither Frere-Jones nor Hoefler took to that trend, preferring a style based on historic typefaces. Idea, IdN, Metropolis, Page, Print, Publish, Jonathan Hoefler was the recipient of the 2002 Prix Charles Peignot for outstanding contributions to typeface design. In 2006, Tobias Frere-Jones received the prestigious Gerrit Noordzij Prize, in 2009, they became the first typeface designers to be recognized by the National Design Awards. Both Hoefler and Frere-Jones are regular speakers at international conferences, the companys biography until its split stated, Hoeflers work has been exhibited internationally, and is included in the permanent collection of the Cooper-Hewitt National Design Museum in New York. In 2002, The Association Typographique Internationale presented Hoefler with its most prestigious award, Hoefler and Frere-Jones collaboration has earned them profiles in The New York Times, Time, and Esquire. On January 16,2014, designer Tobias Frere-Jones filed a lawsuit in the courts of New York state against Jonathan Hoefler, the lawsuit alleges that Frere-Jones was entitled to own half of the type foundry, based on an oral agreement made in 1999. According to the agreement, Frere-Jones transferred ownership of his fonts to the company for 10 USD. Frere-Jones contends that the foundry was intended to be run as an equal partnership and this release announced the rebranding of H&FJ as Hoefler & Co. and described Frere-Jones as a longtime employee. The lawsuit was settled on 28 September 2014, shortly before the phase of the trial was scheduled to begin. The terms of the settlement were not disclosed, archer Gotham Hoefler Text Requiem Surveyor Whitney iapps. courts. state. ny. us Parascope New York Times Official website Catalogue of typefaces designed Hoefler & Co. on Facebook

34.
Barack Obama
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Barack Hussein Obama II is an American politician who served as the 44th President of the United States from 2009 to 2017. He is the first African American to have served as president and he previously served in the U. S. Senate representing Illinois from 2005 to 2008, and in the Illinois State Senate from 1997 to 2004. Obama was born in Honolulu, Hawaii, two years after the territory was admitted to the Union as the 50th state and he grew up mostly in Hawaii, but also spent one year of his childhood in Washington State and four years in Indonesia. After graduating from Columbia University in 1983, he worked as a community organizer in Chicago, in 1988 Obama enrolled in Harvard Law School, where he was the first black president of the Harvard Law Review. After graduation, he became a civil rights attorney and professor, Obama represented the 13th District for three terms in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004, when he ran for the U. S. Senate. In 2008, Obama was nominated for president, a year after his campaign began and he was elected over Republican John McCain, and was inaugurated on January 20,2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, during his first two years in office, Obama signed more landmark legislation than any Democratic president since LBJs Great Society. Main reforms were the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, after a lengthy debate over the national debt limit, Obama signed the Budget Control and the American Taxpayer Relief Acts. In foreign policy, Obama increased U. S. troop levels in Afghanistan, reduced nuclear weapons with the U. S. -Russian New START treaty, and ended military involvement in the Iraq War. He ordered military involvement in Libya in opposition to Muammar Gaddafi, after winning re-election over Mitt Romney, Obama was sworn in for a second term in 2013. Obama also advocated gun control in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, and issued wide-ranging executive actions concerning climate change and immigration. In foreign policy, Obama ordered military intervention in Iraq in response to gains made by ISIL after the 2011 withdrawal from Iraq, Obama left office in January 2017 with a 60% approval rating. He currently resides in Washington, D. C and his presidential library will be built in Chicago. Obama was born on August 4,1961, at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital in Honolulu and he is the only President to have been born in Hawaii. He was born to a mother and a black father. His mother, Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas, of mostly English descent, with some German, Irish, Scottish, Swiss and his father, Barack Obama Sr. was a married Luo Kenyan man from Nyangoma Kogelo. Obamas parents met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, the couple married in Wailuku, Hawaii on February 2,1961, six months before Obama was born. In late August 1961, Obamas mother moved him to the University of Washington in Seattle for a year

Two pages from Bodoni's Manuale Tipografico, a posthumous showcase of his work and engraving by his wife.

The 1861 title page of Great Expectations in the sharp, high-contrast Didone type of the period. Popular at the time, the style had disappeared almost completely by the middle of the twentieth century.

A reverse-contrast letterform is a typeface or custom lettering in which the stress is reversed from the norm: instead …

A document printed in 1836, showing Didone (body text), 'Italian' (the word 'proceedings') and early sans-serif fonts. The 'Italian' type is Caslon's Italian or a close copy. The document was printed in Michigan, showing how far the Italian style had penetrated around 15 years after its appearance in London.

Original French Clarendon wood type, showing its highly condensed design.

Oxford is a city in the South East region of England and the county town of Oxfordshire. With an estimated 2016 …

From top left to bottom right: Oxford skyline panorama from St Mary's Church; Radcliffe Camera; High Street from above looking east; University College; High Street by night; Natural History Museum and Pitt Rivers Museum.

Shakespeare's play Othello, printed in 1623. Bold type had not yet been invented. Emphasis is provided by using italics, used for key words, stage directions and the names of characters, and capitalisation of key words.

Oblique type is a form of type that slants slightly to the right, used for the same purposes as italic type. Unlike …

A simply slanted (L) and corrected (R) example of oblique type.

Morison and Gill originally considered for Perpetua a sloped roman, in which the letterforms are slanted but not otherwise modified (top). (Shown is a digitally slanted image, not a copy of Gill’s own drawing.) Perpetua’s final italic has cursive features as in the ‘a’ and ‘e’, but still has some sloped roman features, such as the flat serifs on many letters. Shown below is the more conventional italic of Times New Roman for comparison.