Sebastião de Carvalho, marquês de Pombal, in full Sebastião José de Carvalho e Mello, marquês de Pombal, also called (1759–69) conde de Oeiras
(born May 13, 1699, Lisbon—died May 8, 1782, Pombal, Portugal), Portuguese reformer and virtual ruler of his country from 1750 to 1777.

Sebastião was the son of Manuel de Carvalho e Ataíde, a former cavalry captain and former nobleman of the royal house. The elder Carvalho died relatively young, and Sebastião’s mother remarried. Sebastião’s uncle, Paulo de Carvalho, who was professor at the Universidade de Coimbra, archpriest of the patriarchal see, and a person of political influence, enrolled his nephew in that institution. But Sebastião abandoned his studies to enlist in the army, in which he reached the humble rank of corporal. Disillusioned with the army, he quit and dedicated himself to the study of history and law and was later admitted, at the age of 34, to the Academia Real da História Portuguesa.

In 1733 he married Teresa Maria de Noronha e Almada, a widow, niece of the conde de Arcos. They moved to the village of Soure, near Coimbra, where he had property. There he dedicated himself to his studies and to agriculture. In 1738 he returned to Lisbon. His uncle now recommended him to João da Mota, prime minister for King John V, who appointed him Portuguese ambassador to England. His wife, in poor health, was unable to accompany him; she died in 1739.

His diplomatic career opened wider political horizons for him. He distinguished himself by the zeal with which he conducted several negotiations. And, for the seven years he stayed in London, Carvalho carefully studied English political, social, and economic practices.

After returning to Lisbon in 1745, Carvalho was immediately appointed ambassador plenipotentiary to Vienna, with the mission of serving as mediator in the solution of a serious quarrel between the Holy Roman empress Maria Teresa and the Vatican. The probabilities of success were very slight, but he overcame all obstacles, winning the sympathy of the empress and the love of Eleonora von Daun, daughter of the Graf (count) von Daun, whom he married in December 1745. The Austrian climate was bad for his health, however, and he submitted his resignation and returned to Lisbon at the end of 1749.

As King John V did not like him, Carvalho’s progress was temporarily halted. But soon after John’s death on July 31, 1750, he was called by Queen Maria Ana, the king’s widow, of whom he was a favourite, and was appointed to one of the royal councils. The heir to the throne, Prince Joseph, on being crowned king, made him a minister, along with two other favourites. He soon came to dominate Portuguese politics and the new monarch gave him a free hand. Thus began what may be termed the reign of the marquês de Pombal.

Carvalho instituted domestic administrative reforms and succeeded in elevating Portugal’s prestige in external politics. He granted England privileges that entitled it to receive large amounts of gold in exchange for manufactured articles. On the other hand, he stimulated national industry, forbidding the exportation of certain raw materials and developing the manufacture of silk, woollens, ceramics, and glass. Aiming at the development of commerce in the Orient, he founded a company for trade with India, similar to England’s but which, however, was unsuccessful. But he was successful in another, similar enterprise—the Companhia do Grão-Pará—aimed at stimulating trade with Brazil.

His reforming activity was interrupted by a catastrophe, the earthquake of November 1, 1755. Two-thirds of Lisbon was reduced to rubble. Carvalho mobilized troops, obtained supplies, and had shelters and hospitals improvised. The day after the catastrophe, he was already outlining ideas for reconstruction. With architect Eugénio dos Santos’s plans, old medieval Lisbon was changed into one of the most beautiful European cities.

Carvalho’s firm and effective handling of the crisis enhanced his prestige and strengthened even further his position with the king. But his ascendancy had from the beginning created envy and animosity among two very powerful and influential groups: the high nobility and the Society of Jesus. On the night of September 3, 1758, an unsuccessful attempt was made on the king’s life. This served as a pretext for Carvalho to rid himself of his enemies among the nobility and Jesuits, whom he accused of conspiracy. The court, influenced by him, attributed the crime to the duque de Aveiro and to other members of the Távora family. On January 12, 1759, they were tortured to death. Carvalho then began persecuting members of the Society of Jesus. Almost all were deported to Rome, but some were imprisoned, along with many noblemen who were confined without proof of guilt.

Sebastião de Carvalho’s power had become absolute. He was created conde de Oeiras in 1759 and continued to enact reforms, including the reform of university education, the initiation of commercial education, the creation of trading companies, and the reorganization of the army. In September 1769 the king conferred on him the title of marquês de Pombal.

Upon the death of King Joseph on February 24, 1777, however, all the marquês’s power vanished. Under the new queen, Maria I, political prisoners were freed, and Pombal was accused of having abused his powers. He was found guilty by a judicial tribunal that subjected him to severe interrogation from October 1779 to January 1780. Queen Maria then banished him from Lisbon, and he retired to Pombal, where he died in 1782.

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