Iceland's defences consist of the Icelandic Coast Guard, which patrols Icelandic waters and airspace, and other services such as the National Commissioner's National Security and Special Forces Units.[1][2][3][4] Iceland is however the only NATO member which maintains no standing army, although there is no legal impediment to forming one and Icelandic services perform the operations fellow NATO allies relegate to their standing armies.

The Coast Guard consists of three ships and four aircraft and armed with small arms, naval artillery, and Air Defence weaponry,[5] the Coast Guard also maintains the Iceland Air Defence System, formerly part of the disestablished Defence Agency, which conducts ground surveillance of Iceland's air space.[5][6]

Units subordinated to the National Commissioner also take part in Iceland's defences. Foremost of these are the National Security Unit, which handles intelligence operations and the special unit Víkingasveitin, a highly trained and equipped counter terrorism unit which is part of the National Police force.

Additionally there is a Crisis Response Unit (ICRU), operated by the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, which is a small peacekeeping force that has been deployed internationally, since 2008, this unit also has an unarmed component.

Iceland holds the annual NATO exercises entitled Northern Viking, the most recent exercises were held in 2011,[12] as well as the EOD exercise "Northern Challenge". In 1997 Iceland hosted its first Partnership for Peace (PfP) exercise, "Cooperative Safeguard", which is the only multilateral PfP exercise so far in which Russia has participated. Another major PfP exercise was hosted in 2000. Iceland has also contributed ICRU peacekeepers to SFOR, KFOR and ISAF.

The government of Iceland contributes financially to NATO's international overhead costs and recently has taken a more active role in NATO deliberations and planning. Iceland hosted the NATO Foreign Ministers' Meeting in Reykjavík in June 1987. Additionally Norway has agreed to grant Icelandic citizens the same eligibility as Norwegian citizens for military education in Norway and to serve as professional soldiers in the Norwegian Defence forces.[13]

In the period from the settlement of Iceland, in the 870s, until it became part of the realm of the Norwegian King, military defences of Iceland consisted of multiple chieftains (Goðar) and their free followers (þingmenn, bændur or liðsmenn) organised according to the standard Nordic military doctrine of the time in expeditionary armies such as the leiðangr. These armies were divided into units according to the quality of the warriors and by birth, at the end of this period the number of chieftains had diminished and their power had grown, to the detriment of their followers. This resulted in a long and bloody civil war known as Age of the Sturlungs. A typical battle involved fewer than 1000 men.

In the decades before the Napoleonic wars, the few hundred militiamen in the southwest of Iceland were mainly equipped with rusty and mostly obsolete medieval weaponry, including 16th century halberds. When English raiders arrived in 1808, after sinking or capturing most of the Danish-Norwegian Navy in the Battle of Copenhagen, the amount of gunpowder in Iceland was so small that the governor of Iceland, Count Trampe, could not offer any resistance.

In 1855, the Icelandic Army was re-established by Andreas August von Kohl, the sheriff in Vestmannaeyjar; in 1856, the king provided 180 rixdollars to buy guns, and a further 200 rixdollars the following year. The sheriff became the Captain of the new army, which become known as Herfylkingin, "The Battalion"; in 1860 von Kohl died, and Pétur Bjarnasen took over command. Nine years later Bjarnasen died without appointing a successor, and the army fell into disarray.

Agnar Kofoed Hansen training his officers in the arts of war in 1940.

In 1918, Iceland regained sovereignty as a separate kingdom under the Danish king. Iceland established a Coast Guard shortly afterwards, but it was financially impossible to establish a standing army, the government hoped that a permanent neutrality would shield the country from invasion. But at the onset of Second World War, the government was concerned about a possible invasion, and decided to expand the Icelandic National Police (Ríkislögreglan) and its reserves into a military unit. Chief Commissioner of Police Agnar Kofoed Hansen had been trained in the Danish Army and he moved to train his officers. Weapons and uniforms were acquired, and they practised rifleshooting and military tactics near Laugarvatn. Hansen barely managed to train his 60 officers before the United Kingdom's invasion of Iceland on 10 May 1940, the next planned step towards strengthening the army was to train the 300 strong reserve forces, but this was prevented by the invasion.

During the Second World War, the United States took over the defense of Iceland from the British, and this arrangement continued well after the war, eventually codified in the Agreed Minute; in 1949 Iceland was a founding member of NATO, and it was the sole member that did not have a standing army, joining on the condition that it would not be expected to establish one. However, its strategic geographic position in the Atlantic made it an invaluable member. Expansion of forces by Iceland was therefore concentrated primarily in the Icelandic Coast Guard, which saw action in a series of confrontations with British fishing vessels and Royal Navy warships known as the Cod Wars.

After withdrawal of US forces in 2006, Iceland reorganized some military functions in the form of the Icelandic Defence Agency (Varnarmálastofnun Íslands) founded in 2008.[16] under the Minister for Foreign Affairs. The Agency took over operations at Naval Air Station Keflavik, but was closed in 2011 in the wake of the economic crisis, with functions distributed to the existing organizations. [17]

Shortly after Iceland reclaimed its sovereignty in 1918, the Icelandic Coast Guard was founded, its first vessel, a former Danish research vessel, was armed with a 57 mm cannon. The Coast Guard is responsible for protecting Iceland's sovereignty and vital interests including the most valuable natural resource—its fishing areas—as well as providing security, search, and rescue services to Iceland's fishing fleet; in 1952, 1958, 1972, and 1975, the government progressively expanded Iceland's exclusive economic zone to 4, 12, 50 and then 200 nautical miles (370 km). This led to a conflict with the United Kingdom, among other states, known as the "Cod Wars", the Icelandic Coast Guard and the Royal Navy confronted each other on several occasions during these years. Although few rounds were fired, there were many intense moments. Today the Coast Guard remains Iceland's premier fighting force equipped with armed patrol vessels and aircraft and partaking in peacekeeping operations in foreign lands.

The Coast Guard has four vessels and four aircraft (one fixed wing and three helicopters) at their disposal.

The Iceland Air Defence System or Íslenska Loftvarnarkerfið was founded in 1987, and operates four radar complexes, a software and support facility and a command and report centre. It is a part of the Coast Guard.

The Icelandic Crisis Response Unit (ICRU) (or Íslenska friðargæslan or "The Icelandic Peacekeeping Guard") is an expeditionary peacekeeping force maintained by the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, it is manned by personnel from Iceland's other services, armed or not, including the National Police, Coast Guard, Emergency Services and Health-care system. Because of the military nature of most of the ICRU's assignments, all of its members receive basic infantry combat training, this training has often been conducted by the Norwegian Army, but the Coast Guard and the Special forces are also assigned to train the ICRU.

Most of the ICRU's camouflage and weaponry is procured from abroad, with some indigenous development, some arms and uniforms are also borrowed from the Norwegian Defence Forces.

The formation and employment of the unit has met controversy in Iceland, especially by people to the left on the political scale; in October 2004, three ICRU soldiers were wounded in a suicide bombing in Kabul. The incident led to tough questioning of the group's commander, Colonel Halli Sigurðsson, focusing on his conduct .[citation needed] Later the command was passed to Lt. Colonel Gardar Forberg followed by Colonel Lárus Atlason.

In 2008, the portion of uniformed ICRU deployed personnel still armed for self-defense returned their weapons and changed to civilian clothing, the policy since 2008 is that, unless under special circumstances, ICRU personnel do not wear uniforms or carry weapons.

1.
Icelandic Coast Guard
–
The Icelandic Coast Guard is the service responsible for Icelands coastal defense and maritime and aeronautical search and rescue. Its origins can be traced to 1859, when the corvette Ørnen started patrolling Icelandic waters, in 1906, Icelands first purposely built guard-ship, Islands Falk, began operation. Icelands own defense of its territorial waters began around 1920 and the Icelandic Coast Guard was formally founded on July 1,1926. The first cannon was put on the trawler Thor in 1924 and on June 23,1926 the first ship built for the Coast Guard, named Óðinn, three years later, on the 14 July 1929 the coastal defence ship Ægir was added to the Coast Guard fleet. The Coast Guard also maintains the Iceland Air Defence System which conducts ground surveillance of Icelands air space, the Icelandic Coast Guard also occasionally operates within Greenlandic and Faeroese waters, following a bilateral agreement with Denmark regarding mutual aid in security, rescue and defence matters. The Coast Guard accomplishes these tasks with the use of patrol vessels, helicopters, surveillance aircraft, satellites. The Icelandic Coast Guard is also in charge of the Iceland Air Defence System, which operates four ground-based AN/FPS-117v5 air surveillance radars and a control and command centre. The Coast Guard has also taken part in Peacekeeping Operations on behalf of the Icelandic Crisis Response Unit, although while usually using their own insignia, uniforms. The fleet also takes part in Frontex operations, and in that role ICGV Týr played a part in the rescue of over 300 Syrian refugees in the eastern Mediterranean Sea in January 2015. In 2011 the Coast Guard received the new ICGV Thor built by the Asmar shipyard in Talcahuano, ICGV Týr, an Ægir-class, is the second youngest, built by Århus Flydedok a/s and launched in 1975. ICGV Ægir an Ægir-class is ICGV Týrs sister-ship, built by Ålborg Værft a/s, each ship is equipped with two or more rigid inflatable boats of various sizes and armed with a 40 mm Bofors cannon. Various kinds of small-arms as well as other man portable weapons are also carried onboard each of the ships, Týr and Thor are also equipped with sonar systems and the Ægir class sisterships have flight decks and a hangar for a small helicopter. While the Coast Guard currently doesnt operate small enough helicopters to use the hangars, the coast guard has as well a 73-ton patrol and hydrographic survey vessel, named Baldur, built by Vélsmiðja Seyðisfjarðar shipyard in 1991. This vessel has no mounted weaponry but it has nonetheless been used for port security, the Coast Guards Aeronautical Division was founded on December 10,1955 when a Consolidated PBY-6A Catalina flying boat was acquired. It was originally from the Iceland Defense Force but was damaged near Langanes in 1954 and it was registered as TF-RAN and nicknamed Rán. Currently the Icelandic Coast Guard operates three Aerospatiale AS-332L1 Super Puma helicopters, which are registered as TF-LIF, TF-SYN and TF-GNA, the Coast Guard also operates a single Bombardier DHC-8-Q314, registered as TF-SIF, modified for maritime surveillance and reconnaissance. This plane has been modified by FIELD to carry a modern Mission Management System and suite of surveillance sensors, air operable door. It is occasionally used for surveillance of volcanic eruptions, e. g. of Eyjafjallajökull in 2010

2.
Iceland Crisis Response Unit
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The Iceland Crisis Response Unit or Íslenska Friðargæslan, is an Icelandic non-military unit with a capacity roster of up to 200 people, of whom about 30 are active at any given time. It is operated by the Icelandic Ministry of Foreign Affairs and it is primarily designated for peacekeeping operations and was established in the 1990s to participate in operations and peacekeeping projects, including in support of NATO peacekeeping operations. It had an observer mission in Sri Lanka in co-operation with Norway and has explosive ordnance disposal personnel from the Icelandic Coast Guard to Lebanon. Iceland deployed its first peacekeepers in 1950, when two Icelandic policemen were sent to Palestine as a part of an UN peacekeeping operation, in 2008, a portion of uniformed ICRU deployed personnel still armed for self-defense returned their weapons and changed to civilian clothing. The policy since 2008, is that, unless special circumstances. In addition to those mentioned above, these range from logistical backgrounds, medical or engineering backgrounds, social sciences. But now, after a law was passed in 2007 the peacekeepers need a college degree, in 2014, its much more of an aid squad rather than peacekeepers. The ICRU roster members receive training and exercise in line with their deployment, the legal basis for the ICRU is set in Icelandic law on ICRU, No. The Defence Department of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs oversees military related intelligence and it is often claimed that Iceland has a tradition of non-militarisation and should therefore practice pacifism. This criticism was particularly fierce when Icelandic peacekeepers were injured in a bombing in Kabul in 2004. The standard weaponry was in most cases however of Norwegian origin,73 frá2007 um Íslensku friðargæsluna Ársskýrsla Íslensku friðargæslunnar 2006 Icelandic Ministry for Foreign Affairs website on the ICRU ICRU Yearly report for 2007 Women, peace and security. ICRU and resolution 1325 ICRU personnel clear cluster bombs and other unexploded ordnance in southern Lebanon ICRU in brief ICRU contributes to Balkan stability

3.
Read Admiral
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Rear admiral is a naval commissioned officer rank above that of a commodore and captain, and below that of a vice admiral. It is generally regarded as the lowest of the admiral ranks, in many navies it is referred to as a two-star rank. It originated from the days of naval sailing squadrons and can trace its origins to the Royal Navy, each naval squadron would be assigned an admiral as its head, who would command from the centre vessel and direct the activities of the squadron. The admiral would in turn be assisted by a vice admiral and this has survived into the modern age, with the rank of rear admiral the most-junior of the admiralty ranks of many navies. In some European navies, and in the Canadian Forces French rank translations, in the German Navy the rank is known as Konteradmiral, superior to the flotilla admiral. In the Royal Netherlands Navy, this rank is known as schout-bij-nacht, denoting the role junior to the squadron admiral, the Royal Australian Navy maintains a rank of rear admiral, refer to Australian Defence Force ranks and insignia. Since the mid-1990s, the insignia of a Royal Australian Navy rear admiral is the Crown of St. Edward above a crossed sword and baton, like the Royal Navy version, the sword is a traditional naval cutlass. The stars have eight points, unlike the four pointed Order of the Bath stars used by the army, prior to 1995, the RAN shoulder board was identical to the Royal Navy shoulder board. The Royal Navy shoulder board changed again in 2001 and the Australian, rear Admiral Robyn Walker AM, RAN became the first female admiral in the Royal Australian Navy when she was appointed Surgeon-General of the Australian Defence Force on 16 December 2011. In the Royal Canadian Navy, the rank of rear-admiral is the Navy rank equivalent to major-general of the Army, a rear-admiral is a flag officer, the naval equivalent of a general officer. A rear-admiral is senior to a commodore and brigadier-general, and junior to a vice-admiral and lieutenant-general, the service dress features a wide strip of gold braid around the cuff and, since June 2010, above it a narrower strip of gold braid embellished with the executive curl. On the visor of the cap are two rows of gold oak leaves. Konteradmiral is an OF-7 two-star rank equivalent to the Generalmajor in the German Army, see also The Guyana Defence Force Coast Guard is the naval component of the Military of Guyana. As such, the ranks of the Coast Guard are naval ranks similar to the practice in the respective Coast Guards of Jamaica and Trinidad, the rank of rear admiral was first awarded to chief of staff commodore Gary Best on August 19,2013. The rank insignia consists of two silver pips with green highlights, beneath a crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by the gold-colored Caciques crown with red, the Indian Navy also maintains a rear admiral rank senior to commodore and captain ranks and junior to vice admiral ranks. The rank insignia for a rear-admiral is two stars beneath crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by Emblem of India, worn on shoulder boards, before Islamic Revolution The Iranian Imperial Navy. After Islamic Revolution The Islamic Republic of Iran Navy, also known as the Iranian Navy, a rear admiral in the Pakistani Navy is a senior and two-star rank naval officer, appointed in higher naval commands. Like most Commonwealth navies, the rear admiral rank is superior to commodore, however, the rank is junior to the three-star rank vice-admiral and four-star rank admiral, who is generally a Chief of Naval Staff of the Navy

4.
NATO
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The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party, three NATO members are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and are officially nuclear-weapon states. NATOs headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons. NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries across North America and Europe, an additional 22 countries participate in NATOs Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total, Members defence spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. N. The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Unions Defence Organization in September 1948. However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism. He got a hearing, especially considering American anxiety over Italy. In 1948 European leaders met with U. S. defense, military and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, marshalls orders, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association. Talks for a new military alliance resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty and it included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the goal was to keep the Russians out, the Americans in. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, the creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation. The members agreed that an attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor, although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily, the treaty was later clarified to include both the members territory and their vessels, forces or aircraft above the Tropic of Cancer, including some Overseas departments of France. The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, the roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved

NATO
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The North Atlantic Treaty was signed in Washington, D.C., on 4 April 1949 and was ratified by the United States that August.
NATO
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Flag
NATO
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The German Bundeswehr provided the largest element of the allied land forces guarding the frontier in Central Europe.
NATO
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Reforms made under Mikhail Gorbachev led to the end of the Warsaw Pact.

5.
Naval Air Station Keflavik
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Naval Air Station Keflavik is a former U. S. Navy base at Keflavík International Airport, Iceland. It is located on the Reykjanes peninsula on the south-west portion of the island, intended as a temporary wartime base under an agreement with Iceland and the British, US forces withdrew by 1947, but returned in 1951 as the Iceland Defense Force, now operating a NATO base. NASKEF was closed on 8 September 2006 and its facilities taken over by the Icelandic Defence Agency as their base until January 1,2011 when the Agency was abolished. The base is used by the Icelandic Coast Guard. Naval Air Station Keflavik was the host command for all U. S. defense activities in Iceland, the positions of Commander, Fleet Air Keflavik and Commander, Iceland Defence Force were held by the same U. S. Navy rear admiral. There were more than 25 different commands of various sizes and personnel from the US Army, U. S. Navy, U. S. Air Force, U. S. Marine Corps, also present were representatives from Canada, the Netherlands, Norway, and Denmark. NASKEF was responsible for providing all facilities, including the runways, housing, supply. NAS Keflavik employed approximately 900 Icelandic civilians who worked with military personnel, Icelandic nationals had unrestricted access to most of the base, especially since the civilian international airport terminal was also located on the base at the time. Icelandic nationals were only barred from actual security-restricted military facilities such as parking areas, squadron and hangar facilities. Access to the base was restricted to authorized military and civilian personnel after the construction of a new passenger terminal on the opposite side of the airfield in the mid-1980s. The base offered a variety of recreational services which included bowling, swimming, gymnasium, theater, social clubs, a Wendys restaurant. Other services included a Navy Exchange, commissary, bank, credit union, hospital, beauty shop, tour office and morale flights to the rest of Europe, golfing was available in a nearby community. The American base staff had their own names for places in Iceland, e. g. Kef for Keflavík. On 15 March 2006, the U. S. Ambassador to Iceland announced that the United States had decided to reduce the size of the Iceland Defense Force. By mid-July 2006, many of the spouses and military active duty staff had transferred. On 8 September 2006, NASKEFs last commanding officer, CAPT Mark S. Laughton, on October 26 the government of Iceland established the Keflavik Airport Development Corporation or Kadeco which was given the task of converting the base into civilian use. Since May 2008 Keflavik has periodically hosted NATO fighter, AWACS, in January 2010, Verne Holdings announced that it had received equity funding from the Wellcome Trust to build a data center at Keflavik. The data center will take advantage of the geothermal power

Naval Air Station Keflavik
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NAS Keflavik, Iceland, in 1982
Naval Air Station Keflavik
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A U.S. Navy P-3C Orion of Patrol Squadron 56 (VP-56) at Keflavik, 1977.
Naval Air Station Keflavik
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The flag of Iceland being raised and the flag of the US being lowered as the US hands over the Naval Air Station to the Government of Iceland
Naval Air Station Keflavik
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U.S. Navy PBY-5As from VP-73 returning to Reykavik in early 1942.

6.
Explosive Ordnance Disposal
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Bomb disposal is the process by which hazardous explosive devices are rendered safe. Bomb disposal does not encompass the remediation of soils polluted with explosive materials, the first professional civilian bomb squad was established by Sir Vivian Dering Majendie. In 1875, he framed The Explosives Act, the first modern legislation for explosives control and he also pioneered many bomb disposal techniques, including remote methods for the handling and dismantling of explosives. His advice during the Fenian dynamite campaign of 1881-85 was officially recognised as having contributed to the saving of lives, after Victoria Station was bombed on 26 February 1884 he defused a bomb with a clockwork mechanism which might have gone off at any moment. The New York City Police Department established its first bomb squad in 1903, known as the Italian Squad, its primary mission was to deal with dynamite bombs used by the Mafia to intimidate immigrant Italian merchants and residents. It would later be known as the Anarchist Squad and the Radical Squad, Bomb Disposal became a formalized practice in the First World War. The swift mass production of munitions led to manufacturing defects. These were hazardous to attacker and defender alike, in response, the British dedicated a section of Ordnance Examiners from the Royal Army Ordnance Corps to handle the growing problem. In 1918, the Germans developed delayed-action fuzes that would develop into more sophisticated versions during the 1930s. These tests led to the development of UXBs, pioneered by Herbert Ruehlemann of Rheinmetall, such delayed-action bombs provoked terror in the civilian population because of the uncertainty of time, and also complicated the task of disarming them. The Germans saw that unexploded bombs caused far more chaos and disruption than bombs that exploded immediately and this caused them to increase their usage of delayed-action bombs in World War II. This trend of cat-and-mouse extends even to the present day, modern EOD Technicians across the world can trace their heritage to the Blitz, when the United Kingdoms cities were subjected to extensive bombing raids by Nazi Germany. In addition to air raids, unexploded bombs took their toll on population and morale, paralyzing vital services. Bombs fitted with delayed-action fuzes provoked fear and uncertainty in the civilian population, the first UXBs were encountered in the autumn of 1939 before the Blitz and were for the most part easily dealt with, mostly by Royal Air Force or Air Raid Precautions personnel. In the spring of 1940, when the Phony War ended,25 sections were authorized for the Royal Engineers in May 1940, another 109 in June, and 220 by August. Organization was needed, and as the Blitz began,25 Bomb Disposal Companies were created between August 1940 and January 1941, each company had ten sections, each section having a bomb disposal officer and 14 other ranks to assist. Six companies were deployed in London by January 1941, Bomb fuzes incorporating anti-handling devices were specifically designed to kill bomb disposal personnel. Scientists and technical staff responded by devising methods and equipment to render them safe, the next year, the Office of Civilian Defense and War Department both sponsored a bomb disposal program

Explosive Ordnance Disposal
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"The long walk": A British ArmyATO approaches a suspect device in Northern Ireland
Explosive Ordnance Disposal
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A British NCO prepares to dispose of an unexploded bomb, during the First World War.
Explosive Ordnance Disposal
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A bomb disposal team in 1940.
Explosive Ordnance Disposal
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Marines conducting a controlled detonation of improvised explosive devices in Afghanistan.

7.
Partnership for Peace
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The Partnership for Peace is a North Atlantic Treaty Organization program aimed at creating trust between NATO and other states in Europe and the former Soviet Union,22 states are members. On April 26,1995 Malta became a member of PfP, on March 20,2008 Malta decided to reactivate their PfP membership, this was accepted by NATO at the summit in Bucharest on April 3,2008. During the NATO summit in Riga on November 29,2006, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Serbia were invited to join PfP, Cyprus is the only European Union member state that is neither a NATO member state nor a member of the PfP program. Turkey, a member of NATO, is likely to veto any attempt by Cyprus to engage with NATO until the dispute is resolved. Christofias successor, Nicos Anastasiades, has publicly supported PfP membership for Cyprus, kosovo has described PfP membership as a strategic objective of the government. Kosovo submitted an application to join the PfP program in July 2012, however, four NATO member states, Greece, Romania, Spain and Slovakia, do not recognize Kosovos independence and have threatened to block their participation in the program. To be eligible to join, the Kosovan Armed Forces must be established

Partnership for Peace
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European NATO members (1994)
Partnership for Peace
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Partnership for Peace stamp from Moldova

8.
SFOR
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The Stabilisation Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina was a NATO-led multinational peacekeeping force deployed to Bosnia and Herzegovina after the Bosnian war. Although SFOR was led by NATO, several non-NATO countries contributed troops and it was replaced by EUFOR Althea in December 2004. SFOR was established in Security Council Resolution 1088 on December 12,1996 and it succeeded the much larger Implementation Force IFOR which was deployed to Bosnia and Herzegovina on 20 December 1995 with a one-year mandate. During NATOs 2004 Istanbul Summit the end of the SFOR mission was announced and it was replaced by the European Unions EUFOR Althea, on 2 December 2004 at NATO HQ, Camp Butmir, Sarajevo, B-H. SFOR was divided into three zones of operation, Mostar MNB - Italian, Franco-German, Spanish Banja Luka MND - British, Canadian, the British code name for their activities in IFOR was Operation Resolute and SFOR was Operation Lodestar. Tuzla MND - American, Turkish, Polish, Russian, Norwegian, the three AOs were known collectively as Multi-National Divisions until the end of 2002 where they were reduced in scope to Multi-National Brigades. SFOR operated under peace enforcement, not peacekeeping, rules of engagement, for example, it was cleared, in 1997, to neutralize Serb radio-television facilities. During its mandate, SFOR arrested 29 individuals who were charged with war crimes and those arrested were transferred to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in the Netherlands. US service members serving in SFOR were awarded the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal, SFOR operated as part of Operation Joint Guard and Operation Joint Forge. As time progressed, the numbers of troops allotted to SFOR declined, on December 2,2004, SFOR disbanded and its functions were assumed by military units from the European Union. SFOR operated under the code names Operation Joint Guard and Operation Joint Forge, NATO nations providing troops included, Non-NATO nations providing troops included, Phillips, R. Cody. Bosnia-Herzegovina, The U. S. Armys Role in Peace Enforcement Operations 1995-2004, united States Army Center of Military History. Measuring the success of the NATO operation in Bosnia and Herzegovina 1995–2000, official website US Air Force News article on Operation Joint Forge

SFOR
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Members of the Dutch, French and U.S. military watch as an Italian honour guard hoists the new Stabilisation Force flag during the Stabilization Force (SFOR) activation ceremony in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, on the 20 of December 1996.
SFOR
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Sentry at "Mud" Govern by United States Army by Col. Gary N. "Butch" Cassidy. This painting represents typical duty for the task force.

9.
International Security Assistance Force
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From 2006 to 2011, ISAF had become increasingly involved in more intensive combat operations in southern and eastern Afghanistan. Troop contributors included the United States, United Kingdom and Canada, other NATO member states, the intensity of the combat faced by contributing nations varied greatly, with the United States sustaining the most casualties overall. In early 2010, there were at least 700 military bases inside Afghanistan, about 400 of these were used by American‑led NATO forces and 300 by ANSF. ISAF ceased combat operations and was disbanded in December 2014, with some troops remaining behind in a role as part of ISAFs successor organization. For almost two years, the ISAF mandate did not go beyond the boundaries of Kabul, according to General Norbert Van Heyst, such a deployment would require at least ten thousand additional soldiers. The responsibility for security throughout the whole of Afghanistan was to be given to the newly reconstituted Afghan National Army, however, on October 13,2003, the Security Council voted unanimously to expand the ISAF mission beyond Kabul with Resolution 1510. Shortly thereafter, Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien said that Canadian soldiers would not deploy outside Kabul, on October 24,2003, the German Bundestag voted to send German troops to the region of Kunduz. Approximately 230 additional soldiers were deployed to that region, marking the first time that ISAF soldiers operated outside of Kabul. On July 31,2006, the NATO‑led International Security Assistance Force assumed command of the south of the country, ISAF Stage 3, and by October 5, also of the east of Afghanistan, ISAF Stage 4. ISAF was mandated by UN Security Council Resolutions 1386,1413,1444,1510,1563,1623,1659,1707,1776, the last of these extended the mandate of ISAF to March 23,2011. The mandates given by the different governments to their forces varied from country to country and this meant that ISAF suffered from a lack of united aims. The initial ISAF headquarters was based on 3rd UK Mechanised Division and this force arrived in December,2001. Until ISAF expanded beyond Kabul, the force consisted of a roughly division-level headquarters and one covering the capital. The brigade was composed of three groups, and was in charge of the tactical command of deployed troops. ISAF headquarters served as the control center of the mission. Eighteen countries were contributors to the force in February,2002, Turkey assumed command of ISAF in June,2002. During this period, the number of Turkish troops increased from about 100 to 1,300, in November,2002, ISAF consisted of 4,650 troops from over 20 countries. Around 1,200 German troops served in the force alongside 250 Dutch soldiers operating as part of a German-led battalion, Turkey relinquished command in February,2003, and assumed command for a second time in February,2005

International Security Assistance Force
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ISAF's military terminal at Kabul International Airport in September 2010.
International Security Assistance Force
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Official logo of ISAF
International Security Assistance Force
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Geographic depiction of the four ISAF stages (January 2009).
International Security Assistance Force
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Anaconda Strategy vs the insurgents as of 2010-10-20.

10.
Iraq
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The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds, others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, around 95% of the countrys 36 million citizens are Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish, two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, the area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian and it was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires. Iraqs modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres, Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932, in 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Baath Party from 1968 until 2003, after an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Husseins Baath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country, the Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name, one dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for city, UR. An Arabic folk etymology for the name is rooted, well-watered. During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī, for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the south of the Hamrin Mountains. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ or /ɪˈræk/, the American Heritage Dictionary, the pronunciation /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in U. S. media. Since approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture where agriculture, the following Neolithic period is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations

11.
Age of the Sturlungs
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The Age of the Sturlungs or the Sturlung Era was a 42–44 year period of internal strife in mid-13th century Iceland. It may have been the bloodiest and most violent period in Icelandic history and it is documented in the Sturlunga saga. This period is marked by the conflicts of powerful chieftains, goðar, who amassed followers and did battle, and is named for the Sturlungs, at the end of the era, the Icelandic Commonwealth ceased to exist and Iceland became a vassal of Norway. Historians generally regard the year 1220 as the first year of the Age of the Sturlungs, Power in the country had consolidated within the grasp of a few family clans. Many Icelandic chieftains became his vassals and were obliged to do his bidding—in exchange they received gifts, followers, consequently, the greatest Icelandic chieftains were soon affiliated with the King of Norway in one way or the other. In the Icelandic Commonwealth, power was mostly in the hands of the goðar, Iceland was effectively divided into farthings. Within each farthing were nine Goði-dominions, the North farthing had an additional three dominions due to its size. The Goði-chieftains protected the farmers in their territory, and exacted compensation or vengeance if their followers rights were violated, in exchange, the farmers pledged their support to the Goði, both by voting in his favor in the Alþingi parliament and by taking up arms against his enemies. The powers of the Goði-chieftains, however, were neither permanent nor inherited and this status came about by a combination of respect, honour, influence and wealth. The chieftains constantly had to demonstrate their qualities as leaders, either by giving gifts to their followers or by holding great feasts, if the chieftain was seen as failing in any respect, his followers could simply choose another, more qualified Goði to support. The greatest chieftains of the 12th and 13th century started amassing great wealth and this may be one of the causes of the civil war. The Age of Sturlungs began in 1220, when Snorri Sturluson, chieftain of the Sturlung clan and one of the great Icelandic saga writers, the king insisted that Snorri help him bring Iceland under the sovereignty of Norway. Snorri returned home, and although he became the countrys most powerful chieftain. According to one historian, we do not know whether inactivity was due to lack of will or his conviction that the case was hopeless, in 1235, Snorris nephew Sturla Sighvatsson also accepted vassalage under the king. Sturla was more aggressive, He sent his back to Norway. However, Sturla and his father Sighvatur were soundly defeated by Gissur Þorvaldsson, the chief of the Haukdælir, the Battle of Örlygsstaðir was the largest armed conflict in the history of Iceland—the Sturlungs had 1000 armed men and the Ásbirningar had 1200 armed men. More than 50 people were killed, after this crushing defeat, Gissur and Kolbeinn became the most powerful chieftains in the country. Snorri Sturluson returned home to Iceland, having fallen out of favor with the due to his support for Earl Skúli in an attempted coup

Age of the Sturlungs
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A man swears vassalage to the King of Norway. From the Skarðsbók manuscript
Age of the Sturlungs
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An illustration of Hákon, King of Norway, and Skule Bårdsson, from Flateyjarbók
Age of the Sturlungs
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Family clans

12.
Amphibious warfare
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Amphibious warfare is a type of offensive military operation that today uses naval ships to project ground and air power onto a hostile or potentially hostile shore at a designated landing beach. Through history the operations were conducted using ships boats as the method of delivering troops to shore. Amphibious warfare includes operations defined by their type, purpose, scale, all armed forces that employ troops with special training and equipment for conducting landings from naval vessels to shore agree to this definition. Since the 20th century an amphibious landing of troops on a beachhead is acknowledged as the most complex of all military maneuvers, an amphibious operation is both similar and different in many ways to both land, naval and air operations. Historically, within the scope of these phases a vital part of success was based on the military logistics, naval gunfire. Another factor is the variety and quantity of specialised vehicles and equipment used by the force that are designed for the specific needs of this type of operation. The purpose of operations is always offensive, but limited by the plan. Landings on islands less than 5,000 km2 in size are tactical, usually with the objectives of neutralising enemy defenders. Such an operation may be prepared and planned in days or weeks, a strategic landing operation requires a major commitment of forces to invade a national territory in the archipelagic, such as the Battle of Leyte, or continental, such as Operation Neptune. Such an operation may require multiple naval and air fleets to support the landings, although most amphibious operations are thought of primarily as beach landings, they can take exploit available shore infrastructure to land troops directly into an urban environment if unopposed. In this case non-specialised ships can offload troops, vehicles and cargo using organic or facility wharf-side equipment, tactical landings in the past have utilised small boats, small craft, small ships and civilian vessels converted for the mission to deliver troops to the waters edge. Preparation and planning the naval landing operation requires the assembly of vessels with sufficient capacity to lift necessary troops employing combat loading, the military intelligence services produce a briefing on the expected opponent which guides the organisation and equipping of the embarked force. First specially designed landing craft were used for the Gallipoli landings, helicopters were first used to support beach landings during Operation Musketeer. Hovercraft have been in use for naval landings by military forces since the 1960s, recorded amphibious warfare goes back to ancient times. The Sea Peoples menaced the Egyptians from the reign of Akhenaten as captured on the reliefs at Medinet Habu, the Hellenic city states routinely resorted to opposed assaults upon each others shores, which they reflected upon in their plays and other expressions of art. In 1565, the island of Malta was invaded by the Ottoman Turks during the Great Siege of Malta, forcing its defenders to retreat to the fortified cities. A strategic choke point in the Mediterranean Sea, its loss would have been so menacing for the Western European kingdoms that forces were raised in order to relieve the island. But it took four months to train, arm, and move a 5, then, Philip II, King of Spain decided to train and assign amphibious-assault skilled units to the Royal Armada

Amphibious warfare
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Two USMCAAVS emerge from the surf at Freshwater Bay, Australia.
Amphibious warfare
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South Korean Type 88 K1 MBT comes ashore from an American LCAC in March 2007.
Amphibious warfare
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Mexican sailors, landing in 2010
Amphibious warfare
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The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the 1066 Norman amphibious invasion of England with a force of some 8,000 infantry and heavy cavalry.

13.
Westfjords
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The Westfjords or West Fjords is a large peninsula in northwestern Iceland and an administrative district. It lies on the Denmark Strait, facing the east coast of Greenland and it is connected to the rest of Iceland by a 7-km-wide isthmus between Gilsfjörður and Bitrufjörður. The Westfjords are very mountainous, the coastline is indented by dozens of fjords surrounded by steep hills. These indentations make roads very circuitous and communications by land difficult, in addition many of the roads are closed by ice and snow for several months of the year. The Vestfjarðagöng road tunnel from 1996 has improved that situation, the cliffs at Látrabjarg comprise the longest bird cliff in the northern Atlantic Ocean and are at the westernmost point in Iceland. The Drangajökull glacier is located in the north of the peninsula and is the fifth-largest of the country, the lack of flat lowlands in the area limits the potential for agriculture, which is mostly restricted to low-intensity sheep grazing near the fjords. Good natural harbors in many of the fjords and their proximity to fishing areas are vital for the local economy, the Westfjords are very sparsely populated, the total population in 2007 was 7,380. The district capital and by far the largest settlement is Ísafjörður, Westfjords is generally the coldest area at sea level in Iceland, because of the East Greenland Current. In 1615,32 shipwrecked Basque whalers were killed by locals and this law was repealed in May 2015

14.
Danish rigsdaler
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The rigsdaler was the name of several currencies used in Denmark until 1875. The similarly named Reichsthaler, riksdaler and rijksdaalder were used in Germany and Austria-Hungary, Sweden and these currencies were often anglicized as rix-dollar or rixdollar. The Danish currency system established in 1625 consisted of 12 penning =1 skilling,16 skilling =1 mark,6 mark =1 rigsdaler and 8 mark =1 krone. From 1713, two separate systems coexisted, courant and species, with courant being a debased currency also used for banknote issue, the rigsdaler species contained 4⁄37 of a Cologne mark of fine silver. In 1813, following a crisis, a new currency system was introduced, based on the rigsbankdaler. For six rigsdaler in old banknotes, a new one rigsbankdaler note was exchanged, the rigsbankdaler This was divided into 96 rigsbank skilling and was equal to half a rigsdaler species or 6 rigsdaler courant. A further change was made in 1854, the rigsdaler species name disappeared and the names rigsbankdaler and rigsbank skilling became rigsdaler and skilling rigsmønt. Thus, there were 96 skilling rigsmønt to the rigsdaler, in 1873, Denmark and Sweden formed the Scandinavian Monetary Union and the rigsdaler was replaced by the Danish krone on 1 January 1875. An equal valued krone/krona of the union replaced the three currencies at the rate of 1 krone/krona = 1⁄2 Danish rigsdaler = 1⁄4 Norwegian speciedaler =1 Swedish riksdaler. Because of this reform, where two Danish kroner was then of equal worth to the Danish daler, the coins got the common name of daler as they were functionally the same. This has however, become an uncommon name as a result of a gap in the tokrone coins existence from 1959 to 1993. In the late 18th century, coins were issued in denominations of 1⁄2,1,2,4,8,24 and 32 skilling, 1⁄15, 1⁄4, 1⁄3, 1⁄2 and 1 rigsdaler specie. Between 1813 and 1815, copper coins bearing the legend rigsbanktegn were issued in denominations of 2,3,4,6,12 and 16 skilling, from 1818,1,2 and 32 rigsbank skilling coins were issued, with 1 rigsdaler species from 1820. From 1826, gold coins were issued denominated in Frederiks dOr or Christians dOr, the dor was nominally worth 10 rigsdaler, although the currency was on a silver standard. In 1838, 1⁄2 rigsbank skilling coins were introduced, between 1840 and 1843, a new coinage was introduced, consisting of 1⁄5, 1⁄2,1,2,3,4,8,16 and 32 rigsbank skilling,1 rigsbankdaler and 1 rigsdaler species. These denominations were 1 1⁄4, 2 1⁄2,5,10 and 30 Schilling Courant, the renaming of the currency units in 1854 lead to the issuing of coins for 1⁄2,1,4 and 16 skilling rigsmønt,1 and 2 rigsdaler. Gold dor coins continued to be issued, in 1713, the government introduced notes for 1,2 and 3 mark,1,5,10,25,50 and 100 rigsdaler. The Copenhagen Assignation, Exchange and Loans Bank issued notes between 1737 and 1804 for 10,20,30,40,50 and 100 rigsdaler courant

Danish rigsdaler
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One Danish Mark (1/6 of a rigsdaler) printed in 1713, the first year of issue for paper currency in Denmark.

15.
Kingdom of Iceland
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The Kingdom of Iceland was a constitutional monarchy that existed through the Act of Union with Denmark signed on 1 December 1918. It lasted until 17 June 1944 when a referendum established the Republic of Iceland in its place. Iceland had been under the control of the Crown of Denmark since 1380, in 1874, one thousand years after the first acknowledged settlement, Denmark granted Iceland home rule. The constitution, written the year, was revised in 1903. A minister for Icelandic affairs, residing in Reykjavík, was responsible to the Althing. On 1 December 1918, the Act of Union, an agreement with Denmark, the Kingdom of Iceland established its own flag and coat of arms and asked that Denmark represent its foreign affairs and defence interests. The Act would be reviewed in 1940 and could be revoked three years later if agreement to continue it could not be reached, the German occupation of Denmark on 9 April 1940 severed communications between Iceland and Denmark. A year later, on 15 May 1941 the Althing adopted a law creating the position of regent for Sveinn Björnsson in order to represent the monarchy. During the first year of World War II, Iceland strictly enforced a position of neutrality, on 10 May 1940, Operation Fork was launched by the United Kingdom when military forces sailed into Reykjavík harbour and began an invasion of Iceland. The government of Iceland issued a protest against what it called a flagrant violation of Icelandic neutrality, on the day of the invasion, Prime Minister Hermann Jónasson read a radio announcement instructing Icelanders to treat the British troops as guests. The Allied occupation of Iceland would last throughout the war, at its peak, Britain had approximately 25,000 troops stationed in Iceland, all but eliminating unemployment in Reykjavík and other strategically important places. In July 1941, it coerced the Althing into accepting an American–Icelandic defence agreement, as many as 40,000 American soldiers were then stationed on the island, outnumbering the native population of adult men. Following a constitutional referendum in May 1944, Iceland formally became an independent republic on 17 June 1944, many Danes felt offended at its timing, as Denmark was still occupied by Germany. The deposed king in Copenhagen, Christian X, nonetheless sent a message of congratulations to the Icelandic people, nobility in Iceland Icelandic independence movement Danish realm Constitution of Denmark Greenlandic independence Faroese independence Iceland, Home Rule and Sovereignty at Encyclopædia Britannica

16.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state‍—‌the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government

17.
Agreed Minute
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The Agreed Minute was a statute governing the nature of the U. S. military presence in Iceland from 1994 to 2006. In 1951 American troops returned to Iceland to form an Iceland Defense Force, as Iceland has had no standing military of its own since World War II, while Soviet threat heightened and thus requiring standing defences. After the Cold War ended, U. S. forces were constrained by the situation and were yearning to leave Iceland. While Icelandic politicians disagreed with such a move, hence the Agreed Minute, signed in 1994 where both parties compromised and came to an understanding. The Agreed Minute was last renegotiated in 2001, at the time, the U. S. Air Force committed itself to maintaining four to six interceptors at the Keflavík base, supported by a helicopter rescue squad. The Air Force, in order to cut costs, announced plans to remove the four remaining jets in 2003, the removal was then delayed to address Icelandic demands for continued presence of the jets. U. S. officials have since argued that Iceland is in no need of U. S. military presence

18.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive

19.
Cod Wars
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The Cod Wars were a series of confrontations between the United Kingdom and Iceland regarding fishing rights in the North Atlantic. Each of the disputes ended with Icelands victory, as a result, British fishing communities lost access to rich areas and were devastated, with thousands of jobs lost. Since 1982, a 200-nautical-mile exclusive economic zone has been the United Nations standard, the term cod war was coined by a British journalist in early September 1958. None of the Cod Wars meets any of the thresholds for a conventional war, though. There is only one confirmed death during the Cod Wars, an Icelandic engineer accidentally killed in the Second Cod War while repairing damage on an Icelandic gunboat, a variety of explanations for the occurrence of the Cod Wars have been put forward. Lessons drawn from the Cod Wars have been applied to international relations theory, fishermen from the British Isles began to fish in international waters near Iceland in and around 1400. From the early 16th century onwards, English sailors and fishermen were a presence in the waters off Iceland. Some Icelandic historians view the history of Icelands struggle for control of its resources in ten episodes. The first of these Cod Wars was a dispute between Norway and England in 1415–1425 over the trading with Iceland, which was in violation of Norways monopoly on the Icelandic trade. This dispute ended when the English arrested Eric of Pomeranias officials in Iceland, the agreement reached in 1976 is considered the final and tenth Cod War. With increases in range of fishing enabled by steam power in the part of the 19th century. Their large catches in Icelandic waters attracted more regular voyages across the North Atlantic, in 1893, the Danish Government, which had governed Iceland and the Faroe Islands, claimed a fishing limit of 50 nmi around their shores. British trawler owners disputed this claim and continued to send their ships to the waters near Iceland, in 1896 the United Kingdom made an agreement with Denmark which allowed for British vessels to use any Icelandic port for shelter, provided they stowed their gear and trawl nets. In return, British vessels were not to fish in Faxa Bay east of a line from Ílunýpa, in April 1899 the steam trawler Caspian was fishing off the Faroe Islands when a Danish gunboat tried to arrest her for allegedly fishing illegally inside the limits. The trawler refused to stop and was fired upon, eventually the trawler was caught but, before the skipper left his ship to go aboard the Danish gunboat, he ordered the mate to make a dash for it after he went on to the Danish ship. The Caspian set off at full speed, the gunboat fired several shots at the unarmed boat but could not catch up with the trawler, which returned heavily damaged to Grimsby, England. On board the Danish gunboat, the skipper of the Caspian was lashed to the mast, a court held at Thorshavn convicted him on several counts, including illegal fishing and attempted assault, and he was jailed for thirty days. The issue was left largely unresolved, the reduction in fishing activity brought about by the hostilities of the First World War effectively ended the dispute for a time

Cod Wars
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Coventry City and ICGV Albert off the Westfjords
Cod Wars
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A net cutter, first used in the Second Cod War.
Cod Wars
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Icelandic patrol ship ICGV Óðinn and British frigate HMS Scylla clash in the North Atlantic

20.
Iceland Defense Force
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The Iceland Defense Force was a military command of the United States Armed Forces from 1951 to 2006. The IDF was formally headquartered at Naval Air Station Keflavík, though its base was actually at Miðnesheiði near Keflavík. Commander, Iceland Defense Force was a U. S. Navy Rear Admiral with three titles and roles, Commander, Iceland Sector ASW Group, Commander, Fleet Air Keflavik. Commander Fleet Air Keflavik was the senior Navy command in Iceland, the commander of Fleet Air Keflavik was the operational commander in charge of all Navy and anti-submarine warfare operations. Administratively, COMFAIRKEF reported to Commander, Naval Air Force U. S, Atlantic Fleet, located in Norfolk, Virginia. The IDF was a unified command of United States Atlantic Command for a long period before passing to the control of the renamed United States Joint Forces Command. From October 2002 until its disbandment, it was under the control of the United States European Command, the IDF was composed of United States Navy, United States Marine Corps, and United States Air Force personnel as well as local Icelandic civilians. In addition, there were a few Army and Coast Guard personnel attached to this command, from 1951 to 1959, a secret ban was imposed by the Icelandic government on the stationing of black US troops in Iceland. This racial ban was disclosed in late 1959, the number of black troops increased gradually throughout the 1960s, and all restrictions were most likely unofficially withdrawn in the 1970s or 1980s. There were more than 25 different commands of various sizes attached to Iceland Defense Force, although staffing varied over the years, it was approximately 1350 U. S. A contingent of the United States Marine Corps was responsible for ground defense, the U. S. Air Force component of the force was the 85th Group. In the event of a major threat, the Army component, U. S. Army Iceland, would have mobilized. ARICE consisted almost entirely of reserve components in the United States, logistical support was to be provided by the 167th Support Group, another Army Reserve unit. Neither the 187th Infantry Brigade nor the 167th Support Group were ever deployed to Iceland, operation Nordic Shield II was held in the summer of 1992. Part of the 1992 exercise included training as part of the United States Army Forces Commands Bold Shift initiative to reinforce unit war-fighting task proficiency. On 15 March 2006 the U. S. Ambassador to Iceland announced the decision of the United States to withdraw the Iceland Defense Force before the end of September 2006. On September 30, the American military withdrew its final four Air Force fighter jets, the Icelandic defence contractor Kögun has been contracted to operate and service U. S. Navy communications equipment and facilities left behind. It was reported in February 2016 that the US Navy would return to Iceland to track Russian submarines

21.
United States Armed Forces
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President

22.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare

23.
Icelandic Air Policing
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Icelandic Air Policing is a NATO operation conducted to patrol Icelands airspace. As Iceland does not have an air force, in 2006 it requested that its NATO allies periodically deploy fighter aircraft to Keflavik Air Base to provide protection of its airspace, the first deployment of aircraft took place in May 2008. S. Following the American withdrawal Russian Air Force 37th Air Army aircraft entered Icelandic airspace on several occasions, Prime Minister Geir Haarde requested that Icelands NATO allies assume responsibility for protecting Icelands airspace during the Riga Summit in November 2006. The North Atlantic Council agreed to this request at its July 2007 meeting, the other NATO member states who lack the ability to patrol their own airspace have similar arrangements in place. In March 2008, Prime Minister Haarde denied that the air policing operation was targeting Russian aircraft and we consider Russia to be our friends, by the way. Since 2014 the aircraft deployed to Iceland have been placed on Quick Reaction Alert status, instead, an average of three deployments are made per year, with each lasting from two to three weeks. Poland also cancelled a planned deployment of F-16 fighters to Iceland in 2010 due to the impact of the crisis of 2007–2010. Fighter aircraft deployed to Iceland are accompanied by NATO Boeing E-3 Sentry AWACS aircraft to enhance the Iceland Air Defence System radar network as well as other supporting aircraft as required, in addition to the NATO deployments, fighter aircraft from Finland and Sweden have also undertaken training in Iceland

Icelandic Air Policing
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An USAF F-15C Eagle fighter flying over Iceland during an Icelandic Air Policing patrol in April 2015

24.
Colours, standards and guidons
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The Roman Empire also made battle standards a part of their vast armies. It was formalized in the armies of Europe in the High Middle Ages, as armies became trained and adopted set formations, each regiments ability to keep its formation was potentially critical to its, and therefore its armys, success. In the chaos of battle, not least due to the amount of dust and smoke on a battlefield, Regimental flags are generally awarded to a regiment by a head-of-State during a ceremony. They were therefore treated with reverence as they represented the honour, Colours may be inscribed with the names of battles or other symbols representing former achievements. Regiments tended to adopt colour guards, composed of experienced or élite soldiers, as a result, the capture of an enemys standard was considered as a great feat of arms. They are never capriciously destroyed – when too old to use they are replaced and then laid-up in museums, religious buildings and other places of significance to their regiment. However, in most modern armies, standing orders now call for the Colours to be destroyed if they are ever in jeopardy of being captured by the enemy. Due to the advent of modern weapons, and subsequent changes in tactics, Colours are no longer carried into battle, but continue to be used at events of formal character. The Armed Forces of the Argentine Republics military Colours of the Argentine Army, Argentine Navy and Argentine Air Force are the Flag of Argentina as the National War Colour and the Unit Colour. The National War Colour is a variation of the Argentine national flag made for use, while the Unit Colour differs per service arm. Only the Regiment of Patricians uses company colors, cadet squadron colours are used by the Argentine Air Force Academy. Units of the Brazilian Armed Forces carry a stand of two Colours, differing per service, the standard of the Army measures 80 ×120 cm, white with the Army coat of arms in the centre, trimmed with gold fringe. The name of the service is inscribed in letters on a green scroll beneath the shield. Above the shield is a helmet with red and sky blue mantling. The staff is topped by a nickel-plated lance-head finial,32 cm high, ten red streamers with campaign honours inscribed in sky blue letters are also attached below the lance-head. The staff is 212 cm long, not including the lance-head and it is covered in sky blue velvet with a red spiral strip. The colour belt is 10 cm in width, covered with sky blue velvet with red velvet stripes, the Navys flag uses dark blue colours, the Air Force flag ultramarine blue. Brazilian military units also carry the flag as a National Colour

25.
Software
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Computer software, or simply software, is that part of a computer system that consists of data or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built. In computer science and software engineering, computer software is all information processed by computer systems, programs, computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be used on its own. At the lowest level, executable code consists of machine language instructions specific to an individual processor—typically a central processing unit, a machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions that change the state of the computer from its preceding state. For example, an instruction may change the value stored in a storage location in the computer—an effect that is not directly observable to the user. An instruction may also cause something to appear on a display of the computer system—a state change which should be visible to the user. The processor carries out the instructions in the order they are provided, unless it is instructed to jump to a different instruction, the majority of software is written in high-level programming languages that are easier and more efficient for programmers, meaning closer to a natural language. High-level languages are translated into machine language using a compiler or an interpreter or a combination of the two, an outline for what would have been the first piece of software was written by Ada Lovelace in the 19th century, for the planned Analytical Engine. However, neither the Analytical Engine nor any software for it were ever created, the first theory about software—prior to creation of computers as we know them today—was proposed by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem. This eventually led to the creation of the academic fields of computer science and software engineering. Computer science is more theoretical, whereas software engineering focuses on practical concerns. However, prior to 1946, software as we now understand it—programs stored in the memory of stored-program digital computers—did not yet exist, the first electronic computing devices were instead rewired in order to reprogram them. On virtually all platforms, software can be grouped into a few broad categories. There are many different types of software, because the range of tasks that can be performed with a modern computer is so large—see list of software. System software includes, Operating systems, which are collections of software that manage resources and provides common services for other software that runs on top of them. Supervisory programs, boot loaders, shells and window systems are parts of operating systems. In practice, an operating system bundled with additional software so that a user can potentially do some work with a computer that only has an operating system. Device drivers, which operate or control a particular type of device that is attached to a computer, utilities, which are computer programs designed to assist users in the maintenance and care of their computers

Software

26.
Fighter aircraft
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A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat against other aircraft, as opposed to bombers and attack aircraft, whose main mission is to attack ground targets. The hallmarks of a fighter are its speed, maneuverability, many fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are designed as dual-purpose fighter-bombers, often aircraft that do not fulfill the standard definition are called fighters. This may be for political or national security reasons, for advertising purposes, a fighters main purpose is to establish air superiority over a battlefield. Since World War I, achieving and maintaining air superiority has been considered essential for victory in conventional warfare, the word fighter did not become the official English-language term for such aircraft until after World War I. In the British Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force these aircraft were referred to as scouts into the early 1920s, the U. S. Army called their fighters pursuit aircraft from 1916 until the late 1940s. In most languages a fighter aircraft is known as a hunter, exceptions include Russian, where a fighter is an истребитель, meaning exterminator, and Hebrew where it is matose krav. As a part of nomenclature, a letter is often assigned to various types of aircraft to indicate their use. In Russia I was used, while the French continue to use C and this has always been the case, for instance the Sopwith Camel and other fighting scouts of World War I performed a great deal of ground-attack work. Several aircraft, such as the F-111 and F-117, have received fighter designations but had no fighter capability due to political or other reasons, the F-111B variant was originally intended for a fighter role with the U. S. Navy, but it was cancelled. This blurring follows the use of fighters from their earliest days for attack or strike operations against ground targets by means of strafing or dropping small bombs, versatile multirole fighter-bombers such as the F/A-18 Hornet are a less expensive option than having a range of specialized aircraft types. An interceptor is generally an aircraft intended to target bombers and so often trades maneuverability for climb rate, fighters were developed in World War I to deny enemy aircraft and dirigibles the ability to gather information by reconnaissance. Early fighters were very small and lightly armed by later standards, and most were built with a wooden frame, covered with fabric. As control of the airspace over armies became increasingly important all of the major powers developed fighters to support their military operations, between the wars, wood was largely replaced by steel tubing, then aluminium tubing, and finally aluminium stressed skin structures began to predominate. By World War II, most fighters were all-metal monoplanes armed with batteries of guns or cannons. By the end of the war, turbojet engines were replacing piston engines as the means of propulsion, further increasing aircraft speed. Since the weight of the engine was so less than on piston engined fighters. This in turn required the development of ejection seats so the pilot could escape, in the 1950s, radar was fitted to day fighters, since pilots could no longer see far enough ahead to prepare for any opposition. Since then, radar capabilities have grown enormously and are now the method of target acquisition

27.
Icelandic Crisis Response Unit
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The Iceland Crisis Response Unit or Íslenska Friðargæslan, is an Icelandic non-military unit with a capacity roster of up to 200 people, of whom about 30 are active at any given time. It is operated by the Icelandic Ministry of Foreign Affairs and it is primarily designated for peacekeeping operations and was established in the 1990s to participate in operations and peacekeeping projects, including in support of NATO peacekeeping operations. It had an observer mission in Sri Lanka in co-operation with Norway and has explosive ordnance disposal personnel from the Icelandic Coast Guard to Lebanon. Iceland deployed its first peacekeepers in 1950, when two Icelandic policemen were sent to Palestine as a part of an UN peacekeeping operation, in 2008, a portion of uniformed ICRU deployed personnel still armed for self-defense returned their weapons and changed to civilian clothing. The policy since 2008, is that, unless special circumstances. In addition to those mentioned above, these range from logistical backgrounds, medical or engineering backgrounds, social sciences. But now, after a law was passed in 2007 the peacekeepers need a college degree, in 2014, its much more of an aid squad rather than peacekeepers. The ICRU roster members receive training and exercise in line with their deployment, the legal basis for the ICRU is set in Icelandic law on ICRU, No. The Defence Department of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs oversees military related intelligence and it is often claimed that Iceland has a tradition of non-militarisation and should therefore practice pacifism. This criticism was particularly fierce when Icelandic peacekeepers were injured in a bombing in Kabul in 2004. The standard weaponry was in most cases however of Norwegian origin,73 frá2007 um Íslensku friðargæsluna Ársskýrsla Íslensku friðargæslunnar 2006 Icelandic Ministry for Foreign Affairs website on the ICRU ICRU Yearly report for 2007 Women, peace and security. ICRU and resolution 1325 ICRU personnel clear cluster bombs and other unexploded ordnance in southern Lebanon ICRU in brief ICRU contributes to Balkan stability

28.
Norwegian Army
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Norway achieved full independence in 1905, and in the first century of its short life has contributed to three major conflicts, World War II, the Cold War and the War on Terror. The Norwegian Army currently operates in Northern Norway and in Afghanistan as well as in Eastern Europe, the Army is the oldest of the service branches, established as a modern military organization in 1628. The Army participated in wars during the 17th, 18th and 19th century as well, after the Kalmar War broke out in 1611, the Danish king tried to revive the volunteer leidang, with dire results. As the Norwegian citizenry had not been armed or trained in the use of arms for nearly three centuries they were not able to fight, the soldiers had to participate in military drills, while providing supplementary labor to the local community when not in active service. During the war of 1643–45, the Norwegian army performed well while its Danish counterpart flopped, as a result, large areas had to be ceded to Sweden. In 2008 the army faced criticism from within for only being able to only one district in Oslo in the event of a national invasion. German ceased to be the language of command in the army in 1772. With the outbreak of the Napoleonic wars, Denmark-Norway and Sweden tried to remain neutral, by 1807, Denmark-Norway was formally at war with Britain. As the Napoleonic era drew to a close, the allies decided to award Norway to Sweden in 1814. This union lasted until 1905, during which time the Norwegian Army retained a separate entity within the joint kingdom, financial budgeting, recruitment, regimental organization and uniforms were all independent of their Swedish counterparts. The basis for recruitment for the Norwegian Army was initially one of conscription for up to five years by lot drawn amongst rural recruits only, a framework was provided by regular soldiers or hvervede, enlisted as long-service volunteers. As with other armies of the period, the payment of a substitute to serve in place was permitted. This system was replaced by one of universal conscription introduced in 1854, in 1884 the basis of service was further modified with the training period being reduced to 90 days. The regulars of the hvervede were reduced to a cadre of officers, ncos. In June 1905 the Storting unilaterally dissolved the 91-year-old union with Sweden, after a short but tense period during which both armies were mobilized, Sweden agreed to the peaceful dissolution of the union. Though nominally a neutral nation during World War I, Norway was in the position of being dependent on the warring sides for its trade. Coal from Britain was needed to keep the country going, and Norway had thus to agree that each shipload of coal leaving Britain be matched with incoming Norwegian cargoes such as copper ore and this attracted the attention of German submarines. By 1920 the army of Norway was a national militia, service was universal and compulsory, liability commencing at the age of 18 and continuing till the age of 56

29.
Norwegian Defence Forces
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The Norwegian Armed Forces is the military organisation responsible for the defence of Norway. It consists of four branches, the Norwegian Army, the Royal Norwegian Navy, which includes the Coast Guard, the Royal Norwegian Air Force, the armed forces number 23,000 personnel, including civilian employees, and have a full-mobilisation combat strength of 83,000. The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defence, led by Ine Marie Eriksen Søreide, the formal commander-in-chief is King Harald V, however, the de facto commander-in-chief is Chief of Defence Haakon Bruun-Hanssen. His staff is located at Akershus Fortress in Oslo, while the Norwegian Joint Headquarters, the main naval base is Haakonsvern in Bergen, the main army camps are in Bardu, Målselv and Rena, and the main air station is Ørland. An organised military was first assembled in Norway in the 9th century and was focused around naval warfare. The army was created in 1628 as part of Denmark–Norway, followed by two centuries of regular wars, a Norwegian military was established in 1814, but the military did not see combat until the German occupation of Norway in 1940. Norway abandoned its position as a country in 1949 to become a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation. The Cold War saw a large build-up of air stations and military bases, since the 2000s, the military has transformed from a focus on defence from an invasion to a mobile force for international missions. Among European NATO members, the expenditure of US$7.2 billion is the highest per capita. The Chief of Defence heads the armed forces, and is the military adviser to the Minister of Defence. It is headed by a general or admiral. DEFSTNOR assigns priorities, manages resources, provides force generation and support activities, each of the four branches of defence is headed by a two-star general/admiral who are subordinate to DEFSTNOR. National Joint Headquarters located at Reitan, close to Bodø has operational control of Norwegian armed forces worldwide 24/7 and it is headed by the Supreme Commander Norwegian Forces - a three-star general or admiral. Norwegian Defence Logistics Organisation at Kolsås outside Oslo is responsible for engineering, procurement, investment, supply, information and it is also responsible for maintenance, repair and storage of material. Norway employs a form of mandatory military service for men and women. While 63,841 men and women were called in for the examination of persons liable for service in 2012,9265 were conscripted. In 2015 conscription was extended to women making Norway the first NATO member, there is a right of conscientious objection. The press statements read, that serves as a means to “fight climate change”

30.
Suicide attack
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A suicide attack is a violent attack in which the attacker expects to die in the process. They constituted only 4% of all terrorist attacks around the world over one period, ninety per cent of those attacks occurred in Afghanistan, Iraq, Israel, the Palestinian territories, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Overall, as of mid-2015 about three-quarters of all suicide attacks occurred in just three countries, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iraq, the motivation of suicide attackers varies. Kamikaze acted under orders and were motivated by obedience and nationalism. Before 2003, most attacks targeted forces occupying the attackers homeland, anthropologist Scott Atran states that since 2004 the overwhelming majority of bombers have been motivated by the ideology of Islamist martyrdom. Academic Fred Halliday, has written that assigning the descriptor of terrorist or terrorism to the actions of a group is a used by states to deny legitimacy and rights to protest. The definition of suicide is another issue, Suicide terrorism itself has been defined by one source as violent actions perpetrated by people who are aware that the odds they will return alive are close to zero. It may not always be clear to investigators which type of killing is which, the usage of the term suicide attack goes back a long way but suicide bombing dates back to at least 1940 when a New York Times article mentions the term in relation to German tactics. Less than two years later that newspaper referred to a Japanese kamikaze attempt on an American carrier as a suicide bombing, sometimes, to assign either a more positive or negative connotation to the act, suicide bombing is referred to by different terms. Istishhad Islamist supporters often call a suicide attack Istishhad, and the suicide attacker shahid, the idea being that the attacker died in order to testify his faith in God, for example while waging jihad bis saif. The term suicide is never used because Islam has strong strictures against taking ones own life, the terms Istishhad/martyrdom operation have been embraced by the Palestinian Authority, and by Hamas, Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades, Fatah and other Palestinian factions. The first to use the term for an audience was White House Press Secretary Ari Fleischer in April 2002. The only major media outlets to use it are Fox News Channel, Fox News producer Dennis Murray argued that a suicidal act should be reserved for a person who does something to kill themselves only. CNN Producer Christa Robinson argued that the term homicide bomber reflects only that you have killed other people, sacrifice bombing In the German-speaking area the term sacrifice bombing was proposed in 2012 by German scholar Arata Takeda. The term is intended to shift the focus away from the suicide of the perpetrators, until the second half of the twentieth century most suicide attacks occurred in a military context. The first recorded suicide attack came from Christian soldiers during the Crusades to free The Holy City of Jerusalem from the control of Muslim armies. During the Crusades, the Knights Templar destroyed one of their own ships with 140 Christians on board in order to kill 10 times as many Muslims in the opposing fleet. The 1st Century AD Jewish Sicarii sect are thought to have out carried suicidal attacks against Hellenized Jews they considered immoral collaborators

31.
Kabul
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Kabul is the capital of Afghanistan as well as its largest city, located in the eastern section of the country. According to a 2015 estimate, the population of the city was around 3,678,033 which includes all the ethnic groups. Rapid urbanization had made Kabul the worlds 64th largest city and the fifth fastest-growing city in the world, Kabul is said to be over 3,500 years old, mentioned since at least the time of the Achaemenid Empire. The city is at a location along the trade routes of South and Central Asia. It has been part of the Achaemenids, Seleucids, Mauryans, Kushans, Kabul Shahis, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Later, it was controlled by the Mughal Empire until finally becoming part of the Durrani Empire in 1747. The city is located high up in a valley between the Hindu Kush mountains. Kabul became the capital of Afghanistan during the reign of Timur Shah Durrani, in the early 19th century, the British occupied the city but were compelled to abandon it. Relations between Afghanistan and Great Britain were later established, the city was occupied by the Soviets in 1979 but they too abandoned it after the 1988 Geneva Accords were signed. A civil war in the 1990s between various rebel groups destroyed much of the city, resulting in many casualties, since the removal of the Taliban from power in late 2001, the city gradually began rebuilding itself with assistance by the international community. Despite the many terrorist attacks by elements, the city is growing and developing. The city is divided into about 18 districts, the Kabul International Airport is located in the Wazir Akbar Khan district a few miles from the foreign embassies. The Parliament of Afghanistan, built by India, is located in the Kārte Seh district, Kabul, also spelled Cabool, Caubul, Kabol, or Cabul. The word Kubhā is mentioned in the Rigveda, one of the four sacred texts of Hinduism, and the Avesta. The Rigveda praises it as a city, a vision of paradise set in the mountains. The area in which the Kabul valley sits was ruled by the Medes before falling to the Achaemenids, there is a reference to a settlement called Kabura by the rulers of the Achaemenid Empire, It became a center of Zoroastrianism followed by Buddhism and Hinduism. The region became part of the Seleucid Empire but was given to the Indian Maurya Empire. The Greco-Bactrians captured Kabul from the Mauryans in the early 2nd century BC, indo-Scythians expelled the Indo-Greeks by the mid 1st century BC, but lost the city to the Kushan Empire about 100 years later. Some historians ascribe Kabul the Sanskrit name of Kamboja and it is mentioned as Kophes or Kophene in some classical writings

Kabul
Kabul
Kabul
Kabul

32.
Afghanistan
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Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia. It has a population of approximately 32 million, making it the 42nd most populous country in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north and its territory covers 652,000 km2, making it the 41st largest country in the world. The land also served as the source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Khiljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, the political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a state in the Great Game between British India and the Russian Empire. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, King Amanullah unsuccessfully attempted to modernize the country and it remained peaceful during Zahir Shahs forty years of monarchy. A series of coups in the 1970s was followed by a series of wars that devastated much of Afghanistan. The name Afghānistān is believed to be as old as the ethnonym Afghan, the root name Afghan was used historically in reference to a member of the ethnic Pashtuns, and the suffix -stan means place of in Persian. Therefore, Afghanistan translates to land of the Afghans or, more specifically in a historical sense, however, the modern Constitution of Afghanistan states that he word Afghan shall apply to every citizen of Afghanistan. An important site of historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites. The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and it has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within large regional empires, among them the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, the Indian Maurya Empire, and the Islamic Empire. Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west. Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak may have been a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilisation today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, in more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well, after 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan, among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, the region at the time was referred to as Ariana

33.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, in short, often known informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeastern Europe located on the Balkan Peninsula. Sarajevo is the capital and largest city, in the central and eastern interior of the country the geography is mountainous, in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and the northeast is predominantly flatland. The inland is a larger region and has a moderate continental climate, with hot summers and cold. The southern tip of the country has a Mediterranean climate and plain topography, Bosnia and Herzegovina is a region that traces permanent human settlement back to the Neolithic age, during and after which it was populated by several Illyrian and Celtic civilizations. Culturally, politically, and socially, the country has a rich history, the Ottomans brought Islam to the region, and altered much of the cultural and social outlook of the country. This was followed by annexation into the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, which lasted up until World War I. In the interwar period, Bosnia was part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and after World War II, following the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the country proclaimed independence in 1992, which was followed by the Bosnian War, lasting until late 1995. The country is home to three ethnic groups or, officially, constituent peoples, as specified in the constitution. Bosniaks are the largest group of the three, with Serbs second and Croats third, a native of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regardless of ethnicity, is identified in English as a Bosnian. The terms Herzegovinian and Bosnian are maintained as a rather than ethnic distinction. Moreover, the country was simply called Bosnia until the Austro-Hungarian occupation at the end of the 19th century, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a bicameral legislature and a three-member Presidency composed of a member of each major ethnic group. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is itself complex and consists of 10 cantons, additionally, the country has been a member of the Council of Europe since April 2002 and a founding member of the Mediterranean Union upon its establishment in July 2008. The name is believed to have derived from the hydronym of the river Bosna coursing through the Bosnian heartland. According to philologist Anton Mayer the name Bosna could be derived from Illyrian Bass-an-as which would be a diversion of the Proto-Indo-European root bos or bogh, meaning the running water. According to English medievalist William Miller the Slavic settlers in Bosnia adapted the Latin designation Basante, to their own idiom by calling the stream Bosna, the name Herzegovina originates from Bosnian magnate Stephen Vukčić Kosačas title, Herceg of Hum and the Coast. Hum, formerly Zahumlje, was a medieval principality that was conquered by the Bosnian Banate in the first half of the 14th century. Bosnia is located in the western Balkans, bordering Croatia to the north and west, Serbia to the east and it has a coastline about 20 kilometres long surrounding the city of Neum. It lies between latitudes 42° and 46° N, and longitudes 15° and 20° E, the countrys name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them

34.
Lebanon
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Lebanon, officially known as the Lebanese Republic, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east and Israel to the south, Lebanons location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland facilitated its rich history and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity. At just 10,452 km2, it is the smallest recognized country on the entire mainland Asian continent, the earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than seven thousand years, predating recorded history. Lebanon was the home of the Canaanites/Phoenicians and their kingdoms, a culture that flourished for over a thousand years. In 64 BC, the region came under the rule of the Roman Empire, in the Mount Lebanon range a monastic tradition known as the Maronite Church was established. As the Arab Muslims conquered the region, the Maronites held onto their religion, however, a new religious group, the Druze, established themselves in Mount Lebanon as well, generating a religious divide that has lasted for centuries. During the Crusades, the Maronites re-established contact with the Roman Catholic Church, the ties they established with the Latins have influenced the region into the modern era. The region eventually was ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1516 to 1918, following the collapse of the empire after World War I, the five provinces that constitute modern Lebanon came under the French Mandate of Lebanon. The French expanded the borders of the Mount Lebanon Governorate, which was populated by Maronites and Druze. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, establishing confessionalism, a unique, foreign troops withdrew completely from Lebanon on 31 December 1946. Lebanon has been a member of the Organisation internationale de la francophonie since 1973, despite its small size, the country has developed a well-known culture and has been highly influential in the Arab world. Before the Lebanese Civil War, the experienced a period of relative calm and renowned prosperity, driven by tourism, agriculture, commerce. At the end of the war, there were efforts to revive the economy. In spite of troubles, Lebanon has the highest Human Development Index and GDP per capita in the Arab world. The name of Mount Lebanon originates from the Phoenician root lbn meaning white, occurrences of the name have been found in different Middle Bronze Age texts from the library of Ebla, and three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh. The name is recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where R stood for Canaanite L, the name occurs nearly 70 times in the Hebrew Bible, as לְבָנוֹן. The borders of contemporary Lebanon are a product of the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920 and its territory was the core of the Bronze Age Phoenician city-states. After the 7th-century Muslim conquest of the Levant, it was part of the Rashidun, Umyayad, Abbasid Seljuk, with the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, Greater Lebanon fell under French mandate in 1920, and gained independence under president Bechara El Khoury in 1943

35.
Sri Lanka
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Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an island country in South Asia near south-east India. Sri Lanka has maritime borders with India to the northwest and the Maldives to the southwest, Sri Lankas documented history spans 3,000 years, with evidence of pre-historic human settlements dating back to at least 125,000 years. Its geographic location and deep harbours made it of strategic importance from the time of the ancient Silk Road through to World War II. Sri Lanka was known from the beginning of British colonial rule until 1972 as Ceylon, Sri Lankas recent history has been marred by a thirty-year civil war which decisively ended when the Sri Lankan military defeated the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in 2009. A diverse and multicultural country, Sri Lanka is home to many religions, ethnic groups, in addition to the majority Sinhalese, it is home to large groups of Sri Lankan and Indian Tamils, Moors, Burghers, Malays, Kaffirs and the aboriginal Vedda. Sri Lanka has a rich Buddhist heritage, and the first known Buddhist writings of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka is a republic and a unitary state governed by a semi-presidential system. The legislative capital, Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, is a suburb of the capital and largest city. Along with the Maldives, Sri Lanka is one of the two countries in South Asia that are rated among high human development on the Human Development Index. In antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of names, according to the Mahavamsa, the legendary Prince Vijaya named the land Tambapanni, because his followers hands were reddened by the red soil of the area. In Hindu mythology, such as the Mahabharata, the island was referred to as Lankā, in Tamil, the island is referred to as Eelam. Ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobanā or Taprobanē from the word Tambapanni, as a British crown colony, the island was known as Ceylon, it achieved independence as the Dominion of Ceylon in 1948. The country is known in Sinhalese as Śrī Laṃkā and in Tamil as Ilaṅkai, in 1972, its formal name was changed to Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka. Later in 1978 it was changed to the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, as the name Ceylon still appears in the names of a number of organisations, the Sri Lankan government announced in 2011 a plan to rename all those over which it has authority. The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years, the era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and early Iron Ages. Among the Paleolithic human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala and it is said that Kubera was overthrown by his demon stepbrother Ravana, the powerful emperor who built a mythical flying machine named Dandu Monara. The modern city of Wariyapola is described as Ravanas airport, early inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of the Vedda people, an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka. According to the Mahāvamsa, a written in Pāḷi, the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are the Yakshas and Nagas. Ancient cemeteries that were used before 600BC and other signs of advanced civilization has also discovered in Sri Lanka

36.
SLMM
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The SLMM was established on 22 February 2002 to monitor the ceasefire and investigate reported violations of the ceasefire agreement. Mission members were primarily from the Scandinavian countries Norway, Sweden, Finland, Denmark. Following the cancellation of the agreement the SLMM ceased operations on 16 January 2008. SLMM had its headquarters in Colombo, six offices in the North and East of Sri Lanka. Naval monitoring teams were based in Jaffna and Trincomalee, the SLMM also operated mobile patrol units. Until the end of August 2006 the SLMM had approximately 60 staff and was headed by the Swedish Major General Ulf Henricsson, parties on both sides of the conflict accused the Mission of impartiality and appeasement of the other side. The SLMM regarded its role as documenting violations of the ceasefire agreement, 2002-2003 - Trond Furuhovde 2003-2003 - Tryggve Tellefsen 2004-2005 - Trond Furuhovde 2005-2006 - Hagrup Haukland 2006-2006 - Ulf Henricsson 2006-2008 - Lars Johan Sølvberg Sri Lankan civil war

37.
Austria
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Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province

38.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed

39.
Icelandic Police
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The Icelandic Police is responsible for law enforcement throughout the country, except in Icelandic territorial waters which fall under the jurisdiction of the Icelandic Coast Guard. Police affairs in Iceland are the responsibility of the Ministry of the Interior and are administered by the Office of the National Commissioner of the Icelandic Police on behalf of the ministry. The organisation is divided into 9 districts, the largest being the Reykjavik Metropolitan Police, the Icelandic Police can trace its origins to 1778 when the first traces of industry started to appear. Up until that time, the law had been enforced first by individuals permitted to do so by the Althing and then by sýslumenn, in 1803, the first proper policemen were commissioned in Reykjavík as it became a free town or kaupstaður. The first police chief was Rasmus Frydensberg, the town mayor and it was not until shortly after 1891 that policemen were hired in most of the other areas of Iceland. In 1933 Alþingi passed the Police Act which provided state participation in financing of police forces, the act also authorized the Minister of Justice and Ecclesiastical affairs to call out reserves in critical situations. In 1972 the state took over command of law enforcement in Iceland, creating the National Police, the State Investigation Police took over investigations of criminal activities that previously were under the control of the Reykjavík Criminal Court and police commissioners in the Capital Region. National Commissioner of the Icelandic Police was formed in 1997 and State Criminal Investigation Police was decommissioned, on December 2,2013, a person died due to an armed police operation for the first time in Icelands modern history. Police had responded to reports of fire in an apartment in Árbær. Initially tear gas was used in an attempt to subdue the gunman, a 59-year-old man, when an armed police team entered the apartment in question, two officers were injured by shotgun fire. One officer was holding a shield which got hit. The other officer got hit in the head, but was wearing a ballistic helmet and this led to other officers returning fire. The gunman was taken to the hospital, where he died, an investigation into this incident was launched, and the guns involved on all sides were seized. Counseling was offered to the officers involved, until now the police academy has been its own institution under the Ministry of Interior. The police academy has always been a non-university education, but now it is a university education and this decision was quite controversial as it went straight against a committee set to see which school would be most suitable. The committee was from Central Public Procurement who recommended the University of Iceland, the Icelandic police wears black uniforms marked with traditional black and white checked markings and the Icelandic police star. The working uniform varies from a service uniform to tactical overalls. The old traditional Icelandic service uniform is now used as a dress uniform, the trousers patrol officers use are made from a fire-resistant material

40.
Icelandic Prison Service
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The Icelandic Prison Service is the national correctional agency of the Republic of Iceland. Along with the Icelandic National Police, Directorate of Customs, and the Icelandic Coast Guard, the current director of the Prison Service is Páll Egill Winkel. Presently, the Icelandic Prison Service operates six prisons, the oldest prison in Iceland, Hegningarhúsið, was completed in 1874 and is still in operation today. Aside from Fangelsið Akureyri, which is in the city of Akureyri. This includes the oldest prison, Hegningarhúsið, which is located in downtown Reykjavík and this roughly corresponds with the countrys population centres. The present uniform of the Icelandic Prison Service is a shirt with black trousers. The image displays the former shoulder patch of the Icelandic Prison Service, the present shoulder patch is black with silver lettering and outlining. Military of Iceland Icelandic Police Directorate of Customs Fangelsi. is

Icelandic Prison Service
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Official insignia
Icelandic Prison Service
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Former Prison Service Shoulder Patch

41.
Prohibition in Iceland
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Prohibition in Iceland went into effect in 1915 and lasted, to some extent, until 1 March 1989. The ban had originally prohibited all alcohol, but from 1935 onward only applied to strong beer, in a 1908 referendum, Icelanders voted in favour of a ban on all alcoholic drinks, going into effect 1 January 1915. Strong beer, however, was not included in the 1935 vote in order to please the temperance lobby—which argued that because beer is cheaper than spirits, it would lead to more depravity. As international travel brought Icelanders back in touch with beer, bills to legalise it were moved in the Icelandic parliament. Soon after, beer approached legalisation in parliament—a full turnout of the house of Icelands parliament voted 13 to 8 to permit the sales. Following the end of prohibition, some Icelanders have celebrated Beer Day on 1 March, some people may take part in a rúntur, with a few bars staying open until 4,00 a. m. the next day. The legalisation of beer remains a significant cultural event in Iceland as beer has become the most popular alcoholic beverage, international Beer Day Brennivín Beer in Iceland Vínbúð Icelandic Tourist Board

Prohibition in Iceland

42.
List of rulers of Iceland
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This is a list of rulers of Iceland, ruling from 1262 to 1944. Iceland was settled in the late 9th and early 10th centuries, principally by people of Norwegian, in 930, the ruling chiefs established a republican constitution and an assembly called the Althing - the oldest parliament in the world. Iceland remained independent until 1262, when it entered into a treaty established a union with the Norwegian monarchy. In the late 14th century Norway and Denmark entered into a union, following a constitutional referendum between 20 and 23 May 1944, Iceland formally became an independent republic on 17 June 1944. Since Denmark was still occupied by Germany, many Danes felt offended that the step should have taken at the time. Still, the King of Denmark, Christian X, sent a message of congratulations to the Icelandic people, jørgen Jørgensen, Jörundur hundadagakonungur, a Danish adventurer that proclaimed himself temporary king during some months of 1809. List of Norwegian monarchs List of Danish monarchs List of Swedish monarchs List of Finnish monarchs List of Greenlandic rulers

43.
Monarchy of Iceland
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The Monarchy of Iceland, was the system of government in which an hereditary monarch was the sovereign of the Kingdom of Iceland from 1918 to 1944. Under a personal union, due to the Act of Union, the monarchy lasted until 17 June 1944, when a national referendum established a constitutional republic in its place. The monarchy of Iceland was created by the Act of Union of 1918 which transformed the former Danish overseas possession of Iceland into an independent sovereign constitutional monarchy, Iceland adopted a new constitution following the referendum in 1944 which abolished the monarchy. Although many Danes felt offended that Iceland should take such a step at that time, by the Grace of God, King of Iceland, Denmark, the Wends and the Goths, Duke of Schleswig, Holstein, Stormarn, Dithmarschen, Lauenburg and Oldenburg. Nobility in Iceland List of rulers of Iceland Iceland, Home Rule and Sovereignty at Encyclopædia Britannica

44.
Settlement of Iceland
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The settlement of Iceland is generally believed to have begun in the second half of the 9th century, when Norse settlers migrated across the North Atlantic. The reasons for the migration may be traced to a shortage of land in Scandinavia. Unlike the British Isles, Iceland was unsettled land and could be claimed without conflict with existing inhabitants, on the basis of Íslendingabók by Ari Thorgilsson, and Landnámabók, the years 870 and 874 have traditionally been considered the first years of settlement. Historian Gunnar Karlsson notes that these sources are unreliable in terms of dating settlement. Almost everything known about the first settlers comes from Íslendingabók, and Landnámabók, estimates of the number of initial settlers range between 311 and 436. The Íslendingabók of Ari Thorgilsson claims that the Norse settlers encountered Gaelic monks from a Hiberno-Scottish mission when they arrived in Iceland, there is some archaeological evidence for a monastic settlement from the British Isles at Kverkarhellir cave, on the Seljaland farm in southern Iceland. Sediment deposits indicate people lived there around 800, and crosses consistent with the Hiberno-Scottish style were carved in the wall of a nearby cave. The oldest known source which mentions the name Iceland is an 11th-century Gothic rune carving, the first written source to mention the existence of Iceland is a book by the Goidelic monk Dicuil, De mensura orbis terrae, which dates back to 825. Dicuilus claimed to have met some monks who had lived on the island of Thule and they said that darkness reigned during winter but that the summers were bright enough to pick lice from ones clothing. While the veracity of this source may be questioned, there is doubt that the inhabitants of the British Isles were aware of a sizeable land mass far up north. Additionally, Iceland is only about 450 kilometres from the Faroes which had visited by Irish monks in the 6th century. A cabin in Hafnir was abandoned between 770 and 880, showing that it was well before the traditional settlement date of 874. It is thought to have been an outpost only inhabited part of the year, the Landnámabók claims that the first Norseman to rest his feet on Icelandic soil was a viking by the name of Naddoddr. Naddoddr stayed for only a period of time, but gave the country a name. He was followed by the Swede Garðar Svavarsson, who was the first to stay over winter, at some time around 860, a storm pushed his ship far to the north until he reached the eastern coast of Iceland. Garðar approached the island from the east, sailed westward along the coast and then up north and he completed a full circle, circumnavigating the island and establishing that the landmass in question was indeed an island. He departed the following summer, never to return but not before giving the island a new name -- Garðarshólmur, one of his men, Náttfari, decided to stay behind with two slaves. Náttfari settled in what is now known as Náttfaravík, close to Skjálfandi, Landnámabók maintains that Náttfari was not a permanent settler

45.
Icelandic Commonwealth
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With the probable exception of Papar, Iceland was an uninhabited island until around 870. The medieval Icelandic state had a unique judicial structure, the first settlers of Iceland were greatly influenced by their Norwegian roots when creating their own form of government. The most powerful and elite leaders in Iceland were the chieftains, the office of the goði was called the goðorð. The goðorð was not delimited by strict geographical boundaries, thus, a free man could choose to support any of the goðar of his district. The supporters of the goðar were called Þingmenn, in exchange for the goði protecting his interests, the Þingmaðr would provide armed support to his goði during feuds or conflicts. The Þingmenn were also required to attend regional and national assemblies, on a regional level, the goðar of the thirteen district assemblies convened meetings every spring to settle local disputes. The goðar also served as the leaders of the Alþingi, the assembly of Iceland. Today, the Alþingi is the oldest parliamentary institution in existence and it began with the regional assembly at Kjalarness established by Þorsteinn Ingólfsson, son of the first settler. The leaders of the Kjalarnessþing appointed a man named Úlfljótr to study the laws in Norway and he spent three years in Norway and returned with the foundation of Úlfljótr’s Law, which would form the basis for Icelands national assembly. Sections of his law code are preserved in the Landnámabók, the first Alþingi assembly convened around the year 930 at Þingvellir. The Alþingi served as a gathering at which people from all over the country met for two weeks every June. The Alþingi revolved around the Lögrétta, the council of the assembly. The Lögrétta comprised the 39 goðar and their advisors and they also appointed a Lawspeaker once every three years. The Lawspeaker recited and clarified laws at Lögberg, located at the center of Þingvellir, the descendants of Ingólfr Arnarson, the first settler of Iceland, held the ceremonial position of allsherjargoði and had the role of sanctifying the Alþingi each year. Iceland was divided into four administrative regions called fjörðungar, each of these was ruled by nine goðar. The Alþingi was made up of the four Quarter Courts and this judicial body of Iceland consisted of 36 judges, each appointed by one of the goðar. These courts tried individual cases and served as a judicial authority to the regional courts. The rulings of the judges had to be virtually unanimous

46.
Icelandic independence movement
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The Icelandic Independence movement was the collective effort made by Icelanders to achieve self-determination and independence from the Kingdom of Denmark throughout the 19th and early 20th century. Iceland received a constitution and limited home rule in 1874, a minister for Icelandic affairs was appointed to the Danish cabinet in 1904. Full independence was granted in 1918 through the Danish-Icelandic Act of Union and this was followed by the severance of all ties to Denmark with the declaration of the republic in 1944. Through the signing of the Old Covenant in 1262, following the strife of the Age of the Sturlungs, Icelanders had relinquished sovereignty to Haakon IV. Iceland remained under Norwegian kingship until 1380, when the death of Olav IV of Norway extinguished the Norwegian male royal line, Norway then became part of the Kalmar Union with Sweden and Denmark, in which Denmark was the dominant power. Unlike Norway, Denmark did not need Icelands fish and homespun wool and this created a dramatic deficit in Icelands trade, and as a result, no new ships for continental trading were built. In the ensuing centuries, Iceland became one of the poorest countries of Europe, while attempts have been made to find evidence of pre-19th century nationalist sentiments, not much comprehensive evidence has been found of nationalism as we understand it today. The most notable of these were the so-called Fjölnismenn—poets and writers for the journal Fjölnir— Brynjólfur Pétursson, Jónas Hallgrímsson, Konráð Gíslason, meanwhile, an independence movement developed under Jón Sigurðsson. In 1843, a royal decree re-established a national parliament, the Althing and it claimed continuity with the Althing of the Icelandic Commonwealth, which had remained for centuries as a judicial body and had been abolished in 1800. The advocates of Icelandic independence pursued their aims peacefully, soliciting Danish officials via legal means, the struggle for independence reached its height in 1851 when the Danes tried to pass new legislation, the requests of which the Icelanders ignored. The Icelandic delegates, under the leadership of Jón Sigurðsson, passed their own proposal, much to the displeasure of the Kings agent and this caused Sigurðsson to rise up with his fellow delegates and utter the phrase Vér mótmælum allir. Icelandic farmers worried that various social restrictions in Icelandic society would be abolished, the Icelandic independence movement was peaceful from its start in the post-Napoleonic period to the accomplishment of independence in 1944. Common explanations for the nature of Icelands independence struggle include. The accommodating responses of Denmark to Icelandic demands, the unwillingness of Denmark to respond violently, in part due to a respect for Icelandic culture but also an unwillingness to shoulder the costs of quelling the Icelandic independence movement. The peaceful trends in the Nordic region after the Napoleonic Wars, in 1874, a thousand years after the first acknowledged settlement, Denmark granted Iceland home rule. By the end of the 19th century, the efforts made on behalf of Iceland had their desired result. The constitution, written in 1874, was revised in 1903, hannes Hafstein served as the first Minister of Iceland from 31 January 1904 until 31 March 1909. The Act of Union, signed on 1 December 1918 by Icelandic and Danish authorities, recognized Iceland as a sovereign state

47.
Iceland in World War II
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At the beginning of World War II, Iceland was a sovereign kingdom in personal union with Denmark, with King Christian X as head of state. Iceland officially remained neutral throughout World War II, however, the British invaded Iceland on 10 May 1940. On 7 July 1941, the defence of Iceland was transferred from Britain to the United States, on 17 June 1944, Iceland dissolved its union with Denmark and the Danish monarchy and declared itself a republic, which it remains to this day. German interest in Iceland in the 1930s grew from nothing at all to proportions found by the British government to be alarming, the Third Reichs overtures began with friendly competition between German and Icelandic football teams. When war began, Denmark and Iceland declared neutrality and limited visits to the island by military vessels, during the German occupation of Denmark, contact between the countries was disrupted. Initially, the Kingdom of Iceland declared itself to be neutral, following the invasion of Denmark on 9 April 1940 Iceland opened a legation in New York City. Iceland, however, unlike Norway, did not closely enforce limitations within its territorial waters, many Axis merchant vessels seeking shelter within the neutral waters around Iceland were sunk by Allied warships. The Chief of the Capital Police Forces, Agnar Kofoed-Hansen, started to train the National Defence forces in early 1940, the British imposed strict export controls on Icelandic goods, preventing profitable shipments to Germany, as part of its naval blockade. London offered assistance to Iceland, seeking cooperation as a belligerent and an ally, the German diplomatic presence in Iceland, along with the islands strategic importance, alarmed the British. The initial force of 746 British Royal Marines commanded by Colonel Robert Sturges was replaced on 17 May by two regular army brigades, in June the first elements of Z Force arrived from Canada to relieve the British, who immediately returned to the defence of the UK. On 7 July 1941, the defence of Iceland was transferred from Britain to the United States, by agreement with Iceland, icelands strategic position along the North Atlantic sea-lanes, perfect for air and naval bases, could bring new importance to the island. Iceland cooperated with the British and then the Americans, but officially remained neutral throughout World War II, during the war, drifting mines became a serious problem for Icelanders, as well as the Allied forces. The first Icelandic Explosive Ordnance Disposal personnel were trained in 1942 by the British Royal Navy to help deal with the problem, the British forces also supplied the Icelandic Coast Guard with weapons and ammunition, such as depth-charges against Axis U-boats. During the war, drifting mines and German U-boats damaged and sank a number of Icelandic vessels, icelands reliance on the sea, to provide nourishment and for trade, resulted in significant loss of life. In 1944, British Naval Intelligence built a group of five Marconi wireless direction-finding stations on the coast west of Reykjavík, the stations were part of a ring of similar groups located around the North Atlantic to locate wireless transmissions from U-boats. On 10 February 1944, German Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor from the I. /KG40, stationed in Norway, on 17 June 1944, Iceland dissolved its union with Denmark and the Danish monarchy and declared itself a republic. Approximately 230 Icelanders lives were lost in World War II hostilities, most were killed on cargo and fishing vessels sunk by German aircraft, U-boats or mines. The presence of British and American troops in Iceland had a impact on the country

Iceland in World War II
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Arrival of US troops in Iceland in January 1942

48.
Iceland in the Cold War
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In 1986, Iceland hosted a summit in Reykjavík between United States President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev, during which they took significant steps toward nuclear disarmament. Five years later, in 1991, Iceland became the first country to recognize the independence of Estonia, Latvia. Early in World War II, the neutral Kingdom of Iceland had declined an offer of British protection. A month after the occupation of Denmark by Nazi Germany in 1940, in 1941, the British arranged for the United States to take over occupation of the country so that British troops could be used in other arenas of the war. After pressure from the British, the Icelandic government eventually agreed to US occupation, the United States supported the founding of the Republic of Iceland in 1944 and promised to withdraw its troops once the war ended, but failed to do so when Nazi Germany was defeated in 1945. As World War II was winding down, the United States tried to persuade Icelandic statesmen to agree to permanent American military basing in Iceland, the pro-Western Icelandic Prime Minister Ólafur Thors considered such an agreement impossible at the time due to public opposition. When the Americans made a formal basing request in October 1945, in September 1946, the United States and Iceland negotiated over a more moderate basing agreement. These negotiation concluded on 7 October 1946, as the so-called Keflavík Agreement was signed, the US would be allowed to keep civilian staff in the country to oversee military shipping to mainland Europe. The agreement was passed into law by the Althing with 32 votes against 19, all 20 MPs from the Independence Party supported the agreement along with six each from the Progressive Party and the Social Democratic Party. These latter two also had MPs who voted against the agreement. Every MP from the Socialist Party voted against the agreement,500 people protested against this agreement. The headquarters for the Independence Party was attacked with rocks and protesters tried to storm the building while the Independence Party held a meeting indoors, in the wake of this rift, the Cold War shaped Icelandic politics for the next decades. A sense of global turmoil and internal threat led Icelandic statesmen to reconsider Icelands security arrangements. The Czechoslovak coup détat in February 1948 made the world seem less peaceful, the Icelandic coalition government of the Independence Party, the centrist Progressive Party and the Social Democrats began to look for security guarantees for Iceland. Basing US military on Icelandic soil was domestically unfeasible at the time, when negotiations for a Scandinavian Defense Union fell apart, Iceland followed Denmark and Norway into NATO. The Althing approved Icelands NATO membership on 30 March 1949 with 37 votes against 13, the Socialist Party was the only Icelandic political party opposed to NATO membership. Large protests occurred outside of Parliament on Lækjartorg and Austurvöllur in downtown Reykjavík, fighting broke out and soon escalated into a riot, police assaulted dispersed them with tear gas. 12 persons needed medical care, including six seriously injured policeman,20 individuals were sentenced for their part in the riots but none of them sentenced to prison

Iceland in the Cold War
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The US-manned Keflavík Air Base in 1982. The United States maintained a military presence in Iceland throughout the Cold War.
Iceland in the Cold War
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Fighting breaks out between anti- and pro- NATO supporters, and police. The windows of the House of the Althing have been smashed. March 30th 1949.
Iceland in the Cold War
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United States F-15 at Keflavík Air Base.
Iceland in the Cold War
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Reagan and Gorbachev meet in Höfði, Reykjavík in 1986.

49.
Highlands of Iceland
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The Highlands of Iceland cover most of the interior of Iceland. This results largely in a surface of grey, black or brown earth, lava, a few oasis-like areas, such as Herðubreiðarlindir near Askja, are found only in proximity to rivers. Most of the glaciers, such as Vatnajökull, Langjökull and Hofsjökull, are also part of the Icelandic Highlands. Vegetation is only found on the shores of the glacier rivers, there is also the danger of glacier runs. Some of the most interesting parts of Iceland with volcanic activity are to be found in the Highlands, such as Landmannalaugar, the Highlands can be crossed only during the Icelandic summer). For the rest of the year the roads are closed. The best known highland roads are Kaldidalur, Kjölur and Sprengisandur, most highland roads require four-wheel drive vehicles, because it is necessary to ford rivers. However, the Kjölur route can easily be traversed in a car and is therefore one of the more popular highland roads. Off-road driving is forbidden entirely in Iceland where there is no snow, including the Highlands, volcanology of Iceland Media related to Highlands of Iceland at Wikimedia Commons Photos from www. islandsmyndir. is Photos and information Actual road conditions

Highlands of Iceland
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Desert dominates the central highlands, through which the Kjölur road winds its way
Highlands of Iceland
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Icelandic Highlands
Highlands of Iceland
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Land Rover 109 stuck in a Highland river
Highlands of Iceland
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Emstruleið (F261)

50.
Regions of Iceland
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The regions of Iceland are mainly used for statistical purposes. The district court jurisdictions also follow these divisions, the postal code system follows the regions as well, with a few exceptions. Prior to 2003, the regions were used as overall constituencies in certain parliamentary elections. Excluding its usage in collecting statistics, particularly census data. Other major changes have also included, such as the redistribution of over twenty subdivisions. These regions are not defined by law and have no standing or administrative function. The countrys healthcare program is divided into seven districts and these regions mostly correspond to those detailed below, although a few updates have yet to be fully implemented. For example, settlements in the Norðurland have suffered minor effects from the merger of the Northwest and Northeast into a single group, farthings of Iceland Municipalities of Iceland Constituencies of Iceland Subdivisions of the Nordic countries

51.
Cabinet of Iceland
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The Cabinet of Iceland is the collective decision-making body of the government of Iceland, composed of the Prime Minister and the cabinet ministers. A constitutional amendment, confirmed on 3 October 1903, stated that the Minister for Iceland had to be a resident of Reykjavík and be able to read and write Icelandic. The Minister for Iceland therefore belonged to both the Danish Cabinet and the newly created Icelandic Cabinet but was only answerable to the Icelandic Parliament, executive power was thus transferred to Iceland with the creation of the Icelandic Cabinet. In the beginning, there were no cabinet ministers nor ministries that formed the Cabinet, the offices were called first, second and third office. The first office was responsible for court, school and church affairs, the second for employment, transport and postal affairs and the third for finance. The Minister for Iceland was the most supreme officeholder in the Cabinet, but each office was headed by an Office Manager and a National Secretary supervised the three managers. The position of Minister for Iceland in the Danish and Icelandic cabinet was discontinued 30 November 1918 as the Danish–Icelandic Act of Union was signed 1 December 1918 by Denmark and Iceland. The agreement made Iceland a sovereign state — the Kingdom of Iceland — joined with Denmark in a union with the Danish king as the head of state of both kingdoms. The Minister for Iceland at the time of the signing of the agreement, Jón Magnússon, the current cabinet, consists of the following ministers, List of cabinets of Iceland Official website Official website

52.
Elections in Iceland
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Elections in Iceland gives information on election and election results in Iceland. Iceland elects on a level a ceremonial head of state, the president -. The president is elected for a term by the people. The parliament has 63 members, elected for a term by proportional representation. Iceland has a multi-party system, with parties in which no one party often has a chance of gaining power alone. The most recent election was held on 29 October,2016, vote share changes are given compared to the 2009 election results, seat changes are given compared to the distribution immediately before the election

53.
Foreign relations of Iceland
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Icelands closest relations are with Norway and other Nordic states, Canada and the United States. Iceland hosted the historic 1986 Reagan-Gorbachev summit in Reykjavík, which set the stage for the end of the Cold War, Icelands principal historical international disputes involved disagreements over fishing rights. Disagreements with Norway and Russia over fishing rights in the Barents Sea were successfully resolved in 2000 and that year, Iceland established a separate commission – along with Norway, Greenland and the Faroe Islands – for the conservation, management, and study of marine mammals. Since then, Iceland has resumed whaling for scientific purpose and has rejoined the IWC, the Icelandic Fisheries Ministry issued a permit to hunt 39 whales for commercial purposes on 17 October 2006. 25 states delivered a diplomatic protest to the Icelandic government on 1 November concerning resumed commercial whaling. The protest was led by the United Kingdom and supported by such as Finland. Iceland was the first country to recognize the independence of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Georgia, Armenia. Similarly, it was the first country to recognize Montenegros independence from its union with Serbia. Iceland was also the first country to recognize Croatia, having done so on 19 December 1991, significantly, Iceland was also the first Western state to recognise Palestine when it did so in 2011. Iceland also is the greatest Nordic contributor per capita to NATO-led troops in Bosnia and Kosovo, to the police in Bosnia and to Bosniab/Kosovan reconstruction, resettlement and relief efforts. Negotiations continue between the four countries in the hope of making a joint proposal to the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf by May 2009. Following the collapse of Icesave sparking the 2008–2012 Icelandic financial crisis, the U. K. and they then sought repayment from Iceland, which held a referendum on the issue in 2010 and 2011, both of which failed. The two governments said they would take the issue to European courts to seek redress they alleged is owed to them. In January 2013 the EFTA court cleared Iceland of all charges, Iceland has had a close relationship with the European Union throughout its development, but has remained outside. The EU is Icelands most important trading partner with a trade surplus in 2008/9 in terms of goods, services. Iceland also participates in the Schengen Area and has non-voting representation in some EU agencies, however, after Icelands financial crash in 2008, it has sought membership of the EU and the euro. Iceland applied on 16 July 2009 and negotiations formally began 17 June 2011, after an agreement is concluded, the accession treaty must be ratified by every EU state and be subject to a national referendum in Iceland. Since the application was submitted, popular support has declined and contentious issues around Icelandic fisheries may derail negotiations, however the Icelandic government is confident an agreement can be reached based on the flexibility shown by the EU in its previous negotiations with Norway

Foreign relations of Iceland
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Iceland's reluctance to join the EU's Common Fisheries Policy is a major stumbling bloc to accession
Foreign relations of Iceland
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Iceland

54.
Prime Minister of Iceland
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The Prime Minister of Iceland is Icelands head of government. The prime minister is appointed formally by the President and exercises executive authority along with the subject to parliamentary support. The meetings shall be presided over by the Minister called upon by the President of the Republic to do so, the Prime Ministers office is located in Stjórnarráðið, Reykjavik where their secretariat is based and where cabinet meetings are held. The Prime Minister has a residence, Þingvallabær in Þingvellir. The Prime Minister also has a Reception House at Tjarnargata, Reykjavik which was the Prime Ministerial residence until 1943

55.
Agriculture in Iceland
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For centuries Icelands main industries were fishing, fish processing and agriculture. In the 19th century, 70–80% of Icelanders lived by farming and it is expected that the number will continue to fall in the future. Only 1% of the land area is under arable cultivation. The raising of livestock, sheep and cattle, is the main occupation, there is also an important export trade in horses. In recent years there has been a move towards increasing specialization in the livestock sector, despite the cool climate and restricted growing season, a variety of food crops are grown, such as potatoes, turnips, carrots, cabbage, kale, and cauliflower. Even bananas and grapes can be grown in this not usually on a commercial scale. Fodder crops are important, this includes grass, rye. The Norsemen were pastoral people who relied heavily on a succession of successful farming years in order to survive, norwegian settlers who inhabited the coasts of Iceland in the late ninth century brought their farming traditions with them. The settlers brought sheep, cattle, horses, and goats from Norway to supply their farms with animals, every animal served a purpose on the farm, sheep were valuable because of their ability to graze outside in the winter and they provided food and wool. Cattle supplied most of the products for the farm, which were stored over winter. Viking farmers relied heavily on the pastures that encompassed their farm. Farming in Iceland during the Viking Age was complemented by hunting and gathering along the coast, coastal areas facilitated fishing, whaling, and hunting. Sea birds, eggs, walrus, and lichens rounded out the Viking diet, Viking farms had a significant impact on the landscape in Iceland. Widescale erosion began in the stages of settlement. Coupled with deforestation, this had an effect on the landscape of Iceland. Brian Bell, Tom Le Bas & Jane Simmonds, Icelandic Agriculture Icelandic Agricultural Information Service. 404 Organic farming in Iceland Official Icelandic Agricultural Statistics

Agriculture in Iceland
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An Icelandic farm
Agriculture in Iceland

56.
Renewable energy in Iceland
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About 85% of total primary energy supply in Iceland is derived from domestically produced renewable energy sources. This is the world’s highest share of energy in any national total energy budget. In 2016, geothermal energy provided about 65% of primary energy, the share of hydropower was 20%, in 2013, Iceland also became a producer of wind energy. The main use of energy is for space heating, with the heat being distributed to buildings through extensive district-heating systems. About 85% of all houses in Iceland are heated with geothermal energy, in 2015, the total electricity consumption in Iceland was 18,798 GWh. Renewable energy provided almost 100% of electricity production, with about 73% coming from hydropower, most of the hydropower plants are owned by Landsvirkjun which is the main supplier of electricity in Iceland. Iceland is the world’s largest green energy producer per capita and largest electricity producer per capita, in comparison, the EU average is less than 6,000 kWh. Icelands unique geology allows it to produce renewable energy relatively cheaply, Iceland is located on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which makes it one of the most tectonically active places in the world. There are over 200 volcanoes located in Iceland and over 600 hot springs, there are over 20 high-temperature steam fields that are at least 150 °C, many of them reach temperatures of 250 °C. This is what allows Iceland to harness energy, and these steam fields are used for everything from heating houses to heating swimming pools. Hydropower is harnessed through glacial rivers and waterfalls, which are plentiful in Iceland. The first hydropower plant was built in 1904 by a local entrepreneur and it was located in a small town outside of Reykjavík and produced 9 kW of power. The first municipal hydroelectric plant was built in 1921, and it could produce 1 MW of power and this plant single-handedly quadrupled the amount of electricity in the country. The 1950s marked the evolution in hydroelectric plants. Two plants were built on the Sog River, one in 1953 which produced 31 MW, and these two plants were the first built for industrial purposes and they were co-owned by the Icelandic government. This process continued in 1965 when the power company, Landsvirkjun, was founded. It was owned by both the Icelandic government and the municipality of Reykjavík and this trend continued and increases in the production of hydroelectric power are directly related to industrial development. In 2005, Landsvirkjun produced 7,143 GWh of electricity total of which 6,676 GWh or 93% was produced via hydroelectric power plants, additionally 5,193 GWh or 72% was used for power-intensive industries like aluminum smelting

Renewable energy in Iceland
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The Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station
Renewable energy in Iceland
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The Strokkurgeyser. Lying on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Iceland is one of the most geologically active areas on Earth.
Renewable energy in Iceland
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Krafla Geothermal Station
Renewable energy in Iceland
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A hydrogen filling station in Reykjavík

57.
Iceland Stock Exchange
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Trading began in 1986 in Icelandic government bonds, and trading in equities began in 1990. A wide variety of firms are listed on the exchange, including firms in retail, fishing, transportation, banks, insurance. Because of the size of the Icelandic economy and the low cost of public listing. All domestic trading of Icelandic bonds, equities and mutual funds takes place on the ICEX, bonds and equities are regularly traded, though the liquidity is small in comparison with other exchanges. No mutual funds are currently listed on the market, since its founding, the ICEX has used various electronic systems. Since 2000, it has used the SAXESS system of the NOREX alliance, no foreign company lists directly on the ICEX, as the small size and illiquidity of the market makes such a move redundant. Conversely, few Icelandic firms have listed abroad, including DeCODE, Faroese bonds were listed on behalf of Virðisbrævamarknaður Føroya in November 2003, and since December 2007 four Faroese equities have been listed on the OMX Nordic Exchange in Iceland. Since 1 January 1999, the ICEX has operated as a company, owned by the listed companies, member firms, the Central Bank of Iceland, pension funds. Páll Harðarson is the current president of the stock exchange, ICEX agreed to be taken over by larger rival OMX Nordic Exchange on 19 September 2006. When the exchange reopened on 14 October, the index fell by 76%. The following is a complete list of companies which are listed on the Iceland Stock Exchange, and currency in which they trade

58.
Demographics of Iceland
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93% of Iceland residents are Icelandic. Most Icelanders are descendants of Norwegian settlers and Gaels from Ireland and Scotland who were brought over as slaves during the age of settlement. Recent DNA analysis suggests that around 66 percent of the male population was of Norse ancestry. Iceland remained remarkably homogenous from Settlement until the 20th century, around 1% of the population of Iceland in 1900 was of Danish heritage. Due to a shortage of labor, immigration to Iceland will most likely increase in the future, estimates show that the number of immigrants could be as high as 15% of the total population by 2030. According to Icelandic government statistics, 99% of the inhabitants live in urban areas. Of the North Germanic languages, the Icelandic language is closest to the Old Norse language and has remained unchanged since the 12th century. Because of its size and relative homogeneity, Iceland holds all the characteristics of a very close-knit society. About 84% of the population belong to the church, or other Lutheran Churches. However, Iceland has complete religious liberty, and other Protestant and Roman Catholic congregations are present, the most notable new religious community in Iceland, and in 2003 the fastest-growing one, is the Ásatrúarfélagið, a legally recognized revival of the pre-Christian religion of Iceland. Most Icelandic surnames are based on patronymy, or the adoption of the fathers first given name, for example, Magnús and Anna, children of a man named Pétur Jónsson, would have the full name Magnús Pétursson and Anna Pétursdóttir, respectively. Magnúss daughter Sigríður Ásta would be Sigríður Ásta Magnúsdóttir, and would remain so for the rest of her regardless of marriage. Thus it has little in common with traditional surnames except for its position after the given name and it is legally possible in Iceland to rework the patronymic into a matronymic, replacing the fathers name with the mothers. Use of the system is required by law, except for the descendants of those who had acquired family names before 1913. One notable Icelander who has a family name is football star Eiður Smári Guðjohnsen. Large numbers of Icelanders began to emigrate from Iceland in the 1850s and it has been estimated that around 17,000 Icelanders emigrated to North America in the period 1870-1914, with some 2,000 people returning to Iceland. A total of around 15,000 individuals amount to roughly 20% of the Icelandic population in 1887. According to historian Gunnar Karlsson, migration from Iceland is unique in that most went to Canada, all living Icelanders, as well as all foreign citizens with permanent residence in Iceland, have a personal identification number identifying them in the National Registry

Demographics of Iceland

59.
Healthcare in Iceland
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The healthcare system is largely paid for by taxes and to some extent by service fees and is administrated by the Ministry of Welfare. A considerable portion of government spending is assigned to health care, there is almost no private health insurance in Iceland and no private hospitals. The health care regions were implemented to promote cooperations between institutions, and to quality care through regional provisions. However, this has not affected the financial responsibility of the central government, although health care is usually funded through taxation, some out-of-pocket expenses are still required, such as service fees. Iceland does not operate its health system based on financial need. As of recently, out-of-pocket expenditure has increased significantly, resulted in approximately 76% increase in private expenditure from 1995 to 2010. By 2011, Icelands out-of-pocket payments have become an important financial source for the health care system. The general population, however, still showed overwhelming support for funding and providing the health care system at the same time. Some people without additional help face postponement or even cancellation to medical treatment, health centers that provide primary health care are located throughout the country, while some runs along smaller institutes and hospitals, all are funded and administered by central government. Specialist services are provided mainly by general practitioners, privately operated or publicly funded, there are a total of 6 regional hospitals and 16 health institutions throughout the country, funded through fixed global budgets. The main hospital is located in Reykjavik, most hospital professionals and doctors are salaried employees, and are paid through hospital budgets. Doctors can also see private patients outside of the if they receive 80 percent of less. Long-term care can be accessed through institutions or at home and these includes personal assistance and domestic care, including nursing homes or child care. These services are provided by either private institutes or public services, part-time and home-based child care are payable but subsidized, priority are given to special interest groups. Iceland does not have its own specialist medical training system, so Icelandic doctors typically spend 8 or 10 years working abroad before returning to the country and they often use the relationship established in training for ongoing support. Iceland had the highest life expectancy of any European country,83.0 years in 2012 according to the OECD, Ministry of Welfare Ministry of Welfare

Healthcare in Iceland
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The regions of Iceland. 5 and 6 correspond to the Northern District

60.
Languages of Iceland
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Iceland has been a very isolated and linguistically homogeneous island historically, but has nevertheless been home to several languages. Gaelic was native to many of the early Icelanders, the Icelandic or Norse language however prevailing, northern trade routes brought German, English, Dutch, French and Basque. Some merchants and clergymen settled in Iceland throughout the centuries, leaving their mark on culture, excluding these and Latin words, Icelandic has altered remarkably little since settlement, the islands residents living in seclusion. Icelandic is not only the language, but is now “the official language in Iceland” by virtue of Act No 61/2011. Icelandic Sign Language was also recognised by law in 2011 as a minority language with constitutional rights. During the time of Danish rule, Danish was a minority language in Iceland, studying English and Danish is mandatory for students in compulsory schools and also part of many secondary-level study programmes, so knowledge of the two languages is widespread. Other foreign languages frequently studied include German, Spanish and French, temporary visitors and residents often make up a large portion of the population, especially in the capital Reykjavík

Languages of Iceland

61.
Religion in Iceland
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Starting in the 1530s, Iceland, originally Roman Catholic and under the Danish crown, formally became Lutheran under the Icelandic Reformation, which culminated in 1550. As such, Iceland has a state Church, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Iceland, the state church is supported by the government, but all registered religions received support from a church tax paid by taxpayers over the age of 16 years. According to government records, the population is at present overwhelmingly Lutheran, although Catholics, the largest non-Christian religious grouping is Ásatrú. The earliest inhabitants of Iceland were Irish monks, known as Papar, however, the small population was soon overwhelmed by migrations of Scandinavians, most of whom practiced what can loosely be called Germanic paganism, in the eighth and ninth centuries. The Christianisation of Iceland, like the rest of Scandinavia, was a process, beginning before official conversion. Particularly through the influence of missionaries and pressure from the Norwegian king. During the Reformation, Iceland adopted Lutheranism in place of its earlier Roman Catholicism and this led to resistance, which escalated nearly to the point of civil war. Jón Arason and Ögmundur Pálsson, the Catholic bishops of Skálholt and Hólar respectively, opposition to the Reformation effectively ended in 1550 when Jón was captured after being defeated in the Battle of Sauðafell by loyalist forces under Daði Guðmundsson. Jón and his two sons were beheaded in Skálholt on November 7,1550. With Lutheranism firmly in place, Catholicism was outlawed, and Catholic church property was assumed by Icelands rulers and those Catholics who refused to convert eventually fled, generally to Scotland. No Catholic priest was permitted be present in Iceland for more than three centuries, the Catholic Church resumed missionary activities in Iceland from the 1850s, and today about 11,500 Icelanders belong to that faith. Starting in the century, Pietism rose in importance due to activity from Denmark. The pietists expanded printing and literature in Iceland, however, education and literacy for the Pietists was primarily or solely to have a religious function and they discouraged anything without religious meaning. This led to encouraging a certain dourness to Iceland by discouraging dancing or other entertainment, about 281,000 Icelanders are members of Christian congregations, of whom most are members of the Church of Iceland. According to a 2004 survey 69. 3% of the population claimed to be religious. Of those who said they were religious,76.3 per cent said that they were Christian, there is a state church and the government pays the salaries of the 140 ministers in it. The state church is responsible for running all cemeteries and people of any belief or none can be buried in them. If they are not registered the money goes into the general revenue, people are free to belong to unrecognized religious or philosophical organizations

62.
Architecture of Iceland
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The architecture of Iceland draws from Scandinavian influences and, traditionally, was influenced by the lack of native trees on the island. As a result, grass- and turf-covered houses were developed, later on, the Swiss chalet style became a prevailing influence in Icelandic architecture as many timber buildings were constructed in this way. Stone and later concrete were popular building materials, the latter especially with the arrival of functionalism in the country, contemporary architecture in Iceland is influenced by many sources, with styles varying greatly around the country. The original turf houses constructed by the settlers of Iceland were based on Viking longhouses. The exterior turf walls were lined internally with a wooden frame, the main room of the house was known as the skáli, consisting of a central open hearth and two raised platforms, known as set. Similar designs of longhouse have been found across Scandinavia, the Faroes, later houses included an additional living space, the stofa, and would be accompanied by smaller outhouses. This layout also incorporated a pantry and lavatory, over the years, the layout became more compartmentalised, eventually to include a baðstofa. In response to the colder Icelandic climate, the area was eventually moved into the baðstofa. The design evolved as the entrance was moved between the room and main room, all the rooms in the house were joined by a central passageway. This was possibly in response to a climate, and, as timber supplies dwindled. Around 1791, under Danish interest, a design was proposed by Guðlaugur Sveinsson. An example of design is the Glaumbær turf farmhouse at Skagafjordur Folk Museum which was opened in 1952 at the Glaumbær Farm. By 1900 the design was evolving still, seeing such additions as the framhús, today grasshouses are no longer constructed in Iceland, and the few remaining examples are generally open to public as open-air museums. There is some evidence to suggest a Celtic influence in early Icelandic architecture in the form of stone roundhouses and sheepcotes, with the arrival of Christianity in Iceland in 1000, construction began on numerous impressive churches. A majority were probably constructed out of turf, but there were also numerous timber-framed churches, the first stone churches appeared in around in the 18th century, quite late considering the significant lack of timber on the island. The church in Hólar, the largest to be out of stone, is pictured to the right. Many high-quality stone buildings were erected in the 18th century, the very first being a mansion on Viðey and these were some of the first buildings in Iceland to actually be constructed by trained architects, who were from Denmark, as these buildings were constructed for the Danish authorities. The craftsmen involved in the construction of buildings were also foreign

Architecture of Iceland
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Glaumbær at Skagafjordur Folk Museum
Architecture of Iceland
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Hólakirkja, the largest stone church constructed in the country.

63.
Icelandic cuisine
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Icelandic cuisine, the cuisine of Iceland, has a long history. Important parts of Icelandic cuisine are lamb, dairy, and fish, popular foods in Iceland include skyr, hangikjöt, kleinur, laufabrauð and bollur. Þorramatur is a traditional buffet served at midwinter festivals called Þorrablót, it includes a selection of traditionally cured meat and fish served with rúgbrauð. The flavors of this traditional country food originates in its methods, pickling in fermented whey or brine, drying. Modern Icelandic chefs usually emphasise the quality of available ingredients rather than age-old cooking traditions, numerous restaurants in Iceland specialise in seafood. At the annual Food and Fun chefs competition, competitors create innovative dishes with fresh ingredients produced in Iceland, points of pride are the quality of the lamb meat, seafood, and skyr. Because of the history of settlement in a climate, animal products dominate Icelandic cuisine. Popular taste has been developing, however, to closer to the European norm. As an example, consumption of vegetables has increased in recent decades while consumption of fish has diminished. Several events in the history of Iceland were of significance for its cuisine. With Christianisation in 1000 came the tradition of fasting and a ban on horse meat consumption, more significantly in terms of farming and food supply was the onset of the Little Ice Age in the 14th century. Farmers were not able to grow barley anymore and had to rely on imports for any kind of cereal grains and this type of dwelling was used well into the 20th century. Historians often use the Reformation in 1550 as the transition between the Middle Ages and the modern period in Icelandic history. Farming in Iceland continued with practices from the 14th century to the late 18th century. A trade monopoly instituted by the Danish king in 1602 had an effect on culinary traditions. But the cuisine of Denmark had the most influence in the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th, preserved foods began to be replaced with greater emphasis on fresh ingredients. When Iceland was settled by immigrants from Scandinavia and Viking colonies in the British Isles, they brought their farming methods, research indicates that the climate of Iceland was much milder during the Middle Ages than it is now, and sources tell of cultivation of barley and oats. Most of this would have consumed as porridge or gruel or used for making beer

Icelandic cuisine
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A fisherman's hut in Reykjavík in 1835 with fish hung outside for drying. Wind-dried fish remains popular in Iceland.
Icelandic cuisine
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Interior of a recreated medieval longhouse at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland
Icelandic cuisine
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Fermented shark, hákarl, is an example of a culinary tradition that has continued from the settlement of Iceland in the 9th century to this day.
Icelandic cuisine
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Two Icelandic drinking horns from around 1600 in the Danish National Museum.

64.
Flag of Iceland
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The flag of Iceland was officially described in Law No. 34, set out on 17 June 1944, the day Iceland became a republic, the arms of the cross extend to the edge of the flag, and their combined width is 2⁄9, but the red cross 1⁄9 of the combined width of the flag. The blue areas are right angled rectangles, the surfaces are parallel and the outer rectilinear surfaces as wide as them. The dimensions between the width and length are 18,25, Icelands first national flag was a white cross on a deep blue background. It was first shown in parade in 1897, the modern flag dates from 1915, when a red cross was inserted into the white cross of the original flag. It was adopted and became the flag when Iceland gained independence from Denmark in 1918. For the Icelandic people the flags colouring represents a vision of their countrys landscape, the colours stand for 3 of the elements that make up the island. Red is the fire produced by the volcanoes, white recalls the ice and snow that covers Iceland. Cutting the inner edges of the rectangles at 4⁄7 of outer length. When this cut encounters the edge of the red cross it is cut vertically, according to a legend described in Andrew Evans Iceland, a red cloth with a white cross fell from the heavens, ensuring Danish victory at the Battle of Valdemar in the 13th century. Denmark then used the cross on its flag throughout its territories in Scandinavia as a sign of divine right, upon Icelands independence, they continued to use the Christian symbol. The civil flag of Iceland had been used as a symbol since 1913. It was officially adopted on 19 June 1915, to represent Iceland, and has been in use at sea since 1 December 1918, other symbolic meanings refer to the natural features of Iceland itself. Blue is the colour of the North Atlantic Ocean, white represents the snow and ice covering the island for most of the year, and red the volcanoes on the island. On 17 June 1944, the day Iceland became a republic, a law was issued that dealt with the national flag, the law describes the dimensions of both the common flag and special governmental flags used by embassies and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It also goes into details of usage, such as how the flag should be attached in different situations such as on a flagpole, according to the law, using the flag is a privilege and not a right. The owner must follow instructions on its usage and make sure that his or her flag is in mint condition regarding colouring and it also states that no-one shall disrespect the flag in act or word, subject to a fine or imprisonment of up to one year. This law states that the flag shall not be flown until 7 oclock in the morning, that it should preferably not be flown beyond sunset but that it must not be flown beyond midnight

Flag of Iceland
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Icelandic flags in Viðey
Flag of Iceland
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Iceland
Flag of Iceland
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The Icelandic flag in Þingvellir National Park
Flag of Iceland
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Icelandic state flag at the Embassy in Helsinki.

65.
Media of Iceland
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The media in Iceland are well-developed for a country of its size. The Constitution of Iceland guarantees absolute freedom of speech, therefore, Iceland’s media are among the freest in the world. Iceland has been in the top ten of the Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index and it was first or joint first in 2002-2008 and 2010. Its 2015 ranking is twenty one, reflecting a sharp deterioration in freedom of information since 2013, the principal television station in Iceland is RÚV, which is state-owned. It has a commitment to promote the Icelandic language and the history, and is partly funded by license fee. The channel broadcast by RÚV is Sjónvarpið, which translates as ‘the television’, broadcasts started in 1966, and coverage very quickly reached every household in Iceland. RÚV had a monopoly on domestic broadcasting until 1986, other notable channels owned by 365 include Stöð2 Sport, a sports channel, and various other sports channels and a movie channel which broadcasts mostly American movies. All of 365s channels are funded by fees and advertising sales with one exception, Skífan TV. The only subscription free principal channel is Skjár einn, which mainly broadcasts American programming, before television broadcasting started in 1966, RÚV had already been broadcasting radio since 1930. Rás 1 is the radio station, along with its sister channel Rás 2. Bylgjan is a private broadcaster. Literature is a pastime of the Icelanders, and so the printed press in the country is quite well developed. Fréttablaðið is the daily newspaper in Iceland, and has the largest circulation of any newspaper in the country. It is distributed by 365 hf. to homes, free of charge, morgunblaðið is a much older newspaper, founded in 1913, and is Fréttablaðið’s main competitor. Its readership is second largest after Fréttablaðið and these are the two main publications in terms of the quality press. The tabloids include DV, a small yet controversial paper, which is published four times a week, viðskiptablaðið, Icelandic Financial News, is the country’s principal business-oriented newspaper. Iceland Review is an English language magazine about Iceland, published quarterly, the Reykjavík Grapevine is a free alternative magazine published and based in Reykjavík, Iceland, since June of 2003. The magazine prints practical information on traveling and leisure for travelers, along with articles on music, arts, politics, nightlife, the internet is unrestricted by the government, and is used by around 97% of the population

66.
Music of Iceland
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The music of Iceland includes vibrant folk and pop traditions, as well as an active classical and contemporary music scene. Icelands traditional music is related to Nordic music forms, although Iceland has a very small population, it is home to many famous and praised bands and musicians. Icelandic music has a long tradition. With some songs still sung today dating from 14th century, folk songs are often about love, sailors, masculinity, hard winters, as well as elves, trolls and other mythological creatures, and tend to be quite secular and often humorous. Chain dances, known as víkivaki, have performed in Iceland since the 11th century at a variety of occasions, such as in churches. Hákveða refers to an emphasis placed on some of the words of a song. Rímur are epic tales sung as alliterative, rhyming ballads, usually a cappella, Rímur can be traced back to the Viking Age Eddic poetry of the skalds and employs complex metaphors and cryptic rhymes and forms. Some of the most famous rímur were written between the 18th and early 20th centuries, by poets like Hannes Bjarnason, Jón Sigurðsson, in the early 18th century, European dances like polka, waltz, reel and schottische begin to arrive via Denmark. These foreign dances are known as gömlu dansarnir or literally the old dances. After their arrival, native dance and song traditions fell into serious decline, for a long time, rímur were officially banned by the church. Paradoxically, many Icelandic priests were keen in making rímur, Rímur remained popular recreation until the early 20th century. In recent years, efforts have made to revive native Icelandic forms. For example, a revitalization of the Rímur tradition began in 1929 with the formation of the organization Iðunn. Protestantism has also left its mark on the music of Iceland, hallgrímur Pétursson wrote numerous Protestant hymns in the 17th century. In the 19th century, Magnús Stephensen brought pipe organs to Iceland, heyr himna smiður is probably the oldest psalm which is still sung today, it was composed by Kolbeinn Tumason in 1208. The music of Iceland includes vibrant folk and pop traditions and is expanding in its variety of styles and genres. Well-known artists from Iceland include alternative rock band The Sugarcubes, singers Björk and Emilíana Torrini, Icelands traditional music is related to Nordic music forms. Icelandic popular music includes many bands and artists, ranging from indie

Music of Iceland

67.
Icelandic national costume
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Since 2001 the national costume is regulated by Þjóðbúningaráð, which preserves the correct techniques of making them and instructs people. The five following types of costume are all recognized as Icelandic National costumes, the Faldbúningur is an older type of costume worn by women since at least the 17th century and well into the 19th. In its most recognized form it incorporated a hat decorated with a curved sheet-like ornament protruding into the air, one of which is the krókfaldur and the other is the spaðafaldur. Previously a large hat decorated with gold-wire bands was worn with it, as well as ruff which is the reason for the wide collar. Later, around the start of the 18th century women started to wear the much simpler tail-cap with it, the Peysuföt are black woollen clothes commonly worn by women in the 18-19th century. They usually consisted of a skirt and a jacket of fine knitted woollen yearn with a black tail cap. It is believed that this costume was invented when women, desiring simpler working clothes than the faldbúningur and this includes both the tail-cap and the peysa which originally was a jacket with a single row of buttons, but evolved into this costume and eventually discarded with the buttons. The Upphlutur is a costume, consisting of bodice that can be coloured in bright colours such as red or blue. Its headpiece is a tail cap, the costume is basically the undergarment of the faldbúningur which evolved into a costume of its own right. The Kyrtill is a costume for women, designed by the artist Sigurður Guðmundsson in the 19th century and it was designed to look like Viking age costumes. It however incorporates a hat similar to the one on the skautbúningur, while Sigurðurs vision of the Viking age costume remains popular, costumes designed to more closely resemble archaeological finds have gained some popularity as well. The Skautbúningur was also designed by Sigurður Guðmundsson and it was conceived as a modernized variation of the faldbúningur, which had fallen out of use by the middle of the 19th century. It incorporates a complicated hat inspired by the traditionally used with the faldbúningur. Búningur karla or the Mens costume exists in three or four different versions. The þjóðbúningur karla is the direct descendant of traditional daily wear of Icelandic men. The one considered most traditional consists of woollen breeches or trousers, a double buttoned vest. Sometimes a peysa with a row of buttons is used in lieu of the vest. On the head is a cap, t sometimes red, some regions stood out

Icelandic national costume
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Icelandic women in the 18th century faldbúningur with tail-caps. The one to the right omits the jacket and is thus wearing a upphlutur.
Icelandic national costume
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Icelandic men wearing 18th century style national costumes.
Icelandic national costume
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Icelandic woman in the 18th century faldbúningur with the spaðafaldur cap.
Icelandic national costume
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Icelandic woman wearing peysuföt teaches a boy to read.

68.
Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe
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Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe is the headquarters of the North Atlantic Treaty Organizations Allied Command Operations. Since 1967 it has been located at Casteau, north of the Belgian city of Mons, from 1951 to 2003, SHAPE was the headquarters of Allied Command Europe, ACE. Since 2003 it has been the headquarters of Allied Command Operations, SHAPE retained its traditional name with reference to Europe for legal reasons although the geographical scope of its activities was extended in 2003. At that time, NATOs command in Lisbon, historically part of the Atlantic command, was reassigned to ACO, an integrated military structure for NATO was first established after the Korean War raised questions over the strength of Europes defences against a Soviet attack. The first choice for commander in Europe was American General of the Army Dwight D, on December 19,1950, the North Atlantic Council announced the appointment of General Eisenhower as the first SACEUR. British Field Marshal Sir Bernard L, montgomery moved over from the predecessor Western Union Defence Organization to become the first Deputy SACEUR, who would serve until 1958. In establishing the command, the first NATO planners drew extensively on WUDO plans, General Eisenhower arrived in Paris on January 1,1951, and quickly set to work with a small group of planners to devise a structure for the new European command. The Planning Group worked in the Hotel Astoria in central Paris while construction of a permanent facility began at Rocquencourt, just west of the city, devising command arrangements in the Central Region, which contained the bulk of NATO’s forces, proved to be much more complicated. Drawing upon his World War II experience, General Eisenhower decided to retain overall control himself, instead there would be three separate C-in-Cs. In December 1950 it was announced that the forces initially to come under General Eisenhowers command were to be the U. S, on April 2,1951, General Eisenhower signed the activation order for Allied Command Europe and its headquarters at SHAPE. Headquarters, Allied Forces Central Europe was activated in Fontainebleau, France in 1953, on the same day, ACEs subordinate headquarters in Northern and Central Europe were activated, with the Southern Region following in June. By 1954 ACEs forces consisted of Allied Forces Northern Europe, at Oslo, Allied Forces Central Europe, Allied Forces Southern Europe, hodes, United States Army Allied Forces Southern Europe – Admiral R. P. M. Two 1952 central region exercises involved air-ground combined forces, equinox was a major air-ground exercise involving French-American tactical air units and a French airborne infantry unit under the command of Général dArmée Alphonse Juin, French Army. They maneuvered east of the Rhine River in the British Zone under the command of Lt. General Sir Richard Nelson Gale. Finally, Rosebud involved ground maneuvers by the U. S, seventh Army in the American Zone of Occupation of Allied-occupied Germany. The initial plans saw the defence of Western Europe from a Soviet invasion resting heavily on nuclear weapons, the conventional forces would attempt to hold this line while the allied strategic air forces defeated the Soviets and their allies by destroying their economy and infrastructure. What this strategy meant for the battle in the central region was described for publicity purposes in January 1954 by then-Supreme Allied Commander Europe General Alfred Gruenther as. An air-ground shield which, although still not strong enough, would force an enemy to concentrate prior to attack, in doing so, the concentrating force would be extremely vulnerable to losses from atomic weapon attacks

Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe
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The greater coat of arms of SHAPE, featuring the flags of the member states as supporters
Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe
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Organisation of ACE in 1952
Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe
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Main building at SHAPE
Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe
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Not to be confused with Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force.

69.
Allied Land Command
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Allied Land Command is the standing headquarters for NATO land forces which may be assigned as necessary. The Commander LANDCOM is the land warfare advisor to the Alliance. When directed by the Supreme Allied Commander Europe, it provides the core of the responsible for the conduct of land operations. The command is based at Şirinyer, İzmir in Turkey, NATO has had a headquarters at Izmir for decades. Initially the organization there was Allied Land Forces South-Eastern Europe, responsible to Allied Forces Southern Europe at Naples. Under this command, with its headquarters in Izmir assisted by the subordinate Thessaloniki Advanced Command Post, were to be most of the Greek and Turkish armies in case of war. LANDSOUTHEAST was commanded by a United States Army lieutenant general, Lieutenant General Willard G. Wyman Lieutenant General Paul W. Kendall Lieutenant General George Windle Read, Jr. Lieutenant General Paul D. Harkins In 1966 the first major change occurred when French military personnel were withdrawn from LANDSOUTHEAST, on 30 December 1977, SHAPE and Turkish military authorities announced another change in the command structure of LANDSOUTHEAST, to be effective 1 July 1978. The command billet was to be filled by a Turkish Army four star general with a U. S. Major General as his deputy. General Sam S. Walker took command in 1977, and On 30 June 1978, General Walker handed over the command to General tr, Vecihi Akın, General Akın held command until 30 August 1979. Construction of a new facility in Sirinyer, Izmir was completed in March 1994. In July 1994, two German Army officers were assigned to the command for the first time, the headquarters garrison at Sirinyer was named General Vecihi Akin Garrison in March 1996, after the first Turkish LANDSOUTHEAST Commander. Turkish Land Forces General Hüseyin Kıvrıkoğlu commanded LANDSOUTHEAST from c. 1993-1996, after the end of the Cold War, for a period the NATO command in Izmir became Joint Command Southeast. Between 11 August 2004 and 1 June 2013 the headquarters of NATOs Allied Air Component Command in the south and it is responsible for providing a deployable land command for a joint operation. LANDCOM will also carry out the planning, conduct and direction of land operations. What this means is that if a single corps land operation is underway, if multiple corps are being directed, LANDCOM will direct them for either JFC Brunssum or Naples. On October 23,2014, Lt. Gen. Nicholson has assumed command of NATOs Allied Land Command and he succeeds Lt. Gen. Frederick Ben Hodges. Romania is leading the process of creating Multinational Division South-East, which will be established in Bucharest, Romania, the division in Bucharest will be subordinate to the NATO Force Integration Unit also to be established there

70.
Allied Maritime Command
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Allied Maritime Command is the central command of all NATO maritime forces and the Commander MARCOM is the prime maritime advisor to the Alliance. When directed by the Supreme Allied Commander Europe, it provides the core of the responsible for the conduct of maritime operations. The command is based at the Northwood Headquarters in northwest London, the Commander-in-Chief, Home Fleet, gained a NATO responsibility as Commander-in-Chief Eastern Atlantic Area, as part of SACLANT, when the NATO military command structure was established in 1953. CINCEASTLANT headquarters was established at the Northwood Headquarters in northwest London, Commander-in-Chief Eastern Atlantic was redesignated as Commander, Allied Maritime Component Command Northwood around 2004. The command, which was renamed Allied Maritime Command Northwood in 2010, at the 2010 NATO Summit in Lisbon it was decided to create a leaner and more effective command structure. It is responsible for planning and conducting all NATO maritime operations, MARCOM leads four standing NATO maritime groups, two frigate groups and two mine countermeasures groups. The Standing NATO Maritime Groups are a multinational, integrated maritime force made up of vessels from allied countries, the ships and any aircraft aboard are available to NATO to support Alliance tasking. These groups provide NATO with a continuous maritime capability, the command is also responsible for additional naval assets as they support NATO missions. Current groups are, Standing NATO Maritime Group 1, Standing NATO Maritime Group 2, Standing NATO Mine Countermeasures Group 1, current operations include, Operation Active Endeavour and Operation Ocean Shield Official website

71.
Allied Command Transformation
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Allied Command Transformation is a NATO military command, which was formed in 2003 after North Atlantic Treaty Organisation restructuring. Since France rejoined the NATO Military Command Structure in mid-2009, a significant change took place where the Supreme Allied Commander Transformation is now a French officer, the first French Officer to serve as SACT was French Air Force General, Stephane Abrial. Allied Command Transformation was preceded by Allied Command Atlantic established in 1952 under the command of Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic, with its headquarters at Norfolk. Following the end of the Cold War, the Command was reduced, with many of its subordinate headquarters spread across the Atlantic area losing their NATO status, however, the basic structure remained in place until the Prague Summit in the Czech Republic in 2002. This led to ACLANT being decommissioned effective 19 June 2003, US Navy became the last SACLANT on 2 October 2002. He served as ACLANT commander until 19 Jun 2003 and he then served as Supreme Allied Commander, Transformation, until 1 Aug 2005. Admiral Sir Mark Stanhope RN, the Deputy Supreme Allied Commander, thus NATO’s military command structure was reorganized. One strategic command, Allied Command Transformation, was focused on transforming NATO, while the strategic command focused on NATO’s operations. Initial reports about a NATO transformation command began to appear in July 2002, ACT was formally established on June 19,2003. A suite of Baseline for Rapid Iterative Transformational Experimentation software was designed in response to the Maritime Situational Awareness request, since Allied Command Atlantic became Allied Command Transformation, commanders have included non-naval officers. Gen. Lance L. Smith USAF commanded ACT from 10 Nov 2005 until 9 Nov 2007 and he was succeeded by Gen. James N. Mattis USMC, who served from 9 Nov 2007 -08 Sep 2009. A significant change was the assumption of command by a French officer, after France rejoined the NATO Command Structure in mid-2009, General Stéphane Abrial, former chief of the French Air Force assumed command in 2009. French Air Force General Jean-Paul Paloméros replaced fellow Frenchman General Stéphane Abrial at the end of September 2012, on 30 Sep 2015 French Air Force General Denis Mercier succeeded General Paloméros. The Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Transformation position is filled by General Mirco Zuliani of the Italian Air Force. He succeeded General Mieczysław Bieniek of the Polish Land Forces, who had himself succeeded Admiral Luciano Zappata, for several years, in a carryover from SACLANT, the Deputys position was filled by a Royal Navy admiral. Stanhopes succession by Zappata meant an end to this practice, a large number of conferences and seminars have been organised by the command in fulfilment of its conceptual development mission. These have included CD&E, a national Chiefs of Transformation conference, an examination of the Global Commons, Law of Armed Conflict, the commands headquarters is located in Norfolk, Virginia, in the United States. This division probably serves as NATOs linkpoint to the annual U. S. -led Coalition Warrior Interoperability Demonstration, reflecting NATO as a whole, ACT has a presence on both sides of the Atlantic

72.
NATO Parliamentary Assembly
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Founded in 1955, the NATO Parliamentary Assembly serves as the consultative interparliamentary organisation for the North Atlantic Alliance. Its current President is Paolo Alli from Italy and its current Secretary General is David Hobbs from the United Kingdom, he has been in this position since January 2008. These measures included the Secretary General providing a response to all Assembly recommendations and resolutions adopted in its Plenary Sessions. In response to the fall of the Berlin wall at the end of the 1980s and those ties, in turn, greatly facilitated the dialogue that NATO itself embarked upon with the regions governments. Bringing together legislators from all the states of the Atlantic Alliance. At the same time, it facilitates parliamentary awareness and understanding of key security issues and contributes to a transparency of NATO policies. Crucially, it helps maintain and strengthen the relationship, which underpins the Atlantic Alliance. It played the role with respect to the ratification process leading to the accession of Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia in March 2004. The NATO PA consists of 257 delegates from the 28 NATO member countries, delegates to the Assembly are nominated by their parliaments according to their national procedures, on the basis of party representation in the parliaments. The Assembly therefore represents a spectrum of political opinion. The Assembly’s governing body is the Standing Committee, which is composed of the Head of each delegation, the President, the Vice-Presidents, the Treasurer. The headquarters of the Assembly’s 28-strong International Secretariat is located in central Brussels, the Assembly is directly funded by member parliaments and governments, and is financially and administratively separate from NATO itself. Each country’s contribution is based on the NATO Civil Budget formula, the five Committees are, Civil Dimension of Security, Defence and Security, Economics and Security, Political, Science and Technology. They are charged with examining all major issues in their fields. The Committees and Sub-Committees produce reports, which are discussed in draft form at the Assembly’s Spring Session, the reports are then revised and up-dated for discussion, amendment and adoption at the Assembly’s Annual Session in the Autumn. The NATO Secretary General responds in writing to the Assemblys recommendations, NATO-PA Delegations also undertake visits to NATO mission areas such as Afghanistan and the Balkans. The NATO-Russia Parliamentary Committee was discontinued in April 2014 following Russias military intervention in Ukraine, the Rose-Roth Programme of partnership and co-operation is designed to extend assistance to countries undergoing transition through difficult political and economic reforms. The program was designed to support Central and Eastern European countries but has subsequently focused mainly on the Balkans

NATO Parliamentary Assembly
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The Parliamentary Assembly meeting in London prior to the start of the 2014 Newport summit

73.
Secretary General of NATO
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The Secretary General of NATO is an international diplomat who serves as the chief civil servant of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. However, the Secretary General does not have any command role. Together with the Chairman of the NATO Military Committee and the Supreme Allied Commander the Secretary General is one of the foremost officials of NATO, the current Secretary General is Jens Stoltenberg, the former Prime Minister of Norway, who took office on 1 October 2014. Article 9 of the North Atlantic Treaty requires NATO members to establish a Council, accordingly, the North Atlantic Council was formed. Initially the Council consisted of NATO members foreign ministers and met annually, in May 1950, the desire for closer coordination on a day-to-day basis led to the appointment of Council deputies, permanently based in London and overseeing the workings of the organization. Deputies were given full decision-making authority within the North Atlantic Council, the Chairman of the deputies was given responsibility for directing the organization and its work, including all of its civilian agencies. The Council deputies met for the first time on July 25,1950, and selected Charles Spofford, several important organisational changes quickly followed the establishment of Council deputies, most notably the establishment of a unified military command under a single Supreme Allied Commander. This unification and the challenges facing NATO led to rapid growth in the institutions of the organisation and in 1951, NATO was reorganized to streamline. As the authority of the increased, and the size of the organization grew, NATO established the Temporary Council Committee. This group established an official secretariat in Paris to command NATOs bureaucracy, after the Lisbon Conference, the NATO states began looking for a person who could fill the role of Secretary General. The position was first offered to Oliver Franks, the British Ambassador to the United States, unlike later Secretaries General who served as Chairman of the North Atlantic Council, Ismay was made the Vice Chairman of the Council, with Spofford continuing to serve as chairman. Ismay was selected because of his rank in the war. As both a soldier and a diplomat, he was considered qualified for the position. Several months later, after Spofford retired from the NATO, the structure of the North Atlantic Council was changed slightly, Ismay served as Secretary General until retiring in May,1957. After Ismay, Paul-Henri Spaak, a diplomat and former Prime Minister of Belgium was selected as the second Secretary General. Unlike Ismay, Spaak had no experience, so his appointment represented a deemphasis of the strictly military side of the Atlantic Alliance. When confirming Spaaks appointment in December 1956 during a session of the NATO foreign ministers, the NATO Secretary General chairs several of the senior decision-making bodies of NATO. In addition to the North Atlantic Council, he chairs the Defence Planning Committee, in a second role, the Secretary General leads the staff of NATO

Secretary General of NATO
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Incumbent Jens Stoltenberg since 1 October 2014
Secretary General of NATO
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Hastings Ismay, the first Secretary General of NATO

74.
Chairman of the NATO Military Committee
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The Chairman of the NATO Military Committee is the head of the NATO Military Committee, which advises the North Atlantic Council on military policy and strategy. The Chairman is one of the foremost officials of NATO, next to the Secretary General, the current Chairman of the NATO Military Committee is Petr Pavel, former Chief of the General Staff of the Army of the Czech Republic, who took office on June 26,2015. The Military Committee was directly subordinate to the Defence Committee, iceland, which had no military forces, was represented by a civilian. Each member state in turn held the Chair of the Military Committee for one year, the principal military member of each NATO countrys delegation is the Military Representative, a senior officer from each countrys armed forces, supported by the International Military Staff. Its principal role is to provide direction and advice on military policy, like the Council, from time to time the Military Committee also meets at a higher level, namely at the level of Chiefs of Defence, the most senior military officer in each nations armed forces. Until 2008 the Military Committee excluded France, due to that countrys 1966 decision to itself from NATOs integrated military structure. Until France rejoined NATO, it was not represented on the Defence Planning Committee, such was the case in the lead up to Operation Iraqi Freedom. The operational work of the Committee is supported by the International Military Staff, the Chairman of the Military Committee chairs all meetings and acts in an international capacity. In his absence, the Deputy Chairman of the Military Committee takes the chair, the current Chairman is Czech General Petr Pavel. Since the formation of NATO, its Military Chairmen have been, Douglas S. Bland, The Military Committee of the North Atlantic Alliance, A Study of Structure and Strategy, New York, Praeger,1991

Chairman of the NATO Military Committee
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Incumbent General Petr Pavel since 26 June 2015
Chairman of the NATO Military Committee
Chairman of the NATO Military Committee
Chairman of the NATO Military Committee

75.
Albanian Armed Forces
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The Albanian Armed Forces are the military of Albania and were formed after the declaration of independence in 1912. Today, it consists of, the General Staff, the Albanian Land Force, Albanian Air Force, the President of Albania is the Commander-in-Chief of the nations military. In times of peace, the Presidents powers as Commander-in-Chief are executed through the Prime Minister, on 4 December 1912, the Albanian Prime Minister, Ismail Qemali and his government, formed the Albanian National Army. Its first Chief in Command was Lieutenant Colonel Ali Shefqet Shkupi By 1923, at that time, Albania did not have a navy. In 1927, the Albanian Armed Forces numbered approximately 8.000 and these troops were organized into three groups, based in Tirana, Shkodër to the north and Berat to the south. Each group was organized into three battalions of 500, a guards battalion of 350 was organized in Tirana. Four frontier battalions of mountaineers were held on reserve, as well as tanks, additionally, a cadet school, a machine-gun school, and a bombing school were housed in the capital. In 1927 alone, the Albanian military ordered 20,000 rifles,40 mountain guns,120 machine guns, the Royal Albanian Army was the army of King Zogu from 1928 until 1939. Its commander-in-chief was himself, its commander General Xhemal Aranitasi, its Chief of Staff was General Gustav von Myrdacz, the army was mainly financed by Italy. On 7 April 1939, Italian troops invaded the country, after the Second World War, Albania became a Soviet-aligned country. The ranks and the structure of the Albanian Armed Forces were organized based on the Soviet concepts, like all other branches of the state, the military was subjugated to Communist Party control. All high-ranking military officers and most of the lower and middle ranks were members of the Communist Party—and had loyalties to it, the system was re-enforced by the establishment of Party cells within the military and extensive communist political education alongside soldiers’ military training, by the political commissars. In 1991 the rank system was reestablished under President Ramiz Alia, initially the communist purge concentrated on the military personnel graduated by the Western Military Academies, extended later on to the officers graduated in Soviet Union. As the communist regime collapsed in Albania during 1990, there was a fear that the armed forces might intervene to halt the collapse of communism by force. In the event, the armed forces stood by as the regime of which they had been a part disintegrated, during the 1980s, Albania had reduced the number of infantry brigades from eight to four. It had shifted to fully manned units from its reliance on the mobilisation of reserve soldiers to flesh out a larger number of units manned at a lower level. Each brigade had three battalions and one lightly equipped artillery battalion. Armoured forces consisted of one tank brigade, artillery forces were increased from one to three regiments during the 1980s, and six battalions of coastal artillery were maintained at strategic points along the Adriatic Sea littoral

Albanian Armed Forces
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An Albanian T-59 tank during the Albania-Yugoslav border incident in May 1999.
Albanian Armed Forces
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Emblem of Albanian Armed Forces
Albanian Armed Forces
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Albanian soldiers conduct a joint patrol with U.S. soldiers in Iraq on 13 January 2005
Albanian Armed Forces
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The full set of commissioned officers ranks in the Albanian Army

76.
Belgian Armed Forces
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The Belgian Armed Forces is the national military of Belgium. The Belgian Armed Forces was established after Belgium became independent in October 1830, since that time Belgian armed forces have fought in World War I, World War II, the Cold War, Kosovo, Somalia and Afghanistan. The ParaCommando Brigade intervened several times in Central-Africa, for maintaining public order, the Armed Forces comprise four branches, the Land Component, the Air Component, the Marine Component and the Medical Component. It is currently active in Lebanon, Afghanistan, the Gulf of Aden, the need for a regular army was however soon acknowledged. The basis for recruitment was one of conscription under which exemptions could be purchased by obtaining substitutes. In practice this meant that only about a quarter of each years eligible intake actually served, as part of the national policy of even-handed neutrality, the 19th century Belgian Army was deployed as an essentially defensive force in fortifications facing the Dutch, German and French borders. Mobilisation plans simply required reservists to report to their depots, without arrangements being made in advance for deployment in a direction or against a particular enemy. Recruitment difficulties caused the army to remain below its intended strength of 20,000 men, the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 required full mobilisation for nearly a year, a process which showed up serious training and structural weaknesses. The presence of Belgian forces in strength along the borders did however ensure that the combat at no time spilled over into Belgian territory. In Belgium conscripts were selected through the drawing of ballots, and this system favored the well-off and had been discarded elsewhere as inefficient and unpatriotic. For those conscripted the terms of service required eight years in the regular army, various categories of volunteer enjoyed such privileges as being able to specify their branch of service, bounties and higher pay. The Papal Army based in Rome included from 1860 a battalion-sized unit known as the Tirailleurs Franco-Belges, recruited amongst volunteers from both countries, this became the Pontifical Zouaves in 1861 and fought as an allied force on the French side in 1871 during the Franco-Prussian War. In 1864 a Corps Expeditionnaire Belge was raised for service in Mexico, originally intended to serve as the Guard of the Belgian-born Empress Charlotte this 1,500 strong force was largely drawn from volunteers seconded from the Belgian Army. Known popularly as the Belgian Legion, it saw service in Mexico as part of the Imperial forces. From 1885 the Force Publique was established as the garrison and police force in the Belgian Congo. Initially led by a variety of European mercenaries, this force was subsequently officered by Belgian regulars after 1908. From December 1904 a small detachment of Belgian troops was based in China as the Guard of the Belgian Legation in Peking. Reforms undertaken in the years of the 20th century included the abolition in 1909 of the system of drawing lots for the selection of the annual intake of conscripts

77.
Bulgarian Armed Forces
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The Bulgarian Army represents the Armed Forces of the Republic of Bulgaria. The Commander-in-Chief is the President of Bulgaria, the Ministry of Defence is in charge of political leadership while overall military command remains in the hands of the Defence Staff, headed by the Chief of the Defence. There are three branches, named literally the Land Forces, the Air Forces and the Naval Forces. Throughout history, the Army has played a role in defending the countrys sovereignty. During the Cold War the Peoples Republic of Bulgaria maintained one of the largest militaries in the Warsaw Pact, since the Fall of Communism, the political leadership decided to pursue a pro-NATO policy, thus reducing military personnel and weaponry. Bulgaria joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization on 29 March 2004, the patron saint of the Bulgarian Army is St. George. The Armed Forces Day or St. Georges Day is a holiday in Bulgaria. The modern Bulgarian military dates back to 1878, on 22 July 1878 a total of 12 battalions of opalchentsi who participated in the Liberation war, formed the Bulgarian armed forces. According to the Tarnovo Constitution, all men between 21 and 40 years of age were eligible for military service, in 1883 the military was reorganized in four infantry brigades and one cavalry brigade. The Serbo-Bulgarian War was the first armed conflict after Bulgarias liberation and it was a result of the unification with Eastern Rumelia, which happened on 6 September 1885. The unification was not completely recognized, however, and one of the countries that refused to recognize the act was the Kingdom of Serbia, the Austro-Hungarian Empire had been expanding its influence in the Balkans and was particularly opposed. Serbia also feared this would diminish its dominance in the region, in addition, Serbian ruler Milan Obrenović IV was annoyed that Serbian opposition leaders like Nikola Pašić, who had escaped persecution after the Timok Rebellion, had found asylum in Bulgaria. Lured by Austria-Hungarys promises of territorial gains from Bulgaria, Milan IV declared war on Bulgaria on 14 November 1885, Military strategy relied largely on surprise, as Bulgaria had moved most of its troops near the border with the Ottoman Empire, in the southeast. As it happened, the Ottomans did not intervene and the Serbian armys advance was stopped after the Battle of Slivnitsa, the main body of the Bulgarian army traveled from the Ottoman border in the southeast to the Serbian border in the northwest to defend the capital, Sofia. After the defensive battles at Slivnitsa and Vidin, Bulgaria began an offensive that took the city of Pirot, at this point the Austro-Hungarian Empire stepped in, threatening to join the war on Serbias side if Bulgarian troops did not retreat. Fighting lasted for only 14 days, from 14-28 November, a peace treaty was signed in Bucharest on 19 February 1886. No territorial changes were made to either country, but Bulgarian unification was recognized by the Great Powers, however, the relationship of trust and friendship between Serbia and Bulgaria, built during their long common fight against Ottoman rule, suffered irreparable damage. Instability in the Balkan region in the early 1900s quickly became a precondition for a new war, Bulgaria, which had secured Ottoman recognition of its independence in April 1909 and enjoyed the friendship of Russia, also looked to districts of Ottoman Thrace and Macedonia for expansion

78.
Canadian Armed Forces
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This unified institution consists of sea, land, and air elements referred to as the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force. Under the National Defence Act, the Canadian Armed Forces are an entity separate and distinct from the Department of National Defence, the Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Armed Forces is the reigning Canadian monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, who is represented by the Governor General of Canada. The Canadian Armed Forces is led by the Chief of the Defence Staff, during the Cold War, a principal focus of Canadian defence policy was contributing to the security of Europe in the face of the Soviet military threat. Toward that end, Canadian ground and air forces were based in Europe from the early 1950s until the early 1990s, Canadian defence policy today is based on the Canada First Defence Strategy, introduced in 2008. Based on that strategy, the Canadian military is oriented and being equipped to carry out six core missions within Canada, in North America and globally. Prior to Confederation in 1867, residents of the colonies in what is now Canada served as members of French and British forces. Thereafter, the Royal Canadian Navy was formed, and, with the advent of military aviation and these forces were organised under the Department of Militia and Defence, and split into the Permanent and Non-Permanent Active Militias—frequently shortened to simply The Militia. By 1923, the department was merged into the Department of National Defence, the first overseas deployment of Canadian military forces occurred during the Second Boer War, when several units were raised to serve under British command. Similarly, when the United Kingdom entered into conflict with Germany in the First World War, the Canadian Crown-in-Council then decided to send its forces into the Second World War, as well as the Korean War. Since 1947, Canadian military units have participated in more than 200 operations worldwide, Canada maintained an aircraft carrier from 1957 to 1970 during the Cold War, which never saw combat but participated in patrols during the Cuban Missile Crisis. At the end of the Second World War, Canada possessed the fourth-largest air force and fifth-largest naval surface fleet in the world, conscription for overseas service was introduced only near the end of the war, and only 2,400 conscripts actually made it into battle. Originally, Canada was thought to have had the third-largest navy in the world and its roots, however, lie in colonial militia groups that served alongside garrisons of the French and British armies and navies, a structure that remained in place until the early 20th century. After the 1980s, the use of the Canadian Armed Forces name gave way to Canadian Forces, land Forces during this period also deployed in support of peacekeeping operations within United Nations sanctioned conflicts. The nature of the Canadian Forces has continued to evolve and they have been deployed in Afghanistan until 2011, under the NATO-led United Nations International Security Assistance Force, at the request of the Government of Afghanistan. The Armed Forces are today funded by approximately $20, the number of primary reserve personnel is expected to go up to 30,000 by 2020, and the number of active to at least 70,000. In addition,5000 rangers and 19,000 supplementary personnel will be serving, if this happens the total strength would be around 124,000. These individuals serve on numerous CF bases located in all regions of the country, and are governed by the Queens Regulations and Orders, the 2006 renewal and re-equipment effort has resulted in the acquisition of specific equipment to support the mission in Afghanistan. It has also encompassed initiatives to renew certain so-called core capabilities, in addition, new systems have also been acquired for the Armed Forces

79.
Republic of Croatia Armed Forces
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The total number of active military personnel in the Croatian Armed Forces stands at 14,506 and 6,000 reserves working in various service branches of the armed forces. In May 2016, Armed Forces had 16,019 members, of the 14,506 active military personnel,3,183 were officers,5,389 non-commissioned officers,5,393 soldiers,520 military specialists,337 civil servants and 1,176 other employees. Total available male manpower aged 16–49 number 1,035,712, male citizens are now no longer subject to compulsory military service since January 1,2008. However, the last generation of 2007 servicemen was also absolved of compulsory service by an act from then Minister of Defence Berislav Rončević. For example,1995 Croatian defense budget stood at 12.4 billion Croatian Kuna or just over 12% of GDP, a long term modernization plan, 2015-2024 has been published outlining overall goals and is available for download at the Ministry of Defence of Croatia website. At the moment the Croatian Air Force will keep 12 MiG-21bis fighter aircraft, the Dr. Franjo Tuđman Military Academy acts as a school of higher learning responsible for training and educating future generations of military personnel. The academy consists of schools including Ban Josip Jelačić, Blago Zadro, Katarina Zrinska, the Officers Academy. The academy has 300 full-time staff and is the military academy in Croatia. Each year also 100-120 foreign nationals attend the academy, the Commander-in-Chief of all Croatian armed forces in peace and war is the President of the Republic. The Commander-in-Chief prescribes the organization of the Croatian Armed Forces at the proposal of the Chief of General Staff, the Armed Forces consist of peacetime and wartime components. The wartime component of the Armed Forces includes all other reservists, the General Staff is part of the Ministry of Defense in charge of commanding, training and use of the Armed Forces. It also has a number of units under its command, including the Special Operations Battalion, Honor Guard Battalion. In peace, the Commander-in-Chief exercises his command through the Minister of Defence, in war and in cases where the Minister of Defence is not fulfilling his orders, the Commander-in-Chief exercises his command directly through the General Staff Commander. The Croatian Parliament exercises democratic control over the Armed Forces by adopting defence strategy, defence budget, the command staff is composed of the members who served in the special units, guards brigades and reconnaissance units of the Croatian Armed Forces. Colonel Perica Turalija is the current commanding officer of the command, also, this means that members of all three branches of the Croatian armed forces can apply for selection. Other special operations units are the Military Intelligence Battalion and Special Military Police Company, the duties of an Honour Guard are performed by the Počasno zaštitna bojna, located at Zagreb in the Tuškanac military base. A $3-Billion modernization plan was proposed by the then Prime Minister Ivica Racan of the SDP led Government in 2003, with planned modernization starting in 2006 and ending in 2015. However it has been delayed in part due to the subsequent economic recession, a New Plan under the current Prime Minister Zoran Milanović should define exactly how and what the Croatian armed forces should look like by 2023

80.
Army of the Czech Republic
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The Army of the Czech Republic comprise the Czech Land Forces, the Czech Air Force and support units. From the late 1940s to 1989, the extensive Czechoslovak Peoples Army formed one of the pillars of the Warsaw Pact military alliance, as defined by the Czech Law No. 219/1999 Coll. the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic are the forces of the Czech Republic. They consist of the Army of the Czech Republic, the Military Office of President of the Republic, the Czechoslovak Armed Forces were originally formed on 30 June 1918 when 6. On the other side of the conflict, a number of Czechoslovak units and formations served with the Polish Army, the French Army, the Royal Air Force, the British Army, four Czech and Slovak-manned RAF squadrons were transferred to Czechoslovak control in late 1945. From 1954 until 1990, the Army was known as the Czechoslovak Peoples Army. Of the approximately 201,000 personnel on duty in the ČSLA in 1987, about 145,000, or about 72 percent. About 100,000 of these were conscripts, there were two military districts, Western and Eastern. In the Eastern Military District, there were two divisions, the 13th and 14th, with a supervisory headquarters at Trenčín in the Slovak part of the country. 58 assault rifle or the Uk vz.59 machine gun were of Czechoslovak design, the Army of the Czech Republic was formed after the Czechoslovak Armed Forces split after the 1 January 1993 dissolution of Czechoslovakia. Czech forces stood at 90,000 in 1993 and they were reduced to around 65,000 in 11 combat brigades and the Air Force in 1997, to 63,601 in 1999, and to 35,000 in 2005. At the same time, the forces were modernized and reoriented towards a defensive posture, in 2004, the army transformed itself into a fully professional organization and compulsory military service was abolished. The Army maintains an active reserve, the Czech Republic is a member of the United Nations and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. At the 1999 Washington summit, the Czech Republic joined NATO, the unit is stationed in the outskirts of the city of Olomouc, in place of the canceled 156th Rescue Battalion. Active Reserve is a part of the otherwise professional Army of the Czech Republic and this service was created to allow the participation of citizens with a positive attitude to the military. A volunteer needs either to have completed the military service or to attend 8 week training. Then the reservists have to serve up to three weeks a year and can be called up to two weeks during a non-military crisis. They are not intended to serve abroad, the Reserve presents itself on events like BAHNA, a military show

Army of the Czech Republic
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Croatian Army Master Sgt.(right) discusses patrol routes with a Czech Army Sgt. (left) in Germany to prepare for Afghanistan, 2012
Army of the Czech Republic
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The coat of arms and roundel
Army of the Czech Republic
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Czech BVP2 firing in Afghanistan
Army of the Czech Republic
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Czech Army Soldiers to participate in exercise Combined Resolve at the Joint Multinational Readiness Center in Hohenfels, Germany

81.
Danish Defence
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The Danish Defence is the unified armed forces of the Kingdom of Denmark, charged with the defence of Denmark and its constituent, self-governing nations Greenland and the Faroe Islands. Denmark also has a concept of total defence, during World War II, the armed forces were disbanded by the Germans during Operation Safari. After the war, the different branches were reorganized, and collected under Danish Defence, was in order for greater communication between the branches. The purpose and task of the forces of Denmark is defined in Law no.122 of February 27,2001. It defines three purposes and six tasks, since 1988, Danish defence budgets and security policy have been set by multi-year agreements supported by a wide parliamentary majority including government and opposition parties. The latest Defence agreement was signed June 10,2004, from now about 60% support structure and 40% combat operational capability, it is to be 40% support structure and 60% combat operational capability, i. e. more combat soldiers and fewer paper-soldiers. The standard mandatory conscription is modified, generally this means fewer conscripts, less service time for them and only those who choose so, will continue into the reaction force system. This list lists the complete expenditures for the Danish Ministry of Defence, the Danish Defence Force, counting all branches and all departments, itself has an income equal to about 1–5% of its expenditures, depending on the year. They are not deducted in this listing, approximately 95% of the budget goes directly to running the Danish military including the Home guard. Because Denmark has a small and highly specialized military industry, the vast majority of the Danish Defences equipment is imported from NATO, frømandskorpset, Amphibious attack and infiltration unit. Slædepatruljen Sirius, Arctic dog sled unit patrolling the border of Greenland. Current deployment of Danish forces, since 10-03-2016, A Challenger CL-604 MMA for maritime patrol in the Baltic Sea as part of NATO Allied Maritime Command,35 soldiers in Kosovo participating in NATOs Kosovo Force, guarding the French Camp Marechal De Lattre de Tassigny. 84 people in Afghanistan as part of Resolute Support Mission, HDMS Absalon patrolling the Aegean Sea for human trafficking. 20 people in Bamako and Gao, as part of MINUSMA,13 people in Juba, as part of UNMISS. 11 people in Israel, as part of UNTSO,2 people in South Korea, as part of UNCMAC. 12 men on the Sirus Patrol of Eastern Greenland, a Challenger CL-604 MMA to fly patrol over Greenland. Rota between HDMS Tulugaq, HDMS Knud Rasmussen, HDMS Triton and HDMS Thetis to enact sovereignty patrol in the seas of Greenland, a Challenger CL-604 MMA to do maritime environmental monitoring missions in the North Sea. 149 people at Al Asad Airbase in Iraq to train the military as part of Operation Inherent Resolve

82.
Estonia Defence Forces
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The Estonian Defence Forces is the name of the unified armed forces of the Republic of Estonia. The Estonian military is a force consisting of Land Forces, Navy, Air Force. A few days later Estonia was invaded by the forces of Bolshevist Russia. The small, poorly armed Estonian military, also known as the Peoples Force, was pushed back by the Red Army into the vicinity of the capital city of Estonia - Tallinn. A mere 34 kilometers separated Tallinn and the front line, partly due to the timely arrival of a shipment of arms brought by a British naval squadron the Bolsheviks were stopped. In January 1919, the Estonian armed forces launched a counteroffensive, the Ground Forces were supported by the Royal Navy as well as Finnish, Swedish and Danish volunteers. By the end of February 1919, the Red Army had been expelled from all of the territory of Estonia, on 2 February 1920, the Peace Treaty of Tartu was signed by the Republic of Estonia and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. After winning the Estonian Liberation War against Soviet Russia and German Freikorps volunteers, according to this treaty Estonia was to be occupied by the Soviet Union. The Estonian government was forced to give their assent to an agreement which allowed the USSR to establish military bases, on 12 June 1940, the order for a total military blockade of Estonia was given to the Soviet Baltic Fleet. Given the overwhelming Soviet force, in order to avoid bloodshed, the military occupation of Estonia was complete by 21 June 1940. The armed forces of Estonia were disarmed in July 1940 by the Red Army according to Soviet orders, only the Estonian Independent Signal Battalion stationed in Tallinn at Raua Street, in front of the Tallinn School No.21 continued to resist. As the Red Army brought in additional reinforcements supported by armoured fighting vehicles, there was one dead, several wounded on the Estonian side and about 10 killed and more wounded on the Soviet side. Military resistance ended with negotiations and the Signal Battalion surrendered and was disarmed, the Eesti Kaitsevägi was restored on 3 September 1991 by the Supreme Council of the Republic of Estonia. Since 1991, the forces of Estonia have re-opened and restored more than 30 old and new units. In peacetime the Estonian Defence Forces and the national defence organisations, in wartime all these components are commanded by the commander-in-chief of the defence forces. The chief of the forces and the commander-in-chief of the defence forces are appointed and released from office by the Riigikogu on the proposal of the President of the Republic of Estonia. Starting from 5 December 2011 the Chief of the Defence is Lieutenant-General Riho Terras, the Kaitseväe Peastaap is the headquarters of the military of Estonia and the working body of the Kaitseväe Juhataja of the defence forces. The General Staff is a joint staff engaged with operational leadership, training, Operational leadership is implemented by the Operational Staff, which plans and controls operations and ensures defence readiness and mobilisation

83.
French Armed Forces
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The French Armed Forces encompass the French Army, the French Navy, the French Air Force, the French National Guard and the National Gendarmerie of France. The President of the Republic heads the armed forces, with the title chef des armées, the President is the supreme authority for military matters and is the sole official who can order a nuclear strike. France maintains the tenth largest defence budget in the world and the second largest armed forces in size in the EU, France also maintains the third largest nuclear deterrent behind only Russia and the United States. The Gallo-Roman conflict predominated from 60 BC to 50 BC, with the Romans emerging victorious in the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar, after the decline of the Roman Empire, a Germanic tribe known as the Franks took control of Gaul by defeating competing tribes. The land of Francia, from which France gets its name, had points of expansion under kings Clovis I. In the Middle Ages, rivalries with England and the Holy Roman Empire prompted major conflicts such as the Norman Conquest and the Hundred Years War. The Wars of Religion crippled France in the late 16th century, in parallel, France developed its first colonial empire in Asia, Africa, and in the Americas. Resurgent French armies secured victories in dynastic conflicts against the Spanish, Polish, at the same time, France was fending off attacks on its colonies. As the 18th century advanced, global competition with Great Britain led to the Seven Years War, internal political upheaval eventually led to 23 years of nearly continuous conflict in the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The rest of the 19th century witnessed the growth of the Second French colonial empire as well as French interventions in Belgium, Spain, other major wars were fought against Russia in the Crimea, Austria in Italy, and Prussia within France itself. Following defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, Franco-German rivalry erupted again in the First World War, France and its allies were victorious this time. The Allies, including the government in exiles Free French Forces and later a liberated French nation, as a result, France secured an occupation zone in Germany and a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council. The imperative of avoiding a third Franco-German conflict on the scale of those of two world wars paved the way for European integration starting in the 1950s. France became a power and since the 1990s its military action is most often seen in cooperation with NATO. Today, French military doctrine is based on the concepts of independence, nuclear deterrence. France is a member of NATO, and has worked actively with its allies to adapt NATO—internally. In December 1995, France announced that it would increase its participation in NATOs military wing, including the Military Committee, France remains a firm supporter of the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe and other cooperative efforts. Paris hosted the May 1997 NATO-Russia Summit which sought the signing of the Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation, France has undertaken a major restructuring to develop a professional military that will be smaller, more rapidly deployable, and better tailored for operations outside of mainland France

84.
Bundeswehr
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The Bundeswehr is the unified armed forces of Germany and their civil administration and procurement authorities. The States of Germany are not allowed to maintain armed forces of their own, the Bundeswehr is divided into a military part and a civil part with the armed forces administration. The military part of the defense force consists of the Heer, Marine, Luftwaffe, Streitkräftebasis, Zentraler Sanitätsdienst. In addition the Bundeswehr has approximately 27,600 reserve personnel. 2%, the Bundeswehr are in the process of integrating smaller NATO members Brigades into divisions of the German army. The Bundeswehr is to play a role as anchor army for smaller NATO states. 2 of 3 Royal Netherlands Army Brigades are now under German Command, in 2014 the 11th Airmobile Brigade, was integrated into the German Division of fast forces. Also the Dutch 43rd Mechanized Brigade, will be integrated into the 1st Panzer Division of the German army, with the integration starting at the beginning of 2016, and the unit becoming operational at the end of 2019. The Dutch-German military cooperation are seen as an example for setting up a European defense union, also the Czech Republics 4th Rapid Deployment Brigade, and Romania’s 81st Mechanized Brigade, will be integrated into Germany’s 10 Armoured Division and Rapid Response Forces Division. The name Bundeswehr was first proposed by the former Wehrmacht general and Liberal politician Hasso von Manteuffel, the Iron Cross is its official emblem. It is a symbol that has an association with the military of Germany. The Schwarzes Kreuz is derived from the black cross insignia of the medieval Teutonic knights, when the Bundeswehr was established in 1955, its founding principles were based on developing a completely new military force for the defence of West Germany. In this respect the Bundeswehr did not consider itself to be a successor to either the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic or Hitlers Wehrmacht, neither does it adhere to the traditions of any former German military organization. One of the most visible traditions of the modern Bundeswehr is the Großer Zapfenstreich, the FRG reinstated this formal military ceremony in 1952, three years before the foundation of the Bundeswehr. Today it is performed by a band with 4 fanfare trumpeters and timpani. The Zapfenstreich is only performed during national celebrations or solemn public commemorations and it can honour distinguished persons present such as the German federal president or provide the conclusion to large military exercises. Another important tradition in the modern German armed forces is the Gelöbnis, there are two kinds of oath, for conscripts/recruits it is a pledge but its a solemn vow for full-time personnel. The pledge is made annually on 20 July, the date on which a group of Wehrmacht officers attempted to assassinate Adolf Hitler in 1944, recruits from the Bundeswehrs Wachbataillon make their vow at the Bendlerblock in Berlin. This was the headquarters of the resistance but also where the officers were executed following its failure

85.
Hungarian Defence Force
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Hungarian Defence Forces is the national defence force of Hungary. The President holds the title of commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The Ministry of Defence jointly with Chief of staff administers the armed forces, including the Hungarian Ground Force, since 2007, the Hungarian Armed Forces is under a unified command structure. The Ministry of Defence maintains the political and civil control over the army, a subordinate Joint Forces Command is coordinating and commanding the HDF corps. In 2016, the forces had 31.080 personnel on active duty. In 2017, military spending will be $1.21 billion, about 0. 94% of the countrys GDP, in 2012, the government adopted a resolution in which it pledged to increase defence spending to 1. 4% of GDP by 2022. Military service is voluntary, though conscription may occur in wartime, in a significant move for modernization, Hungary decided in 2001 to buy 14 JAS39 Gripen fighter aircraft for about 800 million EUR. Hungarian National Cyber Security Center is re-organized in 2016 in order to more efficient through cyber security. Hungary sent 300 strong logistics unit to Iraq in order to help the US occupation with armed transport convoys, one soldier was killed in action because of a roadside bomb in Iraq. During the 18th and 19th century, Hungarian Hussars rose to international fame, in 1848–49 HDF achieved incredible successes against better-trained and equipped Austrian forces, despite the obvious advantage in numbers on the Austrian side. In 1872, the Ludovica Military Academy officially began training cadets, by 1873 HDF already had over 2,800 officers and 158,000 men organized into eighty-six battalions and fifty-eight squadrons. During World War I out of the eight million men mobilized by Austro Hungarian Empire, during the 1930s and early 1940s, Hungary was preoccupied with the regaining the vast territories and huge amount of population lost in the Trianon peace treaty at Versailles in 1920. Conscription was introduced on a basis in 1939. The peacetime strength of the Royal Hungarian Army grew to 80,000 men organized into seven corps commands, during World War II the Hungarian Second Army was near to total devastation on banks of the Don River in December 1942 in Battle for Stalingrad. As of 2016 Global Peace Index shows, Hungary is one of the worlds most peaceful countries, since 2007, the Hungarian Defence Force has been under a unified command structure. The Ministry of Defence maintains the political and civil control over the army, the military leadership is exercised by the Defence Staff of the Ministry of Defence. A subordinate Joint Force Command coordinates and commands the HDF corps, the Home Defence Pyrotechnician and Warship Battalion of the Hungarian Defence Forces based in Újpest Port, on the River Danube, Budapest. In the 2000s, the army bought new minesweepers, restored or retired the old ones, on national holidays warships come along the River Danube in Budapest

Hungarian Defence Force
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Operator of Hungarian Army's 34th ’László Bercsényi’ Special Operations Battalion (KMZ) about to storm the unit's own Killing House
Hungarian Defence Force
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Flag and emblem of the Hungarian Defence Force
Hungarian Defence Force
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Infantrymen of Hungarian Army's 25/88th Light Mixed Battalion
Hungarian Defence Force
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The Hungarian Air Force has 14 JAS 39 Gripens on lease, including two two-seaters (C/D versions). The final three aircraft were delivered in December 2007.

86.
Latvian National Armed Forces
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The Latvian National Armed Forces are the armed forces of the Republic of Latvia. The National Armed Forces consists of Land Forces, Naval Forces, Air Force, National Guard, Latvia has switched to a professional army, the last draft was in 2005. From January 1,2007, the Latvian army is fully contract-based, the mission of the National Armed Forces is to defend the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the nation and to defend its population against foreign or domestic armed aggression. Ensure modernization and enhancement of professional training, The Latvian armed forces were first formed after the new state was created after World War I. At the end of the Latvian War of Independence, the Latvian Army consisted of 69,232 men, after the Soviet occupation of Latvia in June 1940 the annihilation of the Latvian army began. The army was renamed the People’s Army and in September–November 1940- the Red Army’s 24th Territorial Rifle Corps, the corps comprised the 181st and 183rd Rifle Divisions. In September the corps contained 24,416 men but in more than 800 officers. The arrests of soldiers continued in the following months, in June 1940, the entire Territorial Corps was sent to Litene camp. Before leaving the camp, Latvians drafted in 1939 were demobilised, on June 10, the corps senior officers were sent to Russia where they were arrested and most of them shot. On June 14 at least 430 officers were arrested and sent to Gulag camps, simultaneously, many soldiers and officers deserted and when the corps crossed the Latvian border only about 3,000 Latvian soldiers remained. There are 4,763 active duty personnel in the NAF, there are 971 soldiers in the Latvian Land Forces,552 in the Latvian Naval Forces,251 in the Latvian Air Force with the balance in the other commands. There are 10,642 voluntary national guardsmen with 1,284 officers and 1,945 non-commissioned officers in the Latvian National Guard, there are 1,288 civil employees serving in the NAF. Along with providing for defence, the NAF will also react immediately to threats to other allies. Latvia cooperates with Estonia and Lithuania in the joint infantry battalion BALTBAT, currently, NATO is involved in the patrolling and protection of the Latvian air space as the Latvian military does not have the means to do so. For this goal a rotating force of four NATO fighters, which comes from different nations, after joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Latvia has undertaken obligations to strengthen common defence within the scope of its capabilities. For this purpose, every NATO member state delegates its military formations — fast response, after joining NATO, the foundation of the Latvian defence system has shifted from total territorial defence to collective defence. Latvia has acquired small but highly professional troop units that have fully integrated into NATO structures. NAF soldiers have participated in operations since 1996

87.
Lithuanian Armed Forces
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The Lithuanian Armed Forces consist of 20565 active personnel. Conscription was ended in September 2008 but was reintroduced in 2015 because of concerns about the environment in light of Russias military intervention in Ukraine. Lithuanias defence system is based on the concept of total and unconditional defence mandated by Lithuanias National Security Strategy, the goal of Lithuanias defence policy is to prepare their society for general defence and to integrate Lithuania into Western security and defence structures. The defence ministry is responsible for combat forces, search and rescue, a special security department handles VIP protection and communications security. Directly subordinated to the Chief of Defence are the Special Operations Forces, the Reserve Forces are under command of the Lithuanian National Defence Volunteer Forces. The core of the Lithuanian Land Force structure is the Iron Wolf Mechanised Infantry Brigade consisting of three mechanized infantry battalions and artillery battalion, the Lithuanian Land forces are undertaking a major modernization. New weapons and heavier armour are going to be acquired, in 2007 the Land forces bought the German Heckler & Koch G36 rifle to replace the older Swedish Ak-4 as main weapon. There are plans to buy new Infantry fighting vehicles, the volunteers have already successfully participated in international operations in the Balkans, Afghanistan and Iraq. The NDVF consists of six territorial units, the Lithuanian Air Force is an integral part of the Lithuanian Armed Forces. The LAF is formed from professional military servicemen and non-military personnel, units are located at various bases across Lithuania, Kaunas, Karmėlava, Nemirseta, Šiauliai, Radviliškis. The initial formation of the LAF was the 2nd transport squadron with the transfer of 20 An-2 aircraft from civilian to military use and these were joined by four L-39C Albatros aircraft purchased from Kazakhstan as part of the intended 16 to be used by the 1st fighter squadron. Mil Mi-8 helicopters were modernised by LAF, in 20082 medium-range radars were acquired for the Air Forces Airspace Surveillance and Control Command. Air space is patrolled by jet fighters from other NATO members, the European Unions External border is patrolled by Aviation Unit of the Lithuanian State Border Guard Service which received new helicopters EC-120, EC-135 and EC-145. The Navy has over 600 personnel, the flotilla is the core component of the Navy, and consists of the Mine Countermeasures Squadron, the Patrol Ships Squadron, and the Harbour Boats Group. The current Commander in Chief of the Lithuanian Navy is Rear Admiral Kęstutis Macijauskas, the Naval base and Headquarters are located in the city of Klaipėda. The Navy uses patrol ships for coastal surveillance, the four newly acquired Flyvefisken class patrol vessels replaced the older Storm class patrol boats and Grisha class corvettes. SOF is formed from the Special Operations Unit, SOF are responsible for the following tasks, special reconnaissance, direct actions, and military support. It is also in charge of tasks, e. g. protection of VIP in peacetime

88.
Military of Montenegro
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The Military of Montenegro consists of an army, navy and air force. There has been no conscription in Montenegro, the military is a professional standing army. The military currently maintains a force of 1,950 active duty members, Montenegro is a member of NATOs Partnership for Peace program and is an official candidate for full membership in the alliance. Montenegro applied for a Membership Action Plan on 5 November 2008, in 2015, it was reported that international support for Montenegros NATO membership was growing. In December 2015, North Atlantic Council, invited Montenegro to join NATO as 29th member, Montenegro participates in peace operations under the NATO and UN auspices as military troops and observers. Minister of Defense said that 85 soldiers are trained for international missions, Montenegrin soldiers are trained by the German Bundeswehr. Montenegro sent 45 troops and medical personnel to the ISAF mission in Afghanistan, Montenegro also participates in UN peacekeeping missions in Liberia, UNMIL, Cyprus, UNFICYP as military observers and Somalia, EU-NAVFOR. Each kapetanija formed its reserve battalion, there were 42 battalions in total. Since 1881, regular military exercises were conducted, supreme Commander of the Montenegrin army was the monarch, Prince / King Nikola I. Operational command, organization and financial support of the Montenegrin army was entrusted to the Ministry of Defence, General Staff of the Montenegrin army was part of the Ministry of Defence. In 1882 first 14 Montenegrins were sent to schools abroad, particularly in Italy. In 1886,10 of them completed their education and they become first trained officers in Montenegrin warrior history and these Montenegrin officers held courses in Podgorica, Nikšić and Cetinje. In September 1895, the first permanent Infantry NCO school in Podgorica was opened, at the end of 1896, artillery officer school in Cetinje was established - the first Montenegrin officer school. In 1906 Montenegrin army received the first systematized regulations, and the Law on Organization of the Army was adopted in 1910, Infantry and artillery, were established, followed by two specialized branches, and additional branches. In 1913 the Montenegrin gendarmerie become a special Military Police unit, since the establishment of the internal Montenegrin telecommunications system in 1869, vital for the flow of military-defense information, it was under the jurisdiction of Ministry of the military. Divisions were composed of 2-3 Infantry Brigade, each divisional command had three artillery batteries. On the eve of the First Balkan War Kingdom of Montenegro lined up 55,000 soldiers, all Montenegrins between 18 and 62 years were conscripts. Recruitment was done three times a year, and the recruits are in peacetime had to have at least 25 years, the Military of Montenegro before 1918, was much larger than todays military

Military of Montenegro
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Kotor class Frigate
Military of Montenegro
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Montenegrin troops in Afghanistan
Military of Montenegro
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Members of Special Forces Brigade
Military of Montenegro
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Members of Marine Platoon

89.
Armed forces of the Netherlands
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The Armed forces of the Netherlands consist of the Army, Navy, and Air Force. The service branches consist of, Koninklijke Landmacht, Royal Netherlands Army, Koninklijke Marine, Royal Netherlands Navy and Korps Mariniers, Marine Corps. Koninklijke Luchtmacht, Royal Netherlands Air Force, in addition, within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, there are small local conscript forces on the islands of Aruba and Curaçao. These operate under the auspices of the Royal Netherlands Navy and Marines, the military ranks of the Dutch armed forces have similarities with British and U. S. military ranks. The highest-ranking officer in the Dutch military is the Chief of the Netherlands Defence Staff, the Dutch armed forces exist by declaration in the constitution of the Netherlands. Interestingly, this means that the role and responsibility of the Dutch military in international stability, the same article of the constitution determines that supreme command of the Dutch military resides with the Government of the Netherlands. This has been the case since the constitution was changed in 1983, before then, in addition, a second major change in military affairs was made in 2003. Before then, all citizens of the Netherlands were tasked with the defense of the kingdom, in keeping with the move to a professional military, this article was dropped. The Netherlands military is currently a professional military. Conscription in the Netherlands was suspended in 1996 with the exception of Aruba, all military branches and specialties, except for the submarine service and the Marine Corps, are open to female recruits. The Dutch military is part of the NATO militaries and therefore conforms to the structure of a NATO military and it also uses conforming rank structures. All Dutch military personnel, officers and enlisted personnel, are required to take an oath of allegiance and this oath is recorded in the law on General Military Personnel Regulations in Article 126a. Unlike many military organizations, Dutch military members are allowed to form, there are four of these unions, Algemene Federatie van Militair Personeel, which was recognized by the Dutch government in 1966. The AFMP is a member of the Dutch Federation of Trade Unions, the ACOM is a member of the Dutch Christian National Trade Union. Gezamenlijke Officieren Verenigingen en Middelbaar en Hoger Burgerpersoneel bij Defensie, which was recognized by the Dutch government in 2004, the GOV/MHB is a member of the Dutch confederation of groups of middle and senior staffmembers. All unions represent both current and retired military personnel and/or civilian personnel, the Netherlands deployed further troops and helicopters to Afghanistan in 2006 as part of a new security operation in the south of the country. Dutch ground and air forces totalled almost 2,000 personnel during 2006, taking part in combat operations alongside British, the Netherlands announced in December 2007 that it would begin withdrawing its troops from Afghanistan, which were mainly in Uruzgan Province, in July 2010. I do not have assurances that other countries will be ready to replace Netherlands troops, to the NATO secretary general, who has confirmed it

90.
Norwegian Armed Forces
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The Norwegian Armed Forces is the military organisation responsible for the defence of Norway. It consists of four branches, the Norwegian Army, the Royal Norwegian Navy, which includes the Coast Guard, the Royal Norwegian Air Force, the armed forces number 23,000 personnel, including civilian employees, and have a full-mobilisation combat strength of 83,000. The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defence, led by Ine Marie Eriksen Søreide, the formal commander-in-chief is King Harald V, however, the de facto commander-in-chief is Chief of Defence Haakon Bruun-Hanssen. His staff is located at Akershus Fortress in Oslo, while the Norwegian Joint Headquarters, the main naval base is Haakonsvern in Bergen, the main army camps are in Bardu, Målselv and Rena, and the main air station is Ørland. An organised military was first assembled in Norway in the 9th century and was focused around naval warfare. The army was created in 1628 as part of Denmark–Norway, followed by two centuries of regular wars, a Norwegian military was established in 1814, but the military did not see combat until the German occupation of Norway in 1940. Norway abandoned its position as a country in 1949 to become a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation. The Cold War saw a large build-up of air stations and military bases, since the 2000s, the military has transformed from a focus on defence from an invasion to a mobile force for international missions. Among European NATO members, the expenditure of US$7.2 billion is the highest per capita. The Chief of Defence heads the armed forces, and is the military adviser to the Minister of Defence. It is headed by a general or admiral. DEFSTNOR assigns priorities, manages resources, provides force generation and support activities, each of the four branches of defence is headed by a two-star general/admiral who are subordinate to DEFSTNOR. National Joint Headquarters located at Reitan, close to Bodø has operational control of Norwegian armed forces worldwide 24/7 and it is headed by the Supreme Commander Norwegian Forces - a three-star general or admiral. Norwegian Defence Logistics Organisation at Kolsås outside Oslo is responsible for engineering, procurement, investment, supply, information and it is also responsible for maintenance, repair and storage of material. Norway employs a form of mandatory military service for men and women. While 63,841 men and women were called in for the examination of persons liable for service in 2012,9265 were conscripted. In 2015 conscription was extended to women making Norway the first NATO member, there is a right of conscientious objection. The press statements read, that serves as a means to “fight climate change”

91.
Polish Armed Forces
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Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland are the national armed forces of the Republic of Poland. The name has been used since the early 19th century, from 2002 until 2014, Polish military forces were part of the Coalition Forces that participated in the ISAF mission in Afghanistan led by NATO. Polands contribution to ISAF was the countrys largest, since its entrance into NATO, Polish forces also took part in the Iraq War. From 2003 to 2008, Polish military forces commanded the Multinational Division located in the South-Central Zone of Iraq, the division was made up of troops from 23 nations and totaled as many as 8,500 soldiers. It is regarded as one of the most professional military in Europe, the List of Polish wars chronicles Polish military involvements since the year 972. The present armed forces trace their roots to the early 20th century, large numbers of Poles also served in the armies of the partitioning powers, Russian Empire, Austria-Hungary and Germany. However, these powers took care to spread Polish soldiers all over their armies, during World War I, the Polish Legions were set up in Galicia, the southern part of Poland under Austrian occupation. They were both disbanded after the Central Powers failed to provide guarantees of Polish independence after the war. General Józef Haller, the commander of the Second Brigade of the Polish Legion, switched sides in late 1917, and via Murmansk took part of his troops to France and it was joined by several thousand Polish volunteers from the United States. It fought on the French front in 1917 and 1918, the Polish Army was recreated in 1918 from elements of the three separate Russian, Austro-Hungarian, and Prussian armies, and armed with equipment left following World War I. The force expanded during the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1922 to nearly 800,000 men, the Polish Armed Forces in the West comprised army, navy, and air force units, and were loyal to the Polish government-in-exile. Army formations and units included the Polish Army in France, the Polish I Corps in the West, the Polish II Corps, and the rump Command in the Middle East that was briefly designated the III Corps. The Polish Air Force fought in the Battle of France as one squadron, several small units detached to French squadrons. These vessels included the cruisers ORP Dragon and Conrad, seven destroyers, what later became the communist LWP was formed during the Second World War as the Polish 1st Tadeusz Kościuszko Infantry Division, also unofficially known as the Berling Army. The majority of officers were Polish, the first Polish force formed in the USSR, the Anders Army, had by that time moved to Iran. Polish forces soon grew beyond the 1st Division into two major commands—the First Polish Army and the Polish Second Army, the Polish First Army participated in the Vistula–Oder Offensive and the Battle of Kolberg before participating in its final offensive with the Battle of Berlin. The Polish Second Army served under command of the Soviet 1st Ukrainian Front in 1945, in the east these two armies were supported at times by Polish air units, part of the Air Force of the Polish Army. The communist-aligned Polish military formation was the Peoples Army of Poland, formed in the Soviet Union and it became the core of the armed forces of post-war Poland

92.
Portuguese Armed Forces
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The Portuguese Armed Forces are the military of Portugal. They include the General Staff of the Armed Forces, the unified bodies. The President of the Republic is the head of the Portuguese military, the management of the Armed Forces and the execution of the national defense policy is however done by the government via its Minister of National Defense. Portugal was ranked the 5th most peaceful country in the World in the Global Peace Index 2016, the Portuguese Armed Forces have been thus focused in non military public service activities and in external military operations. Military units and other bodies are stationed throughout all the Portuguese territory, including Continental Portugal, Madeira, the national defense also assures the fulfillment of the international military agreements of the State, accordingly with the national interest. The Portuguese Armed Forces are responsible for the defense, which is the military component of the national defense. The Portuguese Armed Forces are an essential pillar of the defense and are the structure of the State that has as its main mission the military defense of the Republic. They obey to the competent bodies of sovereignty, accordingly with the Constitution, the system of forces defines the set of capacities that should exist for the fulfillment of the missions of the Armed Forces. It encompasses the set of systems of forces of all branches of the Armed Forces, the system of forces includes two components, Operational component - includes the set of assets and forces to be employed operationally. It is the part of the system of forces, including mainly deployable elements as frigates, infantry battalions. The operational component includes also some non-deployable operational command bodies, fix component - is the set of commands, units, establishments, bodies and services that are essential to the organization and general support of the Armed Forces and their branches. It is the part of the system of forces, including only non-deployable elements as naval bases, regiments. The LDN is regularly updated, with the present version being the Law 21-A/2006, the Strategic Concept of National Defense is the component of the national defense policy which defines the States priorities in terms of defense, accordingly with the national interest. The present version of the CEDN was approved by the Council of Ministers through its Resolution 19/2013, the Organic Basic Law of the Organization of the Armed Forces defines the organization of the Armed Forces. The present version of the LOBOFA is the Organic Law 1-A/2009 and it is elaborated by the Council of Chiefs of Staff, approved by the Minister of National Defense and confirmed by the Superior Council of National Defense. The present CEM in force is the CEM2014, the present version of the LPM is the Organic Law 7/2015. The national deployed forces are units or teams deployed by the Portuguese Armed Forces in foreign missions, mostly in the scope of NATO, since the early beginning, the Kingdom had naval and ground forces. The Portuguese Navy exists as a permanent force since 1317, however non-permanent naval forces existed already before, the Portuguese ground forces were established as a standing army in 1570, however they had existed since the 12th century, as the non-permanent hoste

93.
Romanian Armed Forces
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The Land Forces, Air Force and Naval Forces of Romania are collectively known as the Romanian Armed Forces. The current Commander-in-chief is General Nicolae Ionel Ciuca who is managed by the Minister of National Defence while the president is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces during wartime. 84,000 men and women comprise the Armed Forces,15,000 of them being military personnel. Out of the 90,000 military and civilian personnel,60,000 are the troops while 30,000 comprise the active territorial reserves. As of 2010, the Land Forces have a strength of 43,000, the Air Force 9,700, the Naval Forces 7,150. As per the 2011 White Paper, these forces are to be gradually decreased over the 2011–2014 period to reach a total of about 65,000 active troops and active reserves. Total defence spending currently accounts for 1. 33% of total national GDP, the Land Forces have overhauled their equipment in recent years, and are today a modern army with multiple NATO capabilities. They are participating in a mission in Afghanistan, together with the other NATO countries. The Land Forces are at present planning on replacing the TAB APC vehicles with new armored personnel carriers produced in conjunction with the Germany company Rheinmetall. The Air Force currently operates modernized Soviet MiG-21 LanceR fighters, which are due to be replaced by modernized ex-Portuguese F-16 fighters starting with 2016. In the first stage a first squadron of 12 fighter aircraft will be acquired, the Air Force has also received 7 new C-27J Spartan tactical airlift aircraft, in order to replace the bulk of the old transport force. Two modernized ex-Royal Navy Type 22 frigates were acquired by the Naval Forces in 2004, three domestically-produced IAR330 Puma NAVAL helicopters were also ordered by the Naval Forces, and were commissioned in late 2008. As a consequence, extensive preparations were made to abolish conscription by 2007, the new armed forces include 90,000 men and women, of whom about 75,000 are military personnel. 60,000 of the 90,000 are active forces,30,000 comprise the territorial forces, the Romanian Military will essentially undergo a three-stage restructuring. As of 2007, the first short-term stage has been completed,2015 marks the end of the second stage when the armed forces will reach a superior compatibility with NATO forces. In 2025, the stage is to be completed. The stages aim at modernising the structure of the forces, reducing the personnel as well as acquiring newer. Romanian troops participated in the occupation of Iraq, reaching a peak of 730 soldiers before being drawn down to 350 soldiers

94.
Mediterranean Dialogue
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The Mediterranean Dialogue, first launched in 1994, is a forum of cooperation between NATO and seven countries of the Mediterranean. Its stated aim is to good relations and better mutual understanding and confidence throughout the region, promoting regional security and stability and explaining NATOs policies. The Dialogue reflects NATOs view that security in Europe is tied to the security and stability in the Mediterranean and it also reinforces and complements the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europes Mediterranean Initiative. The Mediterranean Dialogue initially started with five countries but has added two more over time, the ICP covers many areas of common interest, such as the fight against terrorism and joint military exercises in the Mediterranean Sea. More ICP agreements were signed with Egypt and Jordan, and NATO expects further agreements to be signed with additional Mediterranean Dialogue member states in the future, istanbul Cooperation Initiative North Atlantic Council Partnership for Peace Union for the Mediterranean Mediterranean Dialogue website

Mediterranean Dialogue
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NATO member states

95.
Sovereign state
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A sovereign state is, in international law, a nonphysical juridical entity that is represented by one centralized government that has sovereignty over a geographic area. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined territory, one government, and it is also normally understood that a sovereign state is neither dependent on nor subjected to any other power or state. The existence or disappearance of a state is a question of fact, States came into existence as people gradually transferred their allegiance from an individual sovereign to an intangible but territorial political entity, of the state. States are but one of political orders that emerged from feudal Europe, others being city states, leagues. Westphalian sovereignty is the concept of sovereignty based on territoriality. It is a system of states, multinational corporations. Sovereignty is a term that is frequently misused and that position was reflected and constituted in the notion that their sovereignty was either completely lacking, or at least of an inferior character when compared to that of civilised people. Lassa Oppenheim said There exists perhaps no conception the meaning of which is more controversial than that of sovereignty. It is a fact that this conception, from the moment when it was introduced into political science until the present day, has never had a meaning which was universally agreed upon. In the opinion of H. V. Evatt of the High Court of Australia, sovereignty is neither a question of fact, nor a question of law, but a question that does not arise at all. The right of nations to determine their own status and exercise permanent sovereignty within the limits of their territorial jurisdictions is widely recognized. The Westphalian model of sovereignty has increasingly come under fire from the non-west as a system imposed solely by Western Colonialism. What this model did was make religion a subordinate to politics and this system does not fit in the Islamic world because concepts such as separation of church and state and individual conscience are not recognised in the Islamic religion as social systems. Nation denotes a people who are believed to or deemed to share common customs, religion, language, origins, however, the adjectives national and international are frequently used to refer to matters pertaining to what are strictly sovereign states, as in national capital, international law. State refers to the set of governing and supportive institutions that have sovereignty over a definite territory, State recognition signifies the decision of a sovereign state to treat another entity as also being a sovereign state. Recognition can be expressed or implied and is usually retroactive in its effects. It does not necessarily signify a desire to establish or maintain diplomatic relations, There is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood. In actual practice, the criteria are mainly political, not legal, in international law, however, there are several theories of when a state should be recognised as sovereign

Sovereign state
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Member states of the United Nations, all of which are sovereign states, though not all sovereign states are necessarily members

96.
Azerbaijani Armed Forces
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The Azerbaijani Armed Forces were re-established according to the Law of the Republic of Azerbaijan on the Armed Forces from 9 October 1991. The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic had originally formed its own armed forces from 26 June 1918, however these were dissolved after Azerbaijan was absorbed into the Soviet Union as the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic from 28 April 1920. After the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991–92 the armed forces were reformed based on Soviet bases, the armed forces have three branches, the Azerbaijani Land Forces, the Azerbaijani Air and Air Defence Force, and the Azerbaijani Navy. Associated forces include the Azerbaijani National Guard, the Internal Troops of Azerbaijan, and the State Border Service, which can be involved in state defense under certain circumstances. According to the Azerbaijani media sources the military expenditures of Azerbaijan for 2009 were set at $2.46 billion USD, however according to SIPRI, IISS also suggests that the defence budget in 2009 was $1.5 billion. The Ministry of Defence Industry of Azerbaijan supervises the design, manufacturing, regulation, in the future, Azerbaijan hopes to start building tanks, armored vehicles, military planes and military helicopters. The incumbent Minister of Defence of Azerbaijan is Colonel General Zakir Hasanov, since the fall of the Soviet Union, Azerbaijan has been trying to further develop its armed forces into a professional, well trained, and mobile military. Azerbaijan has been undergoing modernization and capacity expanding programs, with the military budget increasing from around $300 million in 2005 to $2.46 billion in 2009. The total armed forces number 56,840 men in the forces,7,900 men in the air force and air defence force. There are also 19,500 personnel in the National Guard, State Border Service, in addition, there are 300,000 former service personnel who have had military service in the last 15 years. The military hardware of Azerbaijan consists of 220 main battle tanks, the air force has about 106 aircraft and 35 helicopters. Azerbaijan has acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapons state, Azerbaijan participates in NATOs Partnership for Peace. Azerbaijan joined the force in 2003. It sent 150 troops to Iraq, and later troops to Kosovo, Azeri troops are still serving in Afghanistan. Despite the rise in Azerbaijans defence budget, the forces were assessed in 2008 as not having a high state of battle readiness. The history of the modern Azerbaijan army dates back to Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918, first de facto Minister of Defense of ADR was Dr. Khosrov bey Sultanov. When the Ministry was formally established Gen. Samedbey Mehmandarov became the minister, chiefs of Staff of ADR Army were Lt-Gen. The Red Army invaded Azerbaijan on 28 April 1920, as many as 20,000 of the total 30,000 soldiers died resisting what was effectively a Russian reconquest

97.
Cypriot National Guard
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The Cypriot National Guard, also known as the Greek Cypriot National Guard or simply as National Guard, is the combined arms military force of the Republic of Cyprus. This force consists of Air, Land, Sea and Special Forces elements, and is highly integrated with its first and second line reserves, as well as supporting civilian agencies and paramilitary forces. As outlined by the tripartite Treaty of Alliance and defined by the early Constitution of 1960–1963, Cyprus was entitled to an army of 2,000 men, to be made up of 60% Greek and 40% Turkish personnel. This adjustment was aimed at giving greater representation and influence to the Greek Cypriot majority, the Cypriot National Guard has been involved in multiple combat operations, all within Cyprus territory. In 1964, Cyprus and Turkey engaged in direct confrontation during the Battle of Tylliria, Greek Cypriot forces entered the Turkish enclave of Kokkina in an effort to eliminate a Turkish beachhead, resulting in almost two weeks of fighting. In 1974, Turkey invaded Cyprus intervening against a coup by the Cyprus National Guard in Nicosia. The invasion resulted in two concentrated Turkish offensives and one dispersed Greek Cypriot counter-offensive, within one month, Turkish forces had captured 38% of the islands northern area, succeeding in bisecting Nicosia and taking Kyrenia, Morphou and Famagusta. In 1978, Egyptian commando forces raided Larnaca International Airport in an effort to seize a hijacked Greek Cypriot airliner, Greek Cypriot commando and paramilitary forces resisted the Egyptian forces, resulting in a sustained gun battle with the death of 12 Egyptian commandos and 3 Egyptian Air Force aircrew. Currently, only Greek Cypriots serve in the military, legally, the Greek Cypriot community comprises the ethnic Greek population as well as Cypriots belonging to three Christian minorities – the Armenians, Latin Rite Catholics and Maronites. Since 2008, service is mandatory for all members of the Greek Cypriot community, the current supreme commander is a Greek military commander, as have been all of his predecessors. Military service in the Republic of Cyprus is mandatory for males, the obligatory service period is 14 months. All male visitors to the island of military age who have a father of Cypriot extraction are required to obtain a visa from a Defence Ministry office. The main body of the Cypriot ground forces is made up by 2 infantry divisions,3 infantry brigades,1 armored brigade and 1 support brigade, the Greek Cypriots also possessed some Bofors 40mm anti-aircraft guns, along with a variety of Bedford trucks and old US made jeeps. The attempted siege of Kokkina began on 6 August and ended on 9 August after two days of air strikes by the Turkish Air Force around Kokkina and neighbouring Kato Pyrgos. This move resulted in rapid Soviet assistance, widely regarded by Western countries as a step towards a Cold War alliance between Cyprus and Russia. As soon as 23–24 December 1964, a Russian Navy freighter arrived at Limassol Port carrying the first batch of arms intended to re-equip the National Guard. These supplies included 4 unidentified armoured vehicles, and 130 ZIL heavy trucks, after this initial delivery, arms transfers made by the Russian Navy to Cyprus accelerated, with freighters travelling via Alexandria in Egypt to Limassol under cover of night. Few funds were available to secure other armaments of technical support

98.
Finnish Defence Forces
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The Finnish Defence Forces are responsible for the defence of Finland. A universal male conscription is in place, under which all men above 18 years of age serve for 165,255 or 347 days, alternative non-military service and volunteer service by women are possible. Finland is the only non-NATO EU country bordering Russia, finlands official policy states that a wartime military strength of 230,000 personnel constitutes a sufficient deterrent. The army consists of a mobile field army backed up by local defence units. Finlands defence budget equals approximately 2.8 billion euros or 1.3 percent of GDP, the voluntary overseas service is highly popular and troops serve around the world in UN, NATO and EU missions. Homeland defence willingness against an enemy is at 76%, one of the highest rates in Europe. Fighting between the White Guards and the Red Guards had already broken out about a week before around Viipuri, after winning the Civil War, the Finnish peacetime army was organized as three divisions and a brigade by professional German officers. It became the structure for the next 20 years. The coast was guarded by former czarist coastal fortifications and ships taken as prizes of war, the Air Force had already been formed in March 1918, but remained a part of the Army and did not become a fully independent fighting force until 1928. The new government instituted conscription after the Civil War and also introduced a mobilization system, when the Soviets invaded in November 1939, the Finns defeated the Red Army on numerous occasions, including at the crucial Battle of Suomussalmi. These successes were in part thanks to the application of motti tactics. While the Finns ultimately lost the war and were forced to agree to the Moscow Peace Treaty, during the war the Finns lost 25,904 men, while Soviet losses were 167,976 dead. Finland fought in the Continuation War alongside Germany from 1941 to 1944, thanks to German aid, the army was now much better equipped, and the period of conscription had been increased to two years, making possible the formation of sixteen infantry divisions. The demobilization and regrouping of the Finnish Defense Forces were carried out in late 1944 under the supervision of the Soviet-dominated Allied Control Commission. Following the Treaty of Paris in 1947, which imposed restrictions on the size and equipment of the forces and required disbandment of the Civic Guard. The reorganization resulted in the adoption of the brigade -in place of the division- as the standard formation, for the first two decades after the Second World War, the Finnish Defence Forces relied largely on obsolete wartime material. Defence spending remained minimal until the early 1960s, during the peak of the Cold War, the Finnish government made a conscious effort to increase defence capability. This resulted in the commissioning of new weapons systems and the strengthening of the defence of Finnish Lapland by the establishment of new garrisons in the area

Finnish Defence Forces
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White Guard in Nummi. White Guards were appointed as the official military forces of the Finnish government on 25 January 1918.
Finnish Defence Forces
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The tower and the lion is the symbol of the Finnish Defence Forces.
Finnish Defence Forces
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Finnish soldier equipped with Lahti-Saloranta M-26 during the Winter war.
Finnish Defence Forces
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Finnish troops equipped with Panzerfaust antitank weapons walk past a destroyed Soviet T-34 tank during the Battle of Tali-Ihantala. The lead soldier is also armed with a Suomi KP/-31.

99.
Defence Forces (Ireland)
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The military of Ireland, known as the Defence Forces, encompass the Army, Air Corps, Naval Service and Reserve Defence Forces. The Supreme Commander of the Defence Forces is the President of Ireland, all Defence Forces officers hold their commission from the President, but in practice the Minister for Defence acts on the Presidents behalf and reports to the Government of Ireland. The Minister for Defence is advised by the Council of Defence on the business of the Department of Defence, the Irish state has a long-standing policy of non-belligerence in armed conflicts, including neutrality in World War II. Irelands military capabilities are relatively modest, however, the state has a long history of involvement in United Nations peacekeeping operations. Functions of the Defence Forces include, Preparation for the defence of the state against armed attack, assisting the police force, the Garda Síochána, including the protection of the internal security of the state. Peacekeeping, crisis management and humanitarian operations in support of the United Nations. Policing the fisheries, in accordance with the obligations under European Union agreements. The Defence Forces trace their origins to the Irish Volunteers, founded in 1913, the Irish Volunteers were central to the Easter Rising staged in April 1916. After the rising, the Volunteers gave allegiance to the First Dáil, at this time the Volunteers became known as the Irish Republican Army. From 1919 onwards, the IRA waged a campaign against British rule in Ireland that is now known as the War of Independence. A truce brought hostilities to an end on 11 July 1921, the Provisional Government was then constituted on 14 January 1922. Many IRA men who fought in the War of Independence were dissatisfied with the treaty, in February 1922, the Provisional Government began to recruit volunteers into a new National Army. With declining relations between the units of the anti-treaty IRA and the newly recruited pro-treaty National Army, the Irish Civil War broke out on 28 June 1922. It ended on 24 May 1923 with the IRA Chief of Staff, Frank Aiken, ordering IRA volunteers to dump arms, the Forces were established on 1 October 1924. The state was neutral during World War II, but declared an official state of emergency on 2 September 1939. As the Emergency progressed, more and newer equipment was purchased for the rapidly expanding force from Britain, for the duration of the Emergency, Ireland, while formally neutral, tacitly supported the Allies in several ways. Allied aircraft were tolerated to access the Atlantic Ocean via the Donegal Corridor, g2, the Armys intelligence section, played a vital role in the detection and arrest of German spies, such as Hermann Görtz. In September 1946, the Naval Service was established as Irelands maritime force, Ireland became a member of the United Nations in 1955

100.
Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan
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The Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan, is the name of the unified armed forces of Kazakhstan. It consists of the Ground Forces, Air and Air Defence Forces, Naval Forces, the national defence policy aims are based on the Constitution of Kazakhstan. They guarantee the preservation of the independence and sovereignty of the state, the armed forces of Kazakhstan act under the authority of the Kazakhstan Ministry of Defence. The Military Balance 2013 reported the armed forces strength as, Army,20,000, Navy,3,000, Air Force,12,000 and it also reported 31,000 paramilitary personnel. Kazakhstan, alongside Uzbekistan, has a decent and well-equipped military for the region, on May 7,1992, the President of Kazakhstan took a number of actions regarding defence. Mukhtar Altynbayev served as the Minister of Defence twice, most recently from December 2001 to 10 January 2007, on June 30,1992, the Soviet Armed Forces Turkestan Military District disbanded, following the collapse of the Soviet Union. The most powerful grouping of forces from the Turkestan Military District then became the core of Kazakhstans new military. On July 6,2000, a Presidential Decree On the structure of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan changed the structure, the Airmobile Forces were created, the transition to the new military-territorial structure, established military districts, harmonized structure and deployment of troops. On August 7, Lieutenant-General A. B, Dzharbulov was appointed commander of the Southern Military District and Lieutenant-General E. Ertaev became commander of the Eastern Military District. In February 2001 a Presidential Decree divided the functions of the Ministry of Defence, on March 30, Major General M. K. Sihimov was appointed commander of the Western Military Region. On October 12, M. Saparov was appointed to Chief of the General Staff, Elamanov became commander of the Airmobile Forces. On December 8, a new Defense Minister was appointed, General K. Altynbayev, and on December 27, Major General K. K. Akhmadiev was appointed commander of the Air Defense Forces. Key defense posts announced early in 2002 included, Major-General Tasbulatov appointed Deputy of the Defense Minister, Maj. Gen. Elamanov commander of the Southern Military District, Maj. Gen. N. А. Kazakhstan had its first military parade in its history at Otar military base on May 7,2013, during the ceremony, the first woman was promoted to the rank of General. Kazakhstan is a member of CSTO and SCO. Kazakhstan also has an Individual Partnership Action Plan with NATO & strategic cooperation with the Turkish Armed Forces, the 32nd Army had been serving in Kazakhstan for many years. The 32nd Army had been redesignated initially the 1st Army Corps and it came under Kazakh control in May 1992. On November 1,1992, on the basis of units of the former Soviet 40th Army of the Turkestan Military District, later, at its base was established the Eastern Military District, retitled on 13 November 2003 as Regional Command East

Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan
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Kazakh Airmobile Forces Shoulder Sleeve Insignia
Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan
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Coat of Arms of the Kazakh Armed Forces
Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan
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Kazakh paratrooper in 2000
Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan
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Kazakh paratroopers in combat gear

101.
Army of the Republic of Macedonia
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The Army of the Republic of Macedonia is the name of the armed forces of the Republic of Macedonia. Responsible for defending the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Macedonia from foreign hostiles, from 2005 the army is composed entirely of professionals and volunteer soldiers, fully transformed into a professional army compatible with NATO standards. In accordance with the Article 123 of the Constitution of the Republic of Macedonia, the Republic of Macedonia could maintain all the guarantees for its security through the collective defence and security systems. The preparations for a successful defence are conducted during peacetime, the President of the Republic is the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. The President at the time is the Chairman of the Security Council of the Republic of Macedonia. The Security Council considers all the defence and security related issues of the Republic of Macedonia and makes recommendations to the Parliament, the Parliamentary Interior Policy and Defence Commission has similar responsibilities. The Government of the Republic Macedonia has the following responsibilities, proposes the defence plan, the Ministry of Defence develops the defence strategy and works out the assessment of the possible threats and risks. The MOD is also responsible for the system, training, readiness of the Armed Forces, the equipment. The Republic of Macedonia began its participation in the NATO-led ISAF operation in August 2002, on 8 September, independence day of the Republic of Macedonia, the Macedonian flag was flown for the first time in Kabul. In March 2003, the Army of the Republic of Macedonia increased its contribution in the ISAF mission by sending one section from the 2nd Infantry Brigade as part of the German contingent. The trust shown from the United Kingdom towards the ninety Scorpions from the first infantry brigade, was justified in full, the high marks from the highest command structures for the work of the unit as well as the learned lessons are only an imperative for continuing the successful mission. The Agreement between the Republic of Macedonia and the EU on the participation of the Republic of Macedonia in Althea was signed on 3 July 2006, in Brussels. The contribution of the Republic of Macedonia to the EU operation Althea has confirmed its progress from a consumer of the first EU military operation into an active contributor to the CSDP, in 2008, our participation in the Iraqi Freedom Mission was increased by an additional platoon. A total of 11 rotations were conducted between June 2003 and December 2008, the eleventh rotation was the last, which completed our participation in the Iraqi Mission. The overall number of personnel participated in this mission is 490. In the execution of the mission, the soldiers and officers faced different challenges, threats, during the mission, the ARM representatives showed professionalism, a high level of training and readiness in the execution of the missions. The greatest confirmation of their success are the 120 medals presented by the US, thus, we say that they are the best ambassadors of the country. The project at the beginning was implemented on proposal of General Blease, at the beginning, the project included 11 officers from the ARM, who successfully completed the training for the obligations related to giving support from the host nation

Army of the Republic of Macedonia
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Army of Republic of Macedonia Армија на Република Македонија
Army of the Republic of Macedonia
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Emblem of the Army of the Republic of Macedonia
Army of the Republic of Macedonia
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Macedonian soldiers in Kabul
Army of the Republic of Macedonia
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Macedonian Mi-17 in EUFOR Althea Mission in BiH

102.
Armed Forces of Malta
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The Armed Forces of Malta is the name given to the combined armed services of Malta. The AFM is a brigade sized organisation consisting of a headquarters, since Malta is guardian of the European Unions most southerly border, the AFM has an active role in border control. See, Kings Own Malta Regiment In April 1800 after the Siege, Thomas Graham raised the first official Maltese Troops in the British Army and this battalion of men was disbanded in 1802 and succeeded by the Maltese Provincial Battalions, the Malta Coast Artillery and the Maltese Veterans. In 1815, Lieutenant Colonel Count Francis Rivarola was entrusted with the task of raising the Royal Malta Fencible Regiment following the disbandment of the Provincials, Veterans and Coast Artillery. The Royal Malta Fencible Regiment was converted to a regiment in 1861. Twenty-eight years later, the predecessors of the Armed Forces of Malta came into existence following the formation of the Royal Malta Artillery on March 23,1889. The Kings Own Malta Regiment, it was an infantry regiment on the British Army colonial list prior to Maltas independence. It was formed in 1801 as the Regiment of Maltese Militia and it was reformed as the Maltese Militia by Sir Adrian Dingli in 1852 before disbanding again in 1857. It was raised again, this time as the Royal Malta Regiment of Militia in 1889, the regiment was renamed the Kings Own Royal Malta Regiment of Militia in 1903, and was disbanded in 1921. The regiment was raised for a time in 1931 as the Kings Own Malta Regiment. Initially on the British Establishment, in 1951 it was transferred to the Malta Territorial Force before becoming part of the Malta Land Force on Maltas independence in 1970, the regiment was disbanded in 1972. The AFM was formed upon Malta becoming a republic in 1974 and this initially continued the artillery role, with 2 Regiment formed as an engineers unit. In 1980,1 Regiment became a unit, with infantry, aircraft and maritime responsibilities. In 1992, there was a major re-organisation, which led to the formation of 3 Regiment, KOMR Battle Honours 1800 Second World War, Malta 1940–1942 HQ AFM is the main command centre for the Armed Forces of Malta, and is divided into four main areas. It is divided into three companies, a support company and a headquarters company. Headquarters Company - provides combat service support to the other subunits of the unit. The orbat consists of a Company Headquarters, Motor Transport section, Pioneer section, Regimental Police section, Signals section, Armoury section and they also enforce access passes and visitor movement control assisted with CCTV surveillance and is based at Malta International Airport. B Company - is responsible for security duties in various locations and it carries out land patrols and conducts vehicle checkpoints for traffic contraventions, illegal immigrants identification and apprehension, and anti-narcotics searches

Armed Forces of Malta
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The coat of arms of the Armed Forces of Malta consists of a De Redin tower with a red background.
Armed Forces of Malta
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Protector-class patrol boats on anti-piracy training mission in 2011
Armed Forces of Malta
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Iveco VM 90
Armed Forces of Malta
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AK-47

103.
Military of Moldova
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The Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova consist of the Ground Forces and Air and Air Defense Forces. Moldova has accepted all relevant arms control obligations of the former Soviet Union and it acceded to the provisions of the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in October 1994 in Washington, DC. It does not have nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons, Moldova joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisations Partnership for Peace on March 16,1994. In early 1995, the armed forces totaled some 11,000 volunteers, at the beginning of 1994, the Moldovan Ground Forces consisted of 9,800 men organized into three motor rifle brigades, one artillery brigade, and one reconnaissance/assault battalion. Equipment and weaponry included 44 BMD-1 AIFVs, and 266 APCs, including 91 TAB-71s, in 1994 the Moldovan Air Force consisted of 1,300 men organized into one fighter regiment, one helicopter squadron, and one missile brigade. Armaments used by the air force included thirty-one MiG-29 Fulcrum aircraft, eight Mi-8 Hip helicopters, five transport aircraft, the 86th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment had been located at Mărculești since October 1951, and had been reequipped with MiG-29s in 1988. It had been part of the 119th Fighter Aviation Division, which had been resubordinated to the Soviet Black Sea Fleet since December 1989, twenty-one of the MiG-29s were sold to the United States in October 1997 to prevent their sale on the world market, and for research purposes. All the spare parts for aircraft were also purchased, as were the accompanying 500 air-to-air missiles. Other military forces also existed within Moldova, in early 1994, the government of the Dnestr Republic had armed forces of about 5,000 which included the Dnestr battalion of the Republic Guard and some 1,000 cossacks. Their equipment and weaponry consisted of 120 main battle tanks,180 armoured fighting vehicles, the remainder of the 14th Guards Army had been over the border in Ukraine and was absorbed by the Ukrainian armed forces. NATO and Moldova http, //education. yahoo. com/reference/factbook/md/milita. html Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Moldova

Military of Moldova
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Military of Moldova
Military of Moldova
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Moldovan soldiers in June 2004.
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Moldovan MiG-29B trainer
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Moldovan MiG-29B trainer on C-17 Globemaster III

104.
Military of San Marino
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San Marino has one of the smallest military forces in the world. Its different branches have varied functions including, performing duties, patrolling borders, mounting guard at government buildings. There is also a military Gendarmerie which is part of the forces of the republic. The entire military corps of San Marino depends upon the co-operation of full-time forces and their colleagues, known as the Corpi Militari Volontari. National defence in the face of a world power is, by arrangement. There is no service, however under special circumstances citizens aged 16 to 55 may be drafted for the defence of the state. Although once at the heart of San Marinos army, the Crossbow Corps is now a ceremonial force of about 70 volunteer soldiers. The Crossbow Corps has a history from its first mention in the national statutes of 1295. The Guard of the Rock is a military unit in the San Marino armed forces. Its precise origin is difficult to pinpoint due to amalgamations, the Guard of the Rock are the state border patrol, with responsibility for patrolling borders and defending them. In their role as Fortress Guards they are responsible for the guarding of the Palazzo Pubblico in San Marino City. In this role, they are the forces most visible to tourists, under the 1987 statute, the Guard of the Rock are all enrolled as Criminal Police Officers and act to assist the police in investigating major crime. The uniform of the Guard of the Rock is distinctively red and green, for routine patrol duties on the border the uniform is simple and modern, with red trousers, green bomber-jacket, and a green peaked hat. For ceremonial duties the Guard of the Rock carry Beretta BM59 rifles, for patrol duties they are armed with 9mm Glock 17 pistols, and they patrol in green and white patrol cars. This volunteer unit maintains the original function of the Fortress Guard. Although both units are part of the same Guard Corps, and wear the uniform, the Artillery Unit has a totally different military cap badge. Its full name is The Guard of the Council Great and General and this unit, formed in 1740, is composed almost entirely of volunteers, and its duties are largely ceremonial, although members undergo full military training. Due to its uniform, it is arguably the best-known part of the Sammarinese military

Military of San Marino
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The Guard of the Rock in number 1 uniform during the ceremony for the establishment of Captains Regent.
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Three members of the Guard of the Rock - this is the number 2 uniform (informal ceremonial). An officer is in the centre.
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A member of the Guard of the Council - this is the number 1 uniform (formal ceremonial) of an officer.
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A Subaru of the Gendarmerie

105.
Serbian Armed Forces
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The Serbian Armed Forces are the armed forces of Serbia. The armed forces consist of the Serbian Army and the Serbian Air Force, the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces is the President of the Republic. The Serbian Armed Forces are a professional and volunteer based military, Serbia exercises civilian control of the military through the Ministry of Defence. The 1804 Serbian Revolution, started with the First Serbian Uprising against the Ottoman occupation of Serbia, the victories in the battles of Ivankovac, Mišar, Deligrad and Belgrade, led to the establishment of the Principality of Serbia in 1817. The subsequent Second Serbian Uprising led to independence and recognition of the Kingdom of Serbia. In 1885, the Serbo-Bulgarian War broke out following the Bulgarian unification, in 1912, the First Balkan War erupted between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan League. The victories in the Battle of Kumanovo, Battle of Prilep, Battle of Monastir, Battle of Adrianople, Siege of Scutari resulted in the defeat of the Ottoman Empire and its expulsion from the Balkans. Shortly after, the Second Balkan War broke out when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with the division of territory, declared war against its allies, Serbia. Following a string of defeats, Bulgaria requested an armistice and signed the Treaty of Bucharest, serbias independence and growing influence threatened neighboring Austria-Hungary which led to the Bosnian crisis of 1908–09. Consequently, since 1901, all Serbian males between the ages of 21 to 46 were liable for general mobilization, the Serbian Armed Forces are commanded by the General Staff corp of senior officers. The general staff is led by the Chief of the General Staff, the chief of the general staff is appointed by the President who is the Commander-in-Chief. The current Chief of the General Staff is General Ljubiša Diković, the armed forces are formally a part of the Ministry of Defence. The current Minister of Defence is Zoran Đorđević, the Serbian Air Force and Air Defence is the aviation and anti-aircraft defence based component of the armed forces consisting of, aviation, anti-aircraft, surveillance and reconnaissance units. The reserve force is composed of a reserve and passive reserve. The active reserve force numbers 2,000 members, while the passive reserve totals about 1.7 million citizens with past military training or experience, the Serbian Armed Forces actively take part in several multinational peacekeeping missions

Serbian Armed Forces
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Emblem of the Serbian Armed Forces

106.
Armed Forces of Ukraine
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The Armed Forces of Ukraine is the military of Ukraine. They are the principal deterrent force against any aggression that could be shown against the state of Ukraine. The Armed Forces of Ukraine are composed of the Ukrainian Ground Forces, the Ukrainian Navy, the Ukrainian Air Force, Ukraines naval forces maintain their own small Ukrainian Naval Infantry force as well as their own Ukrainian Naval Aviation force. The Ukrainian Sea Guard is the coast guard service of Ukraine, initially these units received minimal funding coming from regional budgets and mostly relied on donations. In November 2014 most of the battalions were integrated into Ukraines Ground forces. National Guard of Ukraine serves as the reserve component of Armed Forces of Ukraine. Ukraines armed forces came close to France, which maintained a 229,000 man force and it was reported that Ukraines military swelled to 280,000 personnel. Hryhoriy Pedchenko reported that 51% of Ukraines enlisted personnel were contract soldiers, Military units of other states participate in multinational military exercises with Ukrainian forces in Ukraine regularly. Many of these exercises are held under the NATO co-operation program Partnership for Peace, since 3 June 2016 women are allowed to serve in combat units of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. The modern military in Ukraine was completely inherited from the Soviet Union, like other Soviet republics, it did not possess its own separate military command, as all military formations were uniformly subordinated to the central command of the Armed Forces of the USSR. Administratively the Ukrainian SSR was divided into three districts and most of the Black Sea Fleet naval bases were located on the coast of Ukraine. As the collapse of the Soviet Union took place in 1991, altogether the Armed Forces of Ukraine included about 780,000 personnel,6,500 tanks, about 7,000 combat armored vehicles,1,500 combat aircraft, and more than 350 ships. On 26 February 1991 a parliamentary Standing Commission for Questions of Security, on August 24,1991, the Ukrainian parliament, in adopting the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine, also enacted a short resolution About military formations in Ukraine. This took jurisdiction over all formations of the forces of the Soviet Union stationed on Ukrainian soil, and established one of the key agencies. On 3 September 1991 the Ministry of Defence commenced its duties, on 22 October 1991 units and formations of the Soviet Armed Forces on Ukrainian soil were nationalized. This was followed by two Laws of Ukraine that were adopted by the Supreme Council of Ukraine on December 6,1991, the government of Ukraine surrendered any rights of succession of the Soviet Strategic Deterrence Forces that were staged on the territory of Ukraine. Inherent in the process of creating a domestic military were political decisions by the Ukrainian leadership regarding the countrys non-nuclear, included in this region were Ukraines Mykolaiv, Kherson, Zaporizhia Oblasts, and the Autonomous Republic of Crimea. Another key event in the creation of the Ukrainian military was the 1992 Tashkent Treaty and this collective military proved impossible to develop because the former republics of the USSR all wished to go their own way, ripping the intricate Soviet military machine into pieces

Armed Forces of Ukraine
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Tu-22M is dismantled through assistance provided by the Cooperative Threat Reduction Program implemented by the DTRA, 2002
Armed Forces of Ukraine
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Emblem of the Armed Forces
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Ukrainian Su-25UB
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SS-20 on display at the Great Patriotic War Museum, Kiev

107.
Military in Vatican City
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The State of Vatican City is an enclave country which lies entirely within Rome, the capital of Italy. The responsibility for defending the state from an aggressor lies primarily with the Italian Armed Forces, Vatican City has within its territory the Pontifical Swiss Guard or Swiss Guard. The Swiss Guard is a small force maintained by the Holy See and is responsible for the safety of the Pope and it controls access to the entrances to the city-state together with the Corps of Gendarmerie of Vatican City, a civilian force maintained by Vatican City. Ever since it was founded in 1929 Vatican City has never been at war and has only seen anything close to military action when it was bombed during World War II, the State of Vatican City was established in 1929 with the Lateran Treaty. The Corps of the Pontifical Swiss Guard or Swiss Guard is a small force responsible for the safety of the Pope, like various European powers, earlier Popes recruited Swiss mercenaries as part of an army. The Pontifical Swiss Guard was founded by Pope Julius II on 22 January 1506 as the bodyguard of the Pope. It is listed in the Annuario Pontificio under Holy See, not under State of Vatican City, at the end of 2005, the Guard had 134 members. Recruitment is arranged by an agreement between the Holy See and Switzerland. Members are armed with small arms and the traditional Halberd, since 1970, the Pontifical Swiss Guard has been the only active military in Vatican City. The officers rank markings illustrated here are those of the Swiss Guard, the Chaplain of the Guard ranks as a lieutenant colonel. The commandant is a member of the Papal Household. Corsican Guard, a militia in Rome active from 1603 to 1662. Papal Zouaves, one of the comprising the army of the Papal States prior to the occupation of Rome in 1870. Noble Guard, the horse guards. Index of Vatican City-related articles List of countries armed forces Corps of Gendarmerie of Vatican City Corps of Firefighters of the Vatican City State Pontifical Swiss Guards website

108.
List of states with limited recognition
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A number of polities have declared independence and sought diplomatic recognition from the international community as de jure sovereign states, but have not been universally recognized as such. These entities often have de facto control of their territory, a number of such entities have existed in the past. There are two traditional doctrines that provide indicia of how a de jure sovereign state comes into being, according to declarative theory, an entitys statehood is independent of its recognition by other states. By contrast, the constitutive theory defines a state as a person of international law if it is recognised as such by other states that are already a member of the international community. Proto-states often reference either or both doctrines in order to legitimise their claims to statehood, there are, for example, entities which meet the declarative criteria, but whose statehood is not recognised by any other states. Non-recognition is often a result of conflicts with other countries that claim those entities as integral parts of their territory, in other cases, two or more partially recognised entities may claim the same territorial area, with each of them de facto in control of a portion of it. Entities that are recognised by only a minority of the worlds states usually reference the declarative doctrine to legitimise their claims, the international community can judge this military presence too intrusive, reducing the entity to a puppet state where effective sovereignty is retained by the foreign power. Historical cases in this sense can be seen in Japanese-led Manchukuo or the German-created Slovak Republic and Independent State of Croatia before, in the 1996 case Loizidou vs. Turkey, the European Court of Human Rights judged Turkey for having exercised authority in the territory of Northern Cyprus. Historically this has happened in the case of the Holy See, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta is currently in this position. See list of governments in exile for unrecognised governments without control over the territory claimed, some states are slow to establish relations with new states and thus do not recognise them, despite having no dispute and sometimes favorable relations. These are excluded from the list, there are 193 United Nations member states. The Holy See and the State of Palestine have observer status in the United Nations. Some states maintain informal relations with states that do not officially recognise them, the Republic of China is one such state, as it maintains unofficial relations with many other states through its Economic and Cultural Offices, which allow regular consular services. This allows the ROC to have economic relations even with states that do not formally recognise it, a total of 56 states, including Germany, Italy, the United States, and the United Kingdom, maintain some form of unofficial mission in the ROC. The Sovereign Military Order of Malta is a sovereign entity and is not included. It has established full diplomatic relations with 105 sovereign states as a subject of international law. Five more states maintain neither and do not recognise its passports, Netherlands, Finland, Sweden, Iceland, uncontacted peoples who either live in societies that cannot be defined as states or whose statuses as such are not definitively known. Entities considered to be micronations are not included, even though micronations generally claim to be sovereign and independent, it is often up to debate whether a micronation truly controls its claimed territory

List of states with limited recognition
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Women in Somaliland, wearing the colors of the Somaliland flag.

109.
Kosovo Security Force
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The Kosovo Security Force or Kosovo Armed Force, is an Army response force charged with conducting crisis response operations in Kosovo and abroad and civil protection operations in Kosovo. Its main tasks are operations in the areas of Search and Rescue, Explosive Ordnance Disposal, Firefighting, however, it is also equipped with light weaponry, and the Kosovo government plans to transform it into an army. The Commander of the KSF is Lieutenant General Rrahman Rama, in March 2008, the NATO-led Kosovo Force and the Kosovo Protection Corps started preparations for the formation of the Kosovo Security Force. KFOR entered Kosovo on June 12,1999 under a United Nations mandate, Kosovo declared independence in February 2008. On 19 March 2008, United States President George W. Bush authorised military aid to Kosovo Security Force in another step to establish relations with Kosovo. On 4 January 2009, the names of those who were to be selected for the KSF from the KPC were announced. After being vetted by NATO, roughly 1,400 former members of the KPC were selected to serve as officers and rank, on 21 January 2009, the Kosovo Security Force was officially launched. The KSF did not replace the Kosovo Protection Corps which was disbanded several months later, KFOR was charged with mentoring the KSF and bringing the force to Full Operational Capability. Mentoring efforts were meant to develop the KSF in line with NATO standards, additionally Italy, Portugal and other NATO members are to help the KSF by donations and training. Slovenia donated €30,000 towards the establishment of the KSF, in 2010, the KSF deployed to northern Albania on two separate occasions to perform flood relief operations in support of the Albanian domestic response. President Jahjaga also promoted Kastrati to the rank of Lieutenant General, on 9 July 2013 the Kosovo Security Forces reached Full Operational Capability as determined by NATO. The declaration of full operational capability on 9 July 2013 by the North Atlantic Council means that the KSF is fully capable of performing the assigned to it within its mandate. The KSF will conduct non-military security functions that are not appropriate for the police, recruitment for the Kosovo Security Force started early 2009, once NATO had agreed to implement new tasks in addition to those agreed under UNSCR1244. These new tasks included the standing down of the Kosovo Protection Corps, one of the principal aims was to encourage all minorities to enroll, so special attention was given to carrying out the recruitment process in two languages – Albanian and Serbian. The result has been a professional, multi-ethnic, all-volunteer force, which should continue to remain a source of regional stability. The new Army will have a €98 Million annual budget and will be 5,000 strong with another 3,000 reservists, which will be composed of land forces, a national guard, logistics and training commands. Kosovos ambassador to Turkey, Avni Spahiu, stated that the decision to establish an army has taken in consultation with NATO. The army will have a character as Kosovo has no territorial aspirations