Tag Archives: capacitor

KEMET introduced new automotive-grade polymer capacitors at Electronica 2014. The T591 high-performance automotive-grade polymer tantalum series delivers stability and endurance under harsh humidity and temperature conditions. It is available in capacitances up to 220 µF and rated up to 10 V, with operating temperatures up to 125°C.

“The T591 Series was developed with enhancements in polymer materials, design and manufacturing processes to meet the increasing demands of the telecommunications, industrial, and now, automotive segments,” Dr. Philip Lessner, KEMET Senior Vice President and Chief Technology Officer, was quoted saying a release.

You can use the series for a variety of projects, such as decoupling and filtering of DC-to-DC converters in automotive applications or industrial applications in harsh conditions.

Linear Technology Corp. recently introduced the LTC3124 two-phase, 3-MHz current-mode synchronous boost DC/DC converter. It features output disconnect and inrush current limiting. Dual-phase operation has the benefit of reducing peak inductor and capacitor ripple currents. This allows equivalent performance to be achieved in the power supply design with smaller valued inductors and capacitors.

Source: Linear Technology

The LTC3124 incorporates low resistance MOSFETs with an RDS(ON) of 130mΩ (N-channel) and 200mΩ (P-channel) to deliver efficiencies as high as 95%. The output disconnect feature allows the output to be completely discharged at shutdown and reduces switch-on inrush. An input pin can be used to configure the LTC3124 for continuous frequency mode to give low-noise operation. Additional features include external synchronization, output overvoltage protection, and robust short-circuit protection.

LTC3124’s main features:

VIN Range: 1.8 V to 5.5 V, 500 mV after start-up

Adjustable output voltage: 2.5 V to 15 V

1.5-A Output current for VIN = 5 V and VOUT = 12 V

Dual-phase control reduces output voltage ripple

Output disconnects from input when shut down

Synchronous rectification: up to 95% efficiency

Inrush current limit

Up to 3-MHz programmable switching frequency synchronizable to external clock

Selectable Burst Mode operation: 25-µA IQ

Output Overvoltage Protection

Internal soft-start

< 1 µA IQ in shutdown

The LTC3124EDHC and LTC3124EFE are both available from stock in 16-lead 3 mm x 5 mm DFN and thermally enhanced TSSOP packages, respectively. One-thousand-piece pricing starts at $3.26 each.

Quantum mechanics notwithstanding, our world is analog. And so despite our fascination with everything digital, we need interfaces to provide bridges for our analog reality to cross over to the digital paradigm and then back again. One may ask: Is there a common denominator that binds these two worlds together regardless of their many conceptual differences? In my mind, it is grounding.

The fundamental rule for grounding is depicted in Figure 1. By “ground” I mean the common 0 V potential to which signals are referenced. The “chassis ground”, if grounding conductors had 0 Ω impedance, would also be 0 V—but, unfortunately, it never is. Yet there are still systems that are sufficiently insensitive to ground potential differences. They use the chassis for the signal and power returns. At one time, this was the way cars had been wired.

Figure 1: Botth sections, A and B, may be on the same PCB with separate ground planes (e.g., analog and digital). The diodes and the capacitor between the planeslimit potential differences due to ground bounce, etc. Broken lines inside boxes 1 and 3 indicate ground referenced, non-symmetrical inputs and outputs.

Figure 1a shows circuits sharing a common ground run. Notice that the output or the highest current drawing stage (1) must be the closest to the common point to minimize the voltage developed by that stage current over the grounding conductor. Also notice that the input signal and its return must be tied to the input block (3). Internal signal returns (grounds) are shown by broken lines. Returning inputs or outputs anywhere else would superimpose the noise from stages 1, 2, and 3 on the input signal. Figure 1b shows the approach often used in RF equipment. There is no sharing of grounds; they are all individually tied to a single point. Each circuit A and B can occupy its own PCB or they can be on a single PCB, their ground planes separate, such as analog and digital circuits. The grounds come together at the point G, where the chassis is also connected. Where there are a few inches of wire tying the individual grounds together, it is a good idea to insert fast signal diodes and a capacitor as shown between the separate ground runs. Any potential difference developed between the separate grounds due to finite impedance of wiring, as shown in Figure 1, will be attenuated and clamped by the three components. Note that the “capacitor” should in fact be a parallel combination of a number of capacitors, depending on the application, to guarantee performance across the spectrum. The following are typically used: 100 pF, 1 nF, 10 nF, 0.1 μF, and 1 μF.

In safety-critical systems such as aircraft comprising two or more subsystems enclosed in metal cabinets, such as shown in Figure 2, only currents from lightning or other interference suppressed by the EMC blocks is allowed to be returned to the chassis.

Figure 2: Connecting subsystems to avoid ground loops

Power needs to be delivered by twisted pairs and all the returns connected to the chassis at a single point. If the signal grounds of the electronics are not allowed to be connected to the chassis, which depends on the system architecture, a combination of diodes, a capacitor, and a resistor as shown needs to be used to prevent ground loops as well as parasitic feedbacks between the electronics and the metal cabinet.

The subsystem enclosures shown with dotted lines connect to the chassis by mounting screws or straps. Most of today’s avionic equipment uses isolated power supplies. There is no galvanic connection between the power return and the internal signal ground to eliminate ground loops, yet the enclosures need to be connected to the internal grounds to eliminate parasitic feedbacks through capacitive coupling; but then they would create ground loops. Some system architectures require signals working with their own ground, isolated from the chassis, to prevent ground loops. To compensate for the parasitic capacitances existing due to the proximity of the metal enclosure to the components and the EMI/lightning protection, the resistor, capacitor, diode combination (as mentioned above) is used, with typical values of resistor about 10 kΩ and capacitance less than 10 μF. The capacitance is again a parallel combination of smaller capacitors to suppress the desired frequency spectrum.—George Novacek, “My Analog World: The Significance of Grounding,” Circuit Cellar 244, 2010.

Dielectric absorption occurs when a capacitor that has been charged for a long time briefly retains a small amount of voltage after a discharge.

“The capacitor will have this small amount of voltage even if an attempt was made to fully discharge it,” according to the website wiseGEEK. “This effect usually lasts a few seconds to a few minutes.”

While it’s certainly best for capacitors to have zero voltage after discharge, they often retain a small amount through dielectric absorption—a phenomenon caused by polarization of the capacitor’s insulating material, according to the website. This voltage (also called soakage) is totally independent of capacity.

At the very least, soakage can impair the function of a circuit. In large capacitor systems, it can be a serious safety hazard.

But soakage has been around a long time, at least since the invention of the first simple capacitor, the Leyden jar, in 1775. So columnist Robert Lacoste decided to have some “fun” with it in Circuit Cellar’s February issue, where he writes about several of his experiments in detecting and measuring dielectric absorption.

Curious? Then consider following his instructions for a basic experiment:

Go down to your cellar, or your electronic playing area, and find the following: one large electrolytic capacitor (e.g., 2,200 µF or anything close, the less expensive the better), one low-value discharge resistor (100 Ω or so), one DC power supply (around 10 V, but this is not critical), one basic oscilloscope, two switches, and a couple of wires. If you don’t have an oscilloscope on hand, don’t panic, you could also use a hand-held digital multimeter with a pencil and paper, since the phenomenon I am showing is quite slow. The only requirement is that your multimeter must have a high-input impedance (1 MΩ would be minimum, 10 MΩ is better).

Figure 1: The setup for experimenting with dielectric absorption doesn’t require more than a capacitor, a resistor, some wires and switches, and a voltage measuring instrument.

Figure 1 shows the setup. Connect the oscilloscope (or multimeter) to the capacitor. Connect the power supply to the capacitor through the first switch (S1) and then connect the discharge resistor to the capacitor through the second switch (S2). Both switches should be initially open. Photo 1 shows you my simple test configuration.

Now turn on S1. The voltage across the capacitor quickly reaches the power supply voltage. There is nothing fancy here. Start the oscilloscope’s voltage recording using a slow time base of 10 s or so. If you are using a multimeter, use a pen and paper to note the measured voltage. Then, after 10 s, disconnect the power supply by opening S1. The voltage across the capacitor should stay roughly constant as the capacitor is loaded and the losses are reasonably low.

Photo 1: My test bench includes an Agilent Technologies DSO-X-3024A oscilloscope, which is oversized for such an experiment.

Now switch on S2 long enough to fully discharge the capacitor through the 100-Ω resistor. As a result of the discharge, the voltage across the capacitor’s terminals will quickly become very low. The required duration for a full discharge is a function of the capacitor and resistor values, but with the proposed values of 2,200 µF and 100 Ω, the calculation shows that it will be lower than 1 mV after 2 s. If you leave S2 closed for 10 s, you will ensure the capacitor is fully discharged, right?

Now the fun part. After those 10 s, switch off S2, open your eyes, and wait. The capacitor is now open circuited, at least if the voltmeter or oscilloscope input current can be neglected, so the capacitor voltage should stay close to zero. But you will soon discover that this voltage slowly increases over time with an exponential shape.

Photo 2 shows the plot I got using my Agilent Technologies DSO-X 3024A digital oscilloscope. With the capacitor I used, the voltage went up to about 120 mV in 2 min, as if the capacitor was reloaded through another voltage source. What is going on here? There aren’t any aliens involved. You have just discovered a phenomenon called dielectric absorption!

Photo 2: I used a 2,200-µF capacitor, a 100-Ω discharge resistor, and a 10-s discharge duration to obtain this oscilloscope plot. After 2 min the voltage reached 119 mV due to the dielectric absorption effect.

Nothing in Lacoste’s column about experimenting with dielectric absorption is shocking (and that’s a good thing when you’re dealing with “hidden” voltage). But the column is certainly informative.

To learn more about dielectric absorption, what causes it, how to detect it, and its potential effects on electrical systems, check out Lacoste’s column in the February issue. The issue is now available for download by members or single-issue purchase.

Lacoste highly recommends another resource for readers interested in the topic.

“Bob Pease’s Electronic Design article ‘What’s All This Soakage Stuff Anyhow?’ provides a complete analysis of this phenomenon,” Lacoste says. “In particular, Pease reminds us that the model for a capacitor with dielectric absorption effect is a big capacitor in parallel with several small capacitors in series with various large resistors.”

It’s estimated that by the year 2020, more than 30 billion devices worldwide will be wirelessly connected to the IoT. While the IoT has massive implications for government and industry, individual electronics DIYers have long recognized how projects that enable wireless communication between everyday devices can solve or avert big problems for homeowners.

Our February issue focusing on Wireless Communications features two such projects, including Raul Alvarez Torrico’s Home Energy Gateway, which enables users to remotely monitor energy consumption and control household devices (e.g., lights and appliances).

A Digilent chipKIT Max32-based embedded gateway/web server communicates with a single smart power meter and several smart plugs in a home area wireless network. ”The user sees a web interface containing the controls to turn on/off the smart plugs and sees the monitored power consumption data that comes from the smart meter in real time,” Torrico says.

While energy use is one common priority for homeowners, another is protecting property from hidden dangers such as undetected water leaks. Devlin Gualtieri wanted a water alarm system that could integrate several wireless units signaling a single receiver. But he didn’t want to buy one designed to work with expensive home alarm systems charging monthly fees.

In this issue, Gualtieri writes about his wireless water alarm network, which has simple hardware including a Microchip Technology PIC12F675 microcontroller and water conductance sensors (i.e., interdigital electrodes) made out of copper wire wrapped around perforated board.

It’s an inexpensive and efficient approach that can be expanded. “Multiple interdigital sensors can be wired in parallel at a single alarm,” Gualtieri says. A single alarm unit can monitor multiple water sources (e.g., a hot water tank, a clothes washer, and a home heating system boiler).

Also in this issue, columnist George Novacek begins a series on wireless data links. His first article addresses the basic principles of radio communications that can be used in control systems.

Other issue highlights include advice on extending flash memory life; using C language in FPGA design; detecting capacitor dielectric absorption; a Georgia Tech researcher’s essay on the future of inkjet-printed circuitry; and an overview of the hackerspaces and enterprising designs represented at the World Maker Faire in New York.

Editor’s Note: Circuit Cellar‘s February issue will be available online in mid-to-late January for download by members or single-issue purchase by web shop visitors.

The A4900 is a high-voltage brushless DC (BLDC) MOSFET gate driver IC. It is designed for high-voltage motor control for hybrid, electric vehicle, and 48-V automotive battery systems (e.g., electronic power steering, A/C compressors, fans, pumps, and blowers).

The A4900’s six gate drives can drive a range of N-channel insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) or power MOSFET switches. The gate drives are configured as three high-voltage high-side drives and three low-side drives. The high-side drives are isolated up to 600 V to enable operation with high-bridge (motor) supply voltages. The high-side drives use a bootstrap capacitor to provide the supply gate drive voltage required for N-channel FETs. A TTL logic-level input compatible with 3.3- or 5-V logic systems can be used to control each FET.

A single-supply input provides the gate drive supply and the bootstrap capacitor charge source. An internal regulator from the single supply provides the logic circuit’s lower internal voltage. The A4900’s internal monitors ensure that the high- and low-side external FET’s gate source voltage is above 9 V when active.

The control inputs to the A4900 offer a flexible solution for many motor control applications. Each driver can be driven with an independent PWM signal, which enables implementation of all motor excitation methods including trapezoidal and sinusoidal drive. The IC’s integrated diagnostics detect undervoltage, overtemperature, and power bridge faults that can be configured to protect the power switches under most short-circuit conditions. Detailed diagnostics are available as a serial data word.

The A4900 is supplied in a 44-lead QSOP package and costs $3.23 in 1,000-unit quantities.

The LT3081 is a rugged 1.5-A wide input voltage range linear regulator with key usability, monitoring, and protection features. The device has an extended safe operating area (SOA) compared to existing regulators, making it well suited for high input-to-output voltage and high output current applications where older regulators limit the output.

The LT3081 uses a current source reference for single-resistor output voltage settings and output adjustability down to ”0.” A single resistor can be used to set the output current limit. This regulator architecture, combined with low-millivolt regulation, enables multiple ICs to be easily paralleled for heat spreading and higher output current. The current from the device’s current monitor can be summed with the set current for line-drop compensation, where the LT3081’s output increases with current to compensate for line drops.

The LT3081 achieves line and load regulation below 2 mV independent of output voltage and features a 1.2-to-40-V input voltage range. The device is well suited for applications requiring multiple rails. The output voltage is programmable with a single resistor from 0 to 38.5 V with a 1.2-V dropout. The on-chip trimmed 50-µA current reference is ±1% accurate. The regulation, transient response, and output noise (30 µVRMS) are independent of output voltage due to the device’s voltage follower architecture.

Two resistors are used to configure the LT3081 as a two-terminal current source. Input or output capacitors for stability are optional in either linear regulator or current-source operation mode. The LT3081 provides several monitoring and protection functions. A single resistor is used to program the current limit, which is accurate to ±10%. Monitor outputs provide a current output proportional to temperature (1 µA/°C) and output current (200 µA/A), enabling easy ground-based measurement. The current monitor can compensate for cable drops. The LT3081’s internal protection circuitry includes reverse-input protection, reverse-current protection, internal current limiting, and thermal shutdown.

A variety of grades/temperature ranges are offered including: the E and I grades (–40°C to 125°C), the H grade (–40°C to 150°C), and the high-reliability MP grade (–55°C to 50°C). Pricing for the E-grade starts at $2.60 each in 1,000-piece quantities.

Why buy an amp for your iPod or MP3 player when you can build your own? With the proper parts and a proven plan of action, you can craft a custom personal audio amp to suit your needs. Plus, hitting the workbench with some chips and PCB is much more exciting than ordering an amp online.

In the April 2012 issue of Circuit Cellar, Coleton Denninger and Jeremy Lichtenfeld write about a capacitive-touch, gain-controlled amplifier while studying at Camosun College in Canada. The design features a Cypress Semiconductor CY8C29466-24PXI PSoC, a Microchip Technology mTouch microcontroller, and a Texas Instruments TPA1517.

Denninger and Lichtenfeld write:

Since every kid and his dog owns an iPod, an MP3 player, or some other type of personal audio device, it made sense to build a personal audio amplifier (see Photo 1). The tough choices were how we were going to make it stand out enough to attract kids who already own high-end electronics and how we were going to do it with a budget of around $40…

Our first concern was how we were going to mix and amplify the low-power audio input signals from iPods, microphones, and electric guitars. We decided to have a couple of different inputs, and we wanted stereo and mono outputs. After doing some extensive research, we chose to use the Cypress Semiconductors CY8C29466-24PXI programmable system-on-chip (PSoC). This enabled us to digitally mix and vary the low-power amplification using the programmable gain amplifiers and switched capacitor blocks. It also came in a convenient 28-pin DIP package that followed our design guidelines. Not only was it perfect for our design, but the product and developer online support forums for all of Cypress’s products were very helpful.
Let’s face it: mechanical switches and pots are fast becoming obsolete in the world of consumer electronics (not to mention costly when compared to other alternatives). This is why we decided to use capacitive-touch sensing to control the low-power gain. Why turn a potentiometer or push a switch when your finger comes pre-equipped with conductive electrolytes? We accomplished this capacitive touch using Microchip Technology’s mTouch Sensing Solutions series of 8-bit microcontrollers. …

The audio mixer flowchart

Who doesn’t like a little bit of a light show? We used the same aforementioned PIC, but implemented it as a voltage unit meter. This meter averaged out our output signal level and indicated via LEDs the peaks in the music played. Essentially, while you listen to your favorite beats, the amplifier will beat with you! …
This amp needed to have a bit of kick when it came to the output. We’re not talking about eardrum-bursting power, but we wanted to have decent quality with enough power to fill an average-sized room with sound. We decided to go with a Class AB audio amplifier—the TPA1517 from Texas Instruments (TI) to be exact. The TPA1517 is a stereo audio-power amplifier that contains two identical amplifiers capable of delivering 6 W per channel of continuous average power into a 4-Ω load. This quality chip is easy to implement. And at only a couple of bucks, it’s an affordable choice!

With GPS technology and audio radio interfaces on his personal fleet of bikes, Circuit Cellar columnist Ed Nisley’s family can communicate to each other while sending GPS location data via an automatic packet reporting system (APRS) network. In his February 2012 article, Ed describes a project for which he used a KG-UV3D radio interface rigged with SMD capacitors to suppress RF energy. He covers topics such as test-fixture measurements on isolated capacitors and bypassing beyond VHF.

Photo 2 from the Febuary article, "RFI Bypassing (Part 1)." A pair of axial-lead resistors isolate the tracking generator and spectrum analyzer from the components under test. The 47-Ω SMD resistor, standing upright just to the right of the resistor lead junction, forms an almost perfect terminator. (Source: Ed Nisley CC259)

Ed writes:

Repeatable and dependable measurements require a solid test fixture. Although the collection of parts in Photo 2 may look like a kludge, it’s an exemplar of the “ugly construction” technique that’s actually a good way to build RF circuits. “Some Thoughts on Breadboarding,” by Wes Hayword, W7ZOI, gives details and suggestions for constructing RF projects above a solid printed circuit board (PCB) ground plane.

You can read this article now in Circuit Cellar 259. If you aren’t a subscriber, you can purchase a copy of the issue here.