The most detailed presentation of Egyptian history, with full bibliographies arranged by subject, is the multivolume Cambridge Ancient History, though volumes 1 and 2 no longer reflect current knowledge. More recent overviews are presented in Ian Shaw (ed.), The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (2003); and Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt (1992; originally published in French, 1988). A more anthropological perspective is found in Barry J. Kemp, Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization, 2nd ed. (2003). Wolfgang Helck, Eberhard Otto, and Wolhart Westendorf (eds.), Lexikon der Ägyptologie (1975– ), is the basic reference work in Egyptology, of which 5 6 volumes had appeared by 1986 , with further parts with an additional volume of corrections and indexes by Wolfgang Helckpublished in fascicles1992. Michael A. Hoffman, Egypt Before the Pharaohs: The Prehistoric Foundations of Egyptian Civilization (1979, reissued 1984), is a comprehensive general work and Béatrix Midant-Reynes, The Prehistory of Egypt from the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs (2000; originally published in French, 1992) are comprehensive general works on prehistory; while Lech Krzyżaniak, Early Farming Cultures on the Lower Nile: The Predynastic Period in Egypt (1977), focuses on the transition to agriculture and on Lower Egypt. General studies include Cyril Aldred, The Egyptians, rev. ed. (1984); and John Ruffle, Heritage of the Pharaohs: An Introduction to Egyptian Archaeology (1977); as well as other works cited below under the specific periods on which they focus. General histories include B.G. Trigger et al., Ancient Egypt: A Social History (1983), containing four essays on the main periods, concentrating on relations with Africa , and including valuable bibliographies; and Sir Alan Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs (1961), a personal history, notable for the use made of ancient Egyptian texts. William W. Hallo and William Kelly Simpson, The Ancient Near East: A History (1971), is a reliable brief introduction; and Étienne Drioton and Jacques Vandier, L’Égypte: des origines à la conquête d’Alexandre, 4th ed. (1962, reprinted 1984), remains valuable for its critical discussions. A detailed discussion of various historical periods can be found in Toby A.H. Wilkinson, Early Dynastic Egypt (2001; originally published, 1999); Jean Vercoutter, L’Égypte et la vallée du Nil, Tome 1: des origines à la fin de l’Ancien Empire 12000–2000 av. J.C. (1992), and Claude Vandersleyen, L’Egypte et la vallée du Nil, Tome 2: de la fin de l’Ancien empire à la fin du Nouvel Empire (1995). John A. Wilson, The Burden of Egypt: An Interpretation of Ancient Egyptian Culture (1951, reprinted 1965), is a selective historical study. William C. Hayes, The Scepter of Egypt, 2 vol. (1953–59), is a detailed cultural history of Egypt to the end of the 20th dynasty, based on the collections in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City. Wolfgang Helck, Geschichte des alten Ägypten (1968, reprinted 1981), is still the best general history; his Beziehungen Ägyptens zu Vorderasien im 3. und 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr., 2nd ed. (1971), is the fundamental work on foreign relations, and his Wirtschaftsgeschichte des Alten Ägypten im 3. und 2. Jahrtausend vor Chr. (1975), covers institutions and economics. Rolf Krauss, Sothis- und Monddaten: Studien zur astronomischen und technischen Chronologie Altägyptens (1985), is a vital chronological study for the 2nd and 1st millennia BC; its dates are adopted in this article with minor variations. John Baines and Jaromír Málek, Atlas of Ancient Egypt (1980), is a concise, geographically oriented survey. Hermann Kees, Ancient Egypt: A Cultural Topography (1961, reprinted 1977; originally published in German, 2nd ed., 1958; 3rd German ed., 1977), studies a number of major sites in depth. Karl W. Butzer, Early Hydraulic Civilization in Egypt: A Study in Cultural Ecology (1976), is a useful discussion of geographic and environmental conditions and their relation to the development of ancient Egyptian civilization. Claude Vandersleyen et al., Das alte Ägypten (1975), is the most comprehensive survey of Egyptian art. W. Stevenson Smith, The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt, rev. ed., edited by William Kelly Simpson (1981), is an excellent general account; and for the Old Kingdom, Smith’s History of Egyptian Sculpture and Painting in the Old Kingdom, 2nd ed. (1949), is still a fundamental source. Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings, 3 vol. (1973–80), offers an excellent collection of texts in translation, covering the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms and the Late Period. A smaller selection of readings is available in William Kelly Simpson (ed.), The Literature of Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Stories, Instructions, and Poetry, new ed. (1973); while James B. Pritchard (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 3rd ed. (1969), contains a wide selection of Egyptian material in translation. Studies of administration include Klaus Baer, Rank and Title in the Old Kingdom (1960, reprinted 1974); to which Nigel Strudwick, The Administration of Egypt in the Old Kingdom: The Highest Titles and Their Holders (1985), adds a vast amount of detail. Wolfgang Helck, Zur Verwaltung des Mittleren und Neuen Reichs (1958), with a separately published index volume (1975), is the basic work on the succeeding periods.

From the New Kingdom to 332 BC

The rise of the New Kingdom is treated in Jürgen Von Beckerath, Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der Zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten (1964). Donald B. Redford, History and Chronology of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt: Seven Studies (1967) , includes and Joyce Tyldesley, Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh (1996) include a reevaluation of Hatshepsut. An informative account of the New Kingdom empire at its height is Elizabeth Riefstahl, Thebes in the Time of Amunhotep III (1964, reprinted 1971David O’Connor and Eric H. Cline (eds.), Amenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign (1998). For the controversial Amarna period, Rolf Krauss, Das Ende der Amarnazeit: Beitr. zur Geschichte u. Chronologie d. Neuen Reiches (1978); and Donald B. Redford, Akhenaten, the Heretic King (1984), offer strongly contrasting interpretations. Cyril Aldred, Akhenatenand Nefertiti (1973, King of Egypt (1988), is a good collection of the artistic overall evidence for the period, and inscriptions of the time are translated by William J. Murnane, Texts from the Amarna Period in Egypt (1995). For the Ramesside period, K.A. Kitchen, Pharaoh Triumphant: The Life and Times of Ramesses II King of Egypt (1982), sets its subject in context, presenting the New Kingdom in general as well as Ramses’ own reign. Edward F. Wente, Late Ramesside Letters (1967), deals with material from the end of the same period. For The major work on the economy of this time, see the major work of at that time is J.J. Janssen, Commodity Prices from the Ramessid Period: An Economic Study of the Village of Necropolis Workmen at Thebes (1975). John Romer, Ancient Lives: Daily Life in Egypt of the Pharaohs (1984), presents the life of the same community. T.G.H. James, Pharaoh’s People: Scenes from Life in Imperial Egypt (1984), is concerned with lifestyles of higher ranks of society in the same general period. K.A. Kitchen, The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 B.C.), 2nd rev. ed. (1986), is the basic work on the period. Hermann Kees, Das Priestertum im ägyptischen Staat, vom neuen Reich bis zur Spätzeit (1953), with an index volume, Indices und Nachträge (1958), is a comprehensive analysis of the Egyptian priesthoods. This fundamental institution of the Late Period is also valuably treated in Serge Sauneron, The Priests of Ancient Egypt (1960, reprinted 1980; originally published in French, 1957). On the The period from the Saite 26th dynasty until Alexander the Great , see is addressed in Friedrich K. Kienitz, Die politische Geschichte Ägyptens vom 7. bis 4. Jahrhundert vor der Zeitwende (1953), based on both Egyptian and classical sources. Alan B. Lloyd, Herodotus, Book II, 2 vol. (1975–76), contains much material on the Late Period.

Hellenistic and Roman Egypt

Valuable analyses of the period in general include Harold I. Bell, Egypt, from Alexander the Great to the Arab Conquest: A Study in the Diffusion and Decay of Hellenism (1948, reprinted 1980); Alan K. Bowman, Egypt After the Pharaohs, 332 B.C.–A.D. 642: From Alexander to the Arab Conquest (1986); and Roger S. Bagnall, Egypt in Late Antiquity (1993). The basic general works on the papyri are L. Mitteis and U. Wilcken, Grundzüge und Chrestomathie der Papyruskunde, 2 vol. in 4 (1912, reprinted 1963); and E.G. Turner, Greek Papyri: An Introduction (1968, reissued 1980), with its illustrated companion, Greek Manuscripts of the Ancient World (1971).

Ptolemaic Egypt is treated in Dorothy J. Crawford, Kerkeosiris: An Egyptian Village in the Ptolemaic Period (1971); P.M. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 3 vol. (1972); J. Grafton Milne, A History of Egypt Under Roman Rule, 3rd rev. ed. (1924); Orsolina Montevecchi, La papirologia (1973); Alan E. Samuel, From Athens to Alexandria: Hellenism and Social Goals in Ptolemaic Egypt (1983); Naphtali Lewis, Greeks in Ptolemaic Egypt: Case Studies in the Social History of the Hellenistic World (1986); E.E. Rice, The Grand Procession of Ptolemy Philadelphus (1983); M. Rostovtzeff, The Social & Economic History of the Hellenistic World, 3 vol. (1941, reprinted with corrections 1972); Sarah B. Pomeroy, Women in Hellenistic Egypt: From Alexander to Cleopatra (1984); Dorothy J. Thompson, Memphis Under the Ptolemies (1988); and Günther Hölbl, History of the Ptolemaic Empire (2001; originally published in German, 1994).

Roman Egypt is the focus of A.C. Johnson, Roman Egypt to the Reign of Diocletian, vol. 2 in Tenney Frank (ed.), An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome, 6 vol. (1933–40, reprinted 1975); A.H.M. Jones, The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces, 2nd ed. (1971, reprinted 1983); and Naphtali Lewis, Life in Egypt Under Roman Rule (1983). Studies of Byzantine Egypt include Alfred J. Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt and the Last Thirty Years of the Roman Dominion, 2nd ed., revised by P.M. Fraser (1978); Edward Rochie Hardy, The Large Estates of Byzantine Egypt (1931, reprinted 1968), and Christian Egypt: Church and People: Christianity and Nationalism in the Patriarchate of Alexandria (1952); Allan Chester Johnson and Louis C. West, Byzantine Egypt: Economic Studies (1949, reprinted 1967); and Colin H. Roberts, Manuscript, Society, and Belief in Early Christian Egypt (1979).