Justification:
This species has a restricted distribution in South Asia and is found in the landward margin, which is a mangrove area most threatened by coastal development. However, this species can be locally common. There has been an estimated population decline of 50% to 80% in the majority of its range (Malaysia) based on decline of mangrove area due to coastal development and extraction since the 1950s, primarily due to the clearing of mangroves for rice farming, shrimp aquaculture and coastal development. No additional data is available to estimate decline over three generation lengths (120 years). This species is listed as Endangered. However, populations in India and Bangladesh are rapidly declining and may qualify for Critically Endangered at a regional level.

This species can be locally common and abundant in some parts of its range such as the Sundarbans and in Bangladesh, but has a limited overall distribution. In Bangladesh and India, this species is rapidly declining. For example, in India, this species was found in only 6% of 100 sampling sites (Kathiresan 2008).

This species is found in the upstream estuarine zone in the high intertidal region. It prefers freshwater, and is fast-growing in low-saline environments. It occurs in stands and grows up to 25 m. It is the only Heritiera species that produces pneumatophores.

This species is quickly disappearing in many parts of its range due to coastal development (creation of ponds), disease, typhoons, and in areas where there has been a reduction in freshwater flow (creation of dams). Wide areas of Thailand's mangroves have been selectively cut for charcoal and export. Shrimp farming has also increased since the 1970s and has led to the clearance of large areas that include this species. Coastal development (urban, industrial, agriculture) is another leading cause of mangrove removal in Thailand, and salt ponds and mining have led to mangrove loss (Spalding et al. 1997).There has been an estimated population decline of 50% to 80% based on decline of mangrove area in the western coast of peninsular Malaysia due to coastal development and extraction since the 1950s, primarily due to the clearing of mangroves for rice farming, shrimp aquaculture and coastal development in upstream areas where this species can be found (Ong 1995, 2003).

Another major threat to this species is "top-dying disease," and the cause is unknown. It is also being replaced by palm oil plantations in Malaysia, especially as it is found at the landward margin where mangrove species are most vulnerable to coastal development and human activities.

Sea level rise is a major threat, especially to back mangroves that have no area in which to expand. Mangrove species with a habitat on the landward margin may be particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise if owing to coastal development their movement inland is blocked.

All mangrove ecosystems occur within mean sea level and high tidal elevations, and have distinct species zonations that are controlled by the elevation of the substrate relative to mean sea level. This is because of associated variation in frequency of elevation, salinity and wave action (Duke et al. 1998). With rise in sea-level, the habitat requirements of each species will be disrupted, and species zones will suffer mortality at their present locations and re-establish at higher elevations in areas that were previously landward zones (Ellison 2005). If sea-level rise is a continued trend over this century, then there will be continued mortality and re-establishment of species zones. However, species that are easily dispersed and fast growing/fast producing will cope better than those which are slower growing and slower to reproduce.

In addition, mangrove area is declining globally due to a number of localized threats. The main threat is habitat destruction and removal of mangrove areas. Reasons for removal include cleared for shrimp farms, agriculture, fish ponds, rice production and salt pans, and for the development of urban and industrial areas, road construction, coconut plantations, ports, airports, and tourist resorts. Other threats include pollution from sewage effluents, solid wastes, siltation, oil, and agricultural and urban runoff. Climate change is also thought to be a threat, particularly at the edges of a species range. Natural threats include cyclones, hurricane and tsunamis.

There are no conservation measures specific to this species, but its range may include some marine and coastal protected areas. For examples, this species is found in several protected areas within its range including the Sundarbans. Continued monitoring and research is recommended, as well as the inclusion of mangrove areas in marine and coastal protected areas.