Reagan was raised in a poor famiwy in smaww towns of nordern Iwwinois. He graduated from Eureka Cowwege in 1932 and worked as a sports announcer on severaw regionaw radio stations. After moving to Howwywood in 1937, he became an actor and starred in a few major productions. Reagan was twice ewected President of de Screen Actors Guiwd—de wabor union for actors—where he worked to root out Communist infwuence. In de 1950s, he moved into tewevision and was a motivationaw speaker at Generaw Ewectric factories. Reagan had been a Democrat untiw 1962, when he became a conservative and switched to de Repubwican Party. In 1964, Reagan's speech, "A Time for Choosing", supported Barry Gowdwater's foundering presidentiaw campaign and earned him nationaw attention as a new conservative spokesman, uh-hah-hah-hah. Buiwding a network of supporters, he was ewected Governor of Cawifornia in 1966. As governor, Reagan raised taxes, turned a state budget deficit to a surpwus, chawwenged de protesters at de University of Cawifornia, ordered in Nationaw Guard troops during a period of protest movements in 1969, and was re-ewected in 1970. He twice ran unsuccessfuwwy for de Repubwican nomination for de U.S. presidency in 1968 and 1976. Four years water in 1980, he easiwy won de nomination outright and became de owdest ewected U.S. president up to dat time, when he defeated incumbent Jimmy Carter in a wandswide.

Entering de presidency in 1981, Reagan impwemented sweeping new powiticaw and economic initiatives. His suppwy-side economic powicies, dubbed "Reaganomics", advocated tax rate reduction to spur economic growf, economic dereguwation, and reduction in government spending. In his first term he survived an assassination attempt, spurred de War on Drugs, and fought pubwic sector wabor. Over his two terms, de economy saw a reduction of infwation from 12.5% to 4.4%, and an average annuaw growf of reaw GDP of 3.4%; whiwe Reagan did enact cuts in domestic discretionary spending, tax cuts and increased miwitary spending contributed to increased federaw outways overaww, even after adjustment for infwation, uh-hah-hah-hah. During his re-ewection bid, Reagan campaigned on de notion dat it was "Morning in America", winning a wandswide in 1984 wif de wargest ewectoraw cowwege victory in American history. Foreign affairs dominated his second term, incwuding ending de Cowd War, de bombing of Libya, and de Iran–Contra affair. Reagan pubwicwy described de Soviet Union as an "eviw empire", and during his famous speech at de Brandenburg Gate he chawwenged Soviet Generaw SecretaryMikhaiw Gorbachev to "tear down dis waww!". He transitioned Cowd War powicy from détente to rowwback by escawating an arms race wif de USSR whiwe engaging in tawks wif Gorbachev. The tawks cuwminated in de INF Treaty, which shrank bof countries' nucwear arsenaws. Reagan began his presidency during de decwine of de Soviet Union, and de Berwin Waww feww just ten monds after de end of his term. Germany reunified de fowwowing year, and on December 26, 1991 (nearwy dree years after he weft office), de Soviet Union cowwapsed.

When Reagan weft office in 1989, he hewd an approvaw rating of sixty-eight percent, matching dose of Frankwin D. Roosevewt, and water Biww Cwinton, as de highest ratings for departing presidents in de modern era.[1] He was de first president since Dwight D. Eisenhower to serve two fuww terms, after a succession of five prior presidents did not. Awdough he had pwanned an active post-presidency, Reagan discwosed in November 1994 dat he had been diagnosed wif Awzheimer's disease earwier dat year. Afterward, his informaw pubwic appearances became more infreqwent as de disease progressed. He died at home on June 5, 2004. An icon among Repubwicans, he is viewed favorabwy in historian rankings of U.S. presidents, and his tenure constituted a reawignment toward conservative powicies in de United States.

Reagan's fader nicknamed his son "Dutch", due to his "fat wittwe Dutchman"-wike appearance and "Dutchboy" haircut;[6] de nickname stuck wif him droughout his youf.[6] Reagan's famiwy briefwy wived in severaw towns and cities in Iwwinois, incwuding Monmouf, Gawesburg, and Chicago.[7] In 1919, dey returned to Tampico and wived above de H. C. Pitney Variety Store untiw finawwy settwing in Dixon.[2] After his ewection as president, Reagan resided in de upstairs White House private qwarters, and he wouwd qwip dat he was "wiving above de store again".[8]

Rewigion

Ronawd Reagan wrote dat his moder "awways expected to find de best in peopwe and often did".[9] She attended de Discipwes of Christ church reguwarwy and was active, and very infwuentiaw, widin it; she freqwentwy wed Sunday schoow services and gave de Bibwe readings to de congregation during de services. A strong bewiever in de power of prayer, she wed prayer meetings at church and was in charge of mid-week prayers when de pastor was out of town, uh-hah-hah-hah.[10] Her strong commitment to de church is what induced her son Ronawd to become a Protestant Christian rader dan a Roman Cadowic wike his fader.[11] He awso stated dat she strongwy infwuenced his own bewiefs: "I know dat she pwanted dat faif very deepwy in me."[12] For exampwe, Ronawd Reagan attended Eureka Cowwege, founded by de Christian Church (Discipwes of Christ) in 1855. Whiwe pursuing de degree he earned in economics-sociowogy in 1932, Ronawd Reagan continued to be surrounded wif de same faif his moder had introduced in his wife.

According to Pauw Kengor, audor of God and Ronawd Reagan, Reagan had a particuwarwy strong faif in de goodness of peopwe; dis faif stemmed from de optimistic faif of his moder[13] and de Discipwes of Christ faif,[13] into which he was baptized in 1922.[14] For dat period of time, which was wong before de civiw rights movement, Reagan's opposition to raciaw discrimination was unusuaw and commendabwe. He recawwed de time in Dixon when de proprietor of a wocaw inn wouwd not awwow bwack peopwe to stay dere, and he brought dem back to his house. His moder invited dem to stay overnight and have breakfast de next morning.[15] After de cwosure of de Pitney Store in 1920 and de famiwy's move to Dixon,[16] de midwestern "smaww universe" had a wasting impression on Reagan, uh-hah-hah-hah.[17]

Formaw education

Reagan attended Dixon High Schoow, where he devewoped interests in acting, sports, and storytewwing.[18] His first job invowved working as a wifeguard at de Rock River in Loweww Park in 1927. Over a six-year period, Reagan reportedwy performed 77 rescues as a wifeguard.[19] He attended Eureka Cowwege, a Discipwes-oriented wiberaw arts schoow, where he became a member of de Tau Kappa Epsiwon fraternity, a cheerweader, and studied economics and sociowogy. Whiwe invowved, de Miwwer Center of Pubwic Affairs described him as an "indifferent student". He majored in economics and sociowogy and graduated wif a C grade.[20] He devewoped a reputation as a "jack of aww trades", excewwing in campus powitics, sports, and deater. He was a member of de footbaww team and captain of de swim team. He was ewected student body president and wed a student revowt against de cowwege president after de president tried to cut back de facuwty.[21]

Entertainment career

Radio and fiwm

After graduating from Eureka in 1932, Reagan drove to Iowa, where he hewd jobs as a radio announcer at severaw stations. He moved to WHO radio in Des Moines as an announcer for Chicago Cubs basebaww games. His speciawty was creating pway-by-pway accounts of games using as his source onwy basic descriptions dat de station received by wire as de games were in progress.[22]

Whiwe travewing wif de Cubs in Cawifornia in 1937, Reagan took a screen test dat wed to a seven-year contract wif Warner Broders studios.[23] He spent de first few years of his Howwywood career in de "B fiwm" unit, where, Reagan joked, de producers "didn't want dem good; dey wanted dem Thursday".[24]

Reagan pwayed his favorite acting rowe in 1942's Kings Row,[28] where he pways a doubwe amputee who recites de wine "Where's de rest of me?"—water used as de titwe of his 1965 autobiography. Many fiwm critics considered Kings Row to be his best movie,[29] dough de fiwm was condemned by New York Times critic Boswey Crowder.[30][31]

Awdough Reagan cawwed Kings Row de fiwm dat "made me a star",[32] he was unabwe to capitawize on his success because he was ordered to active duty wif de U.S. Army at San Francisco two monds after its rewease, and never regained "star" status in motion pictures.[32] In de post-war era, after being separated from awmost four years of Worwd War II stateside service wif de 1st Motion Picture Unit in December 1945, Reagan co-starred in such fiwms as The Voice of de Turtwe, John Loves Mary, The Hasty Heart, Bedtime for Bonzo, Cattwe Queen of Montana, Tennessee's Partner, Hewwcats of de Navy (de onwy fiwm in which he appears wif Nancy Reagan), and de 1964 remake The Kiwwers (his finaw fiwm). Throughout his fiwm career, his moder answered much of his fan maiw.[33]

Miwitary service

After compweting 14 home-study Army Extension Courses, Reagan enwisted in de Army Enwisted Reserve and was commissioned a second wieutenant in de Officers' Reserve Corps of de Cavawry on May 25, 1937.[35]

On Apriw 18, 1942, Reagan was ordered to active duty for de first time. Due to his poor eyesight, he was cwassified for wimited service onwy, which excwuded him from serving overseas.[36] His first assignment was at de San Francisco Port of Embarkation at Fort Mason, Cawifornia, as a wiaison officer of de Port and Transportation Office.[37] Upon de approvaw of de Army Air Forces (AAF), he appwied for a transfer from de cavawry to de AAF on May 15, 1942, and was assigned to AAF Pubwic Rewations and subseqwentwy to de First Motion Picture Unit (officiawwy, de "18f Army Air Force Base Unit") in Cuwver City, Cawifornia.[37] On January 14, 1943, he was promoted to first wieutenant and was sent to de Provisionaw Task Force Show Unit of This Is de Army at Burbank, Cawifornia.[37] He returned to de First Motion Picture Unit after compweting dis duty and was promoted to captain on Juwy 22, 1943.[38]

In January 1944, Reagan was ordered to temporary duty in New York City to participate in de opening of de Sixf War Loan Drive, which campaigned for de purchase of war bonds. He was reassigned to de First Motion Picture Unit on November 14, 1944, where he remained untiw de end of Worwd War II.[38] He was recommended for promotion to major on February 2, 1945, but dis recommendation was disapproved on Juwy 17 of dat year.[39] Whiwe wif de First Motion Picture Unit in 1945, he was indirectwy invowved in discovering actress Mariwyn Monroe.[40] He returned to Fort MacArdur, Cawifornia, where he was separated from active duty on December 9, 1945.[39] By de end of de war, his units had produced some 400 training fiwms for de AAF.[38]

Reagan never weft de United States during de war, but he kept a fiwm reew dat he obtained whiwe he was in de service. The reew depicted de wiberation of de Auschwitz concentration camp; he bewieved dat doubts wouwd someday arise as to wheder de Howocaust had occurred.[41] It has been awweged dat he was overheard tewwing Israewi foreign minister Yitzhak Shamir in 1983 dat he had fiwmed dat footage himsewf and hewped wiberate Auschwitz,[41][42] dough dis purported conversation was disputed by Secretary of State George P. Shuwtz.[43]

Screen Actors Guiwd presidency

Guest stars for de premiere of The Dick Poweww Show. Reagan stands behind, at de far weft of de photograph

Reagan was first ewected to de Board of Directors of de Screen Actors Guiwd (SAG) in 1941, serving as an awternate member. After Worwd War II, he resumed service and became dird vice-president in 1946.[44] The adoption of confwict-of-interest bywaws in 1947 wed de SAG president and six board members to resign; Reagan was nominated in a speciaw ewection for de position of president and was subseqwentwy ewected.[44] He was chosen by de membership to serve seven additionaw one-year terms, from 1947 to 1952 and in 1959.[44] Reagan wed de SAG drough eventfuw years dat were marked by wabor-management disputes, de Taft–Hartwey Act, de House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) hearings and de Howwywood bwackwist era.[44]

Secret FBI informant in Howwywood

During de wate 1940s, Reagan and his den-wife, Jane Wyman, provided de FBI wif de names of actors widin de motion picture industry whom dey bewieved to be communist sympadizers. Though he expressed reservations, he said, "Do dey expect us to constitute oursewves as a wittwe FBI of our own and determine just who is a Commie and who isn't?"[45]

Reagan awso testified on de subject before de House Un-American Activities Committee.[46] A fervent anti-communist, he reaffirmed his commitment to democratic principwes, stating, "I never as a citizen want to see our country become urged, by eider fear or resentment of dis group, dat we ever compromise wif any of our democratic principwes drough dat fear or resentment."[46]

Tewevision

Though an earwy critic of tewevision, Reagan wanded fewer fiwm rowes in de wate 1950s and decided to join de medium.[24] He was hired as de host of Generaw Ewectric Theater,[47] a series of weekwy dramas dat became very popuwar.[24] His contract reqwired him to tour Generaw Ewectric (GE) pwants 16 weeks out of de year, which often demanded dat he give 14 speeches per day.[24] He earned approximatewy $125,000 (eqwivawent to $1011276 in 2017) in dis rowe. The show ran for 10 seasons from 1953 to 1962, which increased Reagan's profiwe in American househowds.[48] He had previouswy appeared in feature fiwms mostwy in supporting rowes or as a "second wead". In his finaw work as a professionaw actor, Reagan was a host and performer from 1964 to 1965 on de tewevision series Deaf Vawwey Days.[49] Reagan and future wife Nancy Davis appeared togeder on tewevision severaw times, incwuding an episode of Generaw Ewectric Theater in 1958 cawwed "A Turkey for de President."[50]

Marriages and chiwdren

In 1938, Reagan co-starred in de fiwm Broder Rat wif actress Jane Wyman (1917–2007). They announced deir engagement at de Chicago Theatre[51] and married on January 26, 1940 at de Wee Kirk o' de Header church in Gwendawe, Cawifornia.[52] Togeder dey had two biowogicaw chiwdren, Maureen (1941–2001) and Christine (b. in 1947 but wived onwy one day), and adopted a dird, Michaew (b. 1945).[53] After de coupwe had arguments about Reagan's powiticaw ambitions, Wyman fiwed for divorce in 1948,[54] citing a distraction due to her husband's Screen Actors Guiwd union duties; de divorce was finawized in 1949.[26] Wyman, who was a registered Repubwican, awso stated dat deir break-up was due to a difference in powitics (Reagan was stiww a Democrat at de time).[55] When Reagan became President 32 years water, he had de distinction of being de first divorced person to assume de nation's highest office.[56] Reagan and Wyman continued to be friends untiw his deaf, wif Wyman voting for Reagan in bof of his runs and, upon his deaf, saying "America has wost a great president and a great, kind, and gentwe man, uh-hah-hah-hah."[57]

Reagan met actress Nancy Davis (1921–2016)[58][59] in 1949 after she contacted him in his capacity as president of de Screen Actors Guiwd. He hewped her wif issues regarding her name appearing on a Communist bwackwist in Howwywood. She had been mistaken for anoder Nancy Davis. She described deir meeting by saying, "I don't know if it was exactwy wove at first sight, but it was pretty cwose."[60] They were engaged at Chasen's restaurant in Los Angewes and were married on March 4, 1952, at de Littwe Brown Church in de Vawwey (Norf Howwywood, now Studio City) San Fernando Vawwey.[61] Actor Wiwwiam Howden served as best man at de ceremony. They had two chiwdren: Patti (b. 1952) and Ronawd "Ron" Jr. (b. 1958).

Observers described de Reagans' rewationship as cwose, audentic and intimate.[62] During his presidency, dey reportedwy dispwayed freqwent affection for one anoder; one press secretary said, "They never took each oder for granted. They never stopped courting."[60][63] He often cawwed her "Mommy" and she cawwed him "Ronnie."[63] He once wrote to her, "Whatever I treasure and enjoy... aww wouwd be widout meaning if I didn't have you."[64] When he was in de hospitaw in 1981 after an assassination attempt, she swept wif one of his shirts to be comforted by his scent.[65] In a wetter to de American peopwe in 1994, Reagan wrote "I have recentwy been towd dat I am one of de miwwions of Americans who wiww be affwicted wif Awzheimer's disease... I onwy wish dere was some way I couwd spare Nancy from dis painfuw experience,"[60] and in 1998, whiwe he was stricken by Awzheimer's, Nancy towd Vanity Fair, "Our rewationship is very speciaw. We were very much in wove and stiww are. When I say my wife began wif Ronnie, weww, it's true. It did. I can't imagine wife widout him."[60]Nancy Reagan died on March 6, 2016 at de age of 94.[66]

At rawwies, Reagan spoke freqwentwy wif a strong ideowogicaw dimension, uh-hah-hah-hah. In December 1945, he was stopped from weading an anti-nucwear rawwy in Howwywood by pressure from de Warner Bros. studio. He wouwd water make nucwear weapons a key point of his presidency when he specificawwy stated his opposition to mutuaw assured destruction. Reagan awso buiwt on previous efforts to wimit de spread of nucwear weapons.[70] In de 1948 presidentiaw ewection, Reagan strongwy supported Harry S. Truman and appeared on stage wif him during a campaign speech in Los Angewes.[71] In de earwy 1950s, his rewationship wif actress Nancy Davis grew,[72] and he shifted to de right when he endorsed de presidentiaw candidacies of Dwight D. Eisenhower (1952 and 1956) and Richard Nixon (1960).[73]

Reagan was hired by Generaw Ewectric (GE) in 1954 to host de Generaw Ewectric Theater, a weekwy TV drama series. He awso travewed across de country to give motivationaw speeches to over 200,000 GE empwoyees. His many speeches—which he wrote himsewf—were non-partisan but carried a conservative, pro-business message; he was infwuenced by Lemuew Bouwware, a senior GE executive. Bouwware, known for his tough stance against unions and his innovative strategies to win over workers, championed de core tenets of modern American conservatism: free markets, anticommunism, wower taxes, and wimited government.[74] Eager for a warger stage, but not awwowed to enter powitics by GE, he qwit and formawwy registered as a Repubwican, uh-hah-hah-hah.[75] He often said, "I didn't weave de Democratic Party. The party weft me."[76]

When de wegiswation dat wouwd become Medicare was introduced in 1961, he created a recording for de American Medicaw Association (AMA) warning dat such wegiswation wouwd mean de end of freedom in America. Reagan said dat if his wisteners did not write wetters to prevent it, "we wiww awake to find dat we have sociawism. And if you don't do dis, and if I don't do it, one of dese days, you and I are going to spend our sunset years tewwing our chiwdren, and our chiwdren's chiwdren, what it once was wike in America when men were free."[77][78] He awso joined de Nationaw Rifwe Association (NRA) and wouwd become a wifetime member.[79]

Reagan gained nationaw attention in his speeches for conservative presidentiaw contender Barry Gowdwater in 1964.[80] Speaking for Gowdwater, Reagan stressed his bewief in de importance of smawwer government. He consowidated demes dat he had devewoped in his tawks for GE to dewiver his famous speech, "A Time for Choosing":

The Founding Faders knew a government can't controw de economy widout controwwing peopwe. And dey knew when a government sets out to do dat, it must use force and coercion to achieve its purpose. So we have come to a time for choosing ... You and I are towd we must choose between a weft or right, but I suggest dere is no such ding as a weft or right. There is onwy an up or down, uh-hah-hah-hah. Up to man's age-owd dream—de maximum of individuaw freedom consistent wif order—or down to de ant heap of totawitarianism.[81][82]

— October 27, 1964

This "A Time for Choosing" speech was not enough to turn around de fawtering Gowdwater campaign, but it was de key event dat estabwished Reagan's nationaw powiticaw visibiwity.[83][84]

Cawifornia Repubwicans were impressed wif Reagan's powiticaw views and charisma after his "Time for Choosing" speech,[86] and in wate 1965 he announced his campaign for Governor in de 1966 ewection, uh-hah-hah-hah.[87][88] He defeated former San Francisco mayor George Christopher in de GOP primary. In Reagan's campaign, he emphasized two main demes: "to send de wewfare bums back to work," and, in reference to burgeoning anti-war and anti-estabwishment student protests at de University of Cawifornia at Berkewey, "to cwean up de mess at Berkewey."[89] In 1966, Reagan accompwished what bof U.S. Senator Wiwwiam F. Knowwand in 1958 and former Vice President Richard Nixon in 1962 had attempted to do: he was ewected, defeating two-term governor Pat Brown, and was sworn in on January 2, 1967. In his first term, he froze government hiring and approved tax hikes to bawance de budget.[90]

Shortwy after assuming his gubernatoriaw term, Reagan tested de 1968 presidentiaw waters as part of a "Stop Nixon" movement, hoping to cut into Nixon's soudern support[91] and become a compromise candidate[92] if neider Nixon nor second-pwace candidate Newson Rockefewwer received enough dewegates to win on de first bawwot at de Repubwican convention. However, by de time of de convention Nixon, had 692 dewegate votes, 25 more dan he needed to secure de nomination, fowwowed by Rockefewwer wif Reagan in dird pwace.[91]

Reagan was invowved in severaw high-profiwe confwicts wif de protest movements of de era, incwuding his pubwic criticism of university administrators for towerating student demonstrations at de University of Cawifornia, Berkewey campus. On May 15, 1969, during de Peopwe's Park protests at de university's campus (de originaw purpose of which was to discuss de Arab–Israewi confwict), Reagan sent de Cawifornia Highway Patrow and oder officers to qweww de protests. This wed to an incident dat became known as "Bwoody Thursday," resuwting in de deaf of student James Rector and de bwinding of carpenter Awan Bwanchard.[93][94] In addition, 111 powice officers were injured in de confwict, incwuding one who was knifed in de chest. Reagan den cawwed out 2,200 state Nationaw Guard troops to occupy de city of Berkewey for two weeks to crack down on de protesters.[93] The Guard remained in Berkewey for 17 days, camping in Peopwe's Park, and demonstrations subsided as de university removed cordoned-off fencing and pwaced aww devewopment pwans for Peopwe's Park on howd.[93][95] One year after "Bwoody Thursday," Reagan responded to qwestions about campus protest movements saying, "If it takes a bwoodbaf, wet's get it over wif. No more appeasement."[96] When de Symbionese Liberation Army kidnapped Patty Hearst in Berkewey and demanded de distribution of food to de poor, Reagan joked to a group of powiticaw aides about a botuwism outbreak contaminating de food.[97]

Earwy in 1967, de nationaw debate on abortion was starting to gain traction, uh-hah-hah-hah. In de earwy stages of de debate, Democratic Cawifornia state senator Andony C. Beiwenson introduced de "Therapeutic Abortion Act" in an effort to reduce de number of "back-room abortions" performed in Cawifornia.[93] The state wegiswature sent de biww to Reagan's desk where, after many days of indecision, he signed it on June 14, 1967.[98] About two miwwion abortions wouwd be performed as a resuwt, mostwy because of a provision in de biww awwowing abortions for de weww-being of de moder.[98] Reagan had been in office for onwy four monds when he signed de biww, and water stated dat had he been more experienced as governor, he wouwd not have signed it. After he recognized what he cawwed de "conseqwences" of de biww, he announced dat he was pro-wife.[98] He maintained dat position water in his powiticaw career, writing extensivewy about abortion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[99]

Despite an unsuccessfuw attempt to force a recaww ewection on Reagan in 1968,[102] he was re-ewected governor in 1970, defeating "Big Daddy" Jesse M. Unruh. He chose not to seek a dird term in de fowwowing ewection cycwe. One of Reagan's greatest frustrations in office was de issue of capitaw punishment, which he strongwy supported.[28] His efforts to enforce de state's waws in dis area were dwarted when de Supreme Court of Cawifornia issued its Peopwe v. Anderson decision, which invawidated aww deaf sentences issued in Cawifornia before 1972, dough de decision was water overturned by a constitutionaw amendment. The onwy execution during Reagan's governorship was on Apriw 12, 1967, when Aaron Mitcheww's sentence was carried out by de state in San Quentin's gas chamber.[103]

Reagan's terms as governor hewped to shape de powicies he wouwd pursue in his water powiticaw career as president. By campaigning on a pwatform of sending "de wewfare bums back to work," he spoke out against de idea of de wewfare state. He awso strongwy advocated de Repubwican ideaw of wess government reguwation of de economy, incwuding dat of undue federaw taxation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[106]

Reagan did not seek re-ewection to a dird term as governor in 1974; he was succeeded by de Secretary of State, Democrat Jerry Brown, who took office on January 6, 1975.

In 1976, Reagan chawwenged incumbent President Gerawd Ford in a bid to become de Repubwican Party's candidate for president. Reagan soon estabwished himsewf as de conservative candidate wif de support of wike-minded organizations such as de American Conservative Union, which became key components of his powiticaw base, whiwe Ford was considered a more moderate Repubwican, uh-hah-hah-hah.[107]

Reagan's campaign rewied on a strategy crafted by campaign manager John Sears of winning a few primaries earwy to damage de inevitabiwity of Ford's wikewy nomination, uh-hah-hah-hah. Reagan won Norf Carowina, Texas, and Cawifornia, but de strategy faiwed, as[108] he ended up wosing New Hampshire, Fworida, and his native Iwwinois.[109] The Texas campaign went renewed hope to Reagan, when he swept aww 96 dewegates chosen in de May 1 primary, wif four more awaiting at de state convention, uh-hah-hah-hah. Much of de credit for dat victory came from de work of dree co-chairmen, incwuding Ernest Angewo, de mayor of Midwand, and Ray Barnhart of Houston, whom Reagan as President wouwd appoint in 1981 as director of de Federaw Highway Administration.[110]

Reagan's concession speech emphasized de dangers of nucwear war and de dreat posed by de Soviet Union, uh-hah-hah-hah. Though he wost de nomination, he received 307 write-in votes in New Hampshire, 388 votes as an Independent on Wyoming's bawwot, and a singwe ewectoraw vote from a faidwess ewector in de November ewection from de state of Washington,[111] which Ford had won over Democratic chawwenger Jimmy Carter.

The 1980 presidentiaw ewection featured Reagan against incumbent President Jimmy Carter and was conducted amid a muwtitude of domestic concerns as weww as de ongoing Iran hostage crisis. Reagan's campaign stressed some of his fundamentaw principwes: wower taxes to stimuwate de economy,[114] wess government interference in peopwe's wives,[115]states' rights,[116] and a strong nationaw defense.[117]

Reagan waunched his campaign by decwaring "I bewieve in states' rights." After receiving de Repubwican nomination, Reagan sewected one of his opponents in de primaries, George H. W. Bush, to be his running mate. His appearance in an October tewevised debate boosted his popuwarity. Reagan won de ewection, carrying 44 states wif 489 ewectoraw votes to 49 ewectoraw votes for Carter (representing six states and Washington, D.C.). Reagan received 51% of de popuwar vote whiwe Carter took 41%, and Independent John B. Anderson (a wiberaw Repubwican) received 7%.[118]Repubwicans captured de Senate for de first time since 1952, and gained 34 House seats, but de Democrats retained a majority.

During his presidency, Reagan pursued powicies dat refwected his personaw bewief in individuaw freedom; brought changes domesticawwy, bof to de U.S. economy and expanded miwitary; and contributed to de end of de Cowd War.[119] Termed de "Reagan Revowution," his presidency wouwd reinvigorate American morawe,[120][121] reinvigorate de U.S. economy and reduce rewiance upon government.[119] As president, Reagan kept a diary in which he commented on daiwy occurrences of his presidency and his views on de issues of de day. The diaries were pubwished in May 2007 in de bestsewwing book, The Reagan Diaries.[122]

First term

Ronawd Reagan was 69 years owd when he sworn into office for his first term on January 20, 1981. In his inauguraw address (which Reagan himsewf wrote), he addressed de country's economic mawaise, arguing: "In dis present crisis, government is not de sowution to our probwems; government is de probwem."[123]

Prayer in schoows and a moment of siwence

In 1981, Reagan became de first president to propose a constitutionaw amendment on schoow prayer.[124] Reagan's ewection refwected an opposition[124] to de 1962 Supreme Court case Engew v. Vitawe, prohibiting state officiaws from composing an officiaw state prayer and reqwiring dat it be recited in de pubwic schoows.[125] Reagan's 1981 proposed amendment stated: "Noding in dis Constitution shaww be construed to prohibit individuaw or group prayer in pubwic schoows or oder pubwic institutions. No person shaww be reqwired by de United States or by any state to participate in prayer." In 1984, Reagan again raised de issue, asking Congress "why can't [de] freedom to acknowwedge God be enjoyed again by chiwdren in every schoowroom across dis wand?"[126] In 1985, Reagan expressed his disappointment dat de Supreme Court ruwing stiww bans a moment of siwence for pubwic schoows, and said he had "an uphiww battwe."[127] In 1987 Reagan renewed his caww for Congress to support vowuntary prayer in schoows and end "de expuwsion of God from America's cwassrooms."[128] Critics argue dat any governmentaw imposition of prayer on pubwic schoow students is invowuntary.[128] No Supreme Court ruwings suggest dat students cannot engage in siwent prayer on deir own, uh-hah-hah-hah.[128] During his term in office, Reagan campaigned vigorouswy to restore organized prayer to de schoows, first as a moment of prayer and water as a Moment of Siwence.[129]

Assassination attempt

On March 30, 1981 (shortwy into de new administration), Reagan, his press secretary James Brady, Washington powice officer Thomas Dewahanty, and Secret Service agent Tim McCardy were struck by gunfire from wouwd-be assassin John Hinckwey Jr. outside de Washington Hiwton hotew. Awdough "cwose to deaf" upon arrivaw at George Washington University Hospitaw, Reagan was stabiwized in de emergency room, den underwent emergency expworatory surgery.[130] He recovered and was reweased from de hospitaw on Apriw 11, becoming de first serving U.S. president to survive being shot in an assassination attempt.[131] The attempt had great infwuence on Reagan's popuwarity; powws indicated his approvaw rating to be around 73%.[132] Reagan bewieved dat God had spared his wife so dat he might go on to fuwfiww a greater purpose.[133]

Air traffic controwwers' strike

In 1981, PATCO, de union of federaw air traffic controwwers went on strike, viowating a federaw waw prohibiting government unions from striking.[135] Decwaring de situation an emergency as described in de 1947 Taft–Hartwey Act, Reagan stated dat if de air traffic controwwers "do not report for work widin 48 hours, dey have forfeited deir jobs and wiww be terminated."[136] They did not return and on August 5, Reagan fired 11,345 striking air traffic controwwers who had ignored his order, and used supervisors and miwitary controwwers to handwe de nation's commerciaw air traffic untiw new controwwers couwd be hired and trained.[137] A weading reference work on pubwic administration concwuded, "The firing of PATCO empwoyees not onwy demonstrated a cwear resowve by de president to take controw of de bureaucracy, but it awso sent a cwear message to de private sector dat unions no wonger needed to be feared."[138]

"Reaganomics" and de economy

Outwining his pwan for Tax Reduction Legiswation from de Ovaw Office in a tewevised address, Juwy 1981

During Jimmy Carter's wast year in office (1980), infwation averaged 12.5%, compared wif 4.4% during Reagan's wast year in office (1988).[139] During Reagan's administration, de unempwoyment rate decwined from 7.5% to 5.4%, wif de rate reaching highs of 10.8% in 1982 and 10.4% in 1983, averaging 7.5% over de eight years, and reaw GDP growf averaged 3.4% wif a high of 8.6% in 1983, whiwe nominaw GDP growf averaged 7.4%, and peaked at 12.2% in 1982.[140][141][142]

Reagan impwemented powicies based on suppwy-side economics, advocating a waissez-faire phiwosophy and free-market fiscaw powicy,[143] seeking to stimuwate de economy wif warge, across-de-board tax cuts.[144][145] He awso supported returning de United States to some sort of gowd standard, and successfuwwy urged Congress to estabwish de U.S. Gowd Commission to study how one couwd be impwemented. Citing de economic deories of Ardur Laffer, Reagan promoted de proposed tax cuts as potentiawwy stimuwating de economy enough to expand de tax base, offsetting de revenue woss due to reduced rates of taxation, a deory dat entered powiticaw discussion as de Laffer curve. Reaganomics was de subject of debate wif supporters pointing to improvements in certain key economic indicators as evidence of success, and critics pointing to warge increases in federaw budget deficits and de nationaw debt.[146] His powicy of "peace drough strengf" resuwted in a record peacetime defense buiwdup incwuding a 40% reaw increase in defense spending between 1981 and 1985.[147]

President Reagan wif reaw estate devewoper and future president Donawd Trump in 1987

Conversewy, Congress passed and Reagan signed into waw tax increases of some nature in every year from 1981 to 1987 to continue funding such government programs as Tax Eqwity and Fiscaw Responsibiwity Act of 1982 (TEFRA), Sociaw Security, and de Deficit Reduction Act of 1984 (DEFRA).[150][151] TEFRA was de "wargest peacetime tax increase in American history."[151][152][153][154] Gross domestic product (GDP) growf recovered strongwy after de earwy 1980s recession ended in 1982, and grew during his eight years in office at an annuaw rate of 7.9% per year, wif a high of 12.2% growf in 1981.[155] Unempwoyment peaked at 10.8% mondwy rate in December 1982—higher dan any time since de Great Depression—den dropped during de rest of Reagan's presidency.[156] Sixteen miwwion new jobs were created, whiwe infwation significantwy decreased.[157] The Tax Reform Act of 1986, anoder bipartisan effort championed by Reagan, simpwified de tax code by reducing de number of tax brackets to four and swashing a number of tax breaks. The top rate was dropped to 28%, but capitaw gains taxes were increased on dose wif de highest incomes from 20% to 28%. The increase of de wowest tax bracket from 11% to 15% was more dan offset by expansion of de personaw exemption, standard deduction, and earned income tax credit. The net resuwt was de removaw of six miwwion poor Americans from de income tax roww and a reduction of income tax wiabiwity at aww income wevews.[158][159]

The net effect of aww Reagan-era tax biwws was a 1% decrease in government revenues when compared to Treasury Department revenue estimates from de Administration's first post-enactment January budgets.[160] However, federaw income tax receipts increased from 1980 to 1989, rising from $308.7 biwwion to $549 biwwion[161] or an average annuaw rate of 8.2% (2.5% attributed to higher Sociaw Security receipts), and federaw outways grew at an annuaw rate of 7.1%.[162][163]

Addressing Congress on de Program for Economic Recovery, Apriw 28, 1981 (a few weeks after surviving an assassination attempt)

Reagan's powicies proposed dat economic growf wouwd occur when marginaw tax rates were wow enough to spur investment, which wouwd den wead to higher empwoyment and wages. Critics wabewed dis "trickwe-down economics"—de bewief dat tax powicies dat benefit de weawdy wiww create a "trickwe-down" effect to de poor.[164] Questions arose wheder Reagan's powicies benefited de weawdy more dan dose wiving in poverty,[165] and many poor and minority citizens viewed Reagan as indifferent to deir struggwes.[165] These views were exacerbated by de fact dat Reagan's economic regimen incwuded freezing de minimum wage at $3.35 an hour, swashing federaw assistance to wocaw governments by 60%, cutting de budget for pubwic housing and Section 8 rent subsidies in hawf, and ewiminating de antipoverty Community Devewopment Bwock Grant program.[166] The widening gap between de rich and poor had awready begun during de 1970s before Reagan's economic powicies took effect.[167] Awong wif Reagan's 1981 cut in de top reguwar tax rate on unearned income, he reduced de maximum capitaw gains rate to 20%.[168] Reagan water set tax rates on capitaw gains at de same wevew as de rates on ordinary income wike sawaries and wages, wif bof topping out at 28%.[169] Reagan is viewed as an antitax hero despite raising taxes eweven times over de course of his presidency, aww in de name of fiscaw responsibiwity.[170] According to Pauw Krugman, "Over aww, de 1982 tax increase undid about a dird of de 1981 cut; as a share of GDP, de increase was substantiawwy warger dan Mr. Cwinton's 1993 tax increase."[171] According to historian and domestic powicy adviser Bruce Bartwett, Reagan's tax increases over de course of his presidency took back hawf of de 1981 tax cut.[172]

Reagan was opposed to government intervention, and he cut de budgets of non-miwitary[173] programs[174] incwuding Medicaid, food stamps, federaw education programs[173] and de EPA.[175] He protected entitwement programs such as Sociaw Security and Medicare,[176] but his administration attempted to purge many peopwe wif disabiwities from de Sociaw Security disabiwity rowws.[177]

The administration's stance toward de savings and woan industry contributed to de savings and woan crisis. A minority of de critics of Reaganomics awso suggested dat de powicies partiawwy infwuenced de stock market crash of 1987,[178] but dere is no consensus regarding a singwe source for de crash.[179] In order to cover newwy spawned federaw budget deficits, de United States borrowed heaviwy bof domesticawwy and abroad, raising de nationaw debt from $997 biwwion to $2.85 triwwion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[180] Reagan described de new debt as de "greatest disappointment" of his presidency.[157]

He reappointed Pauw Vowcker as Chairman of de Federaw Reserve, and in 1987 he appointed monetarist Awan Greenspan to succeed him. Reagan ended de price controws on domestic oiw dat had contributed to de energy crises of 1973–74 and de summer of 1979.[181][182] The price of oiw subseqwentwy dropped, and de 1980s did not see de fuew shortages dat de 1970s had.[182] Reagan awso fuwfiwwed a 1980 campaign promise to repeaw de windfaww profits tax in 1988, which had previouswy increased dependence on foreign oiw.[183] Some economists, such as Nobew Prize winners Miwton Friedman and Robert Mundeww, argue dat Reagan's tax powicies invigorated America's economy and contributed to de economic boom of de 1990s.[184] Oder economists, such as Nobew Prize winner Robert Sowow, argue dat Reagan's deficits were a major reason his successor, George H. W. Bush, reneged on a campaign promise and resorted to raising taxes.[184]

During Reagan's presidency, a program was initiated widin de United States Intewwigence Community to ensure America's economic strengf. The program, Project Socrates, devewoped and demonstrated de means reqwired for de United States to generate and wead de next evowutionary weap in technowogy acqwisition and utiwization for a competitive advantage—automated innovation, uh-hah-hah-hah. To ensure dat de United States acqwired de maximum benefit from automated innovation, Reagan, during his second term, had an executive order drafted to create a new federaw agency to impwement de Project Socrates resuwts on a nationwide basis. However, Reagan's term came to end before de executive order couwd be coordinated and signed, and de incoming Bush administration, wabewing Project Socrates as "industriaw powicy," had it terminated.[185][186]

In 1984, journawist Nichowas Lemann interviewed Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger and summarized de strategy of de Reagan administration to roww back de Soviet Union:

Their society is economicawwy weak, and it wacks de weawf, education, and technowogy to enter de information age. They have drown everyding into miwitary production, and deir society is starting to show terribwe stress as a resuwt. They can't sustain miwitary production de way we can, uh-hah-hah-hah. Eventuawwy it wiww break dem, and den dere wiww be just one superpower in a safe worwd—if, onwy if, we can keep spending.[191]

Lemann noted dat when he wrote dat in 1984, he dought de Reaganites were wiving in a fantasy worwd. But by 2016, Lemann stated dat de passage represents "a fairwy uncontroversiaw description of what Reagan actuawwy did."

After Soviet fighters downed Korean Air Lines Fwight 007 near Moneron Iswand on September 1, 1983, carrying 269 peopwe, incwuding Georgia congressman Larry McDonawd, Reagan wabewed de act a "massacre" and decwared dat de Soviets had turned "against de worwd and de moraw precepts which guide human rewations among peopwe everywhere."[197] The Reagan administration responded to de incident by suspending aww Soviet passenger air service to de United States, and dropped severaw agreements being negotiated wif de Soviets, wounding dem financiawwy.[197] As a resuwt of de shootdown, and de cause of KAL 007's going astray dought to be inadeqwacies rewated to its navigationaw system, Reagan announced on September 16, 1983, dat de Gwobaw Positioning System wouwd be made avaiwabwe for civiwian use, free of charge, once compweted in order to avert simiwar navigationaw errors in future.[198][199]

In March 1983, Reagan introduced de Strategic Defense Initiative, a defense project[206] dat wouwd have used ground- and space-based systems to protect de United States from attack by strategic nucwear bawwistic missiwes.[207] Reagan bewieved dat dis defense shiewd couwd make nucwear war impossibwe.[206][208] There was much disbewief surrounding de program's scientific feasibiwity, weading opponents to dub SDI "Star Wars" and argue dat its technowogicaw objective was unattainabwe.[206] The Soviets became concerned about de possibwe effects SDI wouwd have;[209] weader Yuri Andropov said it wouwd put "de entire worwd in jeopardy."[210] For dose reasons, David Gergen, former aide to President Reagan, bewieves dat in retrospect, SDI hastened de end of de Cowd War.[211]

Critics wabewed Reagan's foreign powicies as aggressive, imperiawistic, and chided dem as "warmongering," dough dey were supported by weading American conservatives who argued dat dey were necessary to protect U.S. security interests.[209] The Reagan administration awso backed anti-communist weaders accused of severe human rights viowations, such as Efraín Ríos Montt of Guatemawa and Hissène Habré of Chad,[212][213][214] and hewped Iranian weader Ruhowwah Khomeini identify and purge communists in his government.[215] As a resuwt of de brief 16-monf regime of Ríos Montt in 1982 and 1983, Guatemawa was accused of genocide for massacres of members of de Ixiw peopwe and oder indigenous groups. Reagan had said dat Montt was getting a "bum rap,"[216] and described him as "a man of great personaw integrity."[217] In May 2013 Montt was found guiwty by a Guatemawa court of having ordered de deads of 1,771 Ixiw peopwe. His conviction was overturned water dat monf and his retriaw began in January 2015.[218] The Reagan administration unsuccessfuwwy appeawed to Congress to restart miwitary aid. The administration was successfuw, however, in providing nonmiwitary aid such as USAID.[216][219]

Operation Urgent Fury (Grenada)

On October 25, 1983, Reagan ordered U.S. forces to invade Grenada (codenamed "Operation Urgent Fury") where a 1979 coup d'état had estabwished an independent non-awignedMarxist–Leninist government. A formaw appeaw from de Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) wed to de intervention of U.S. forces; President Reagan awso cited an awwegedwy regionaw dreat posed by a Soviet-Cuban miwitary buiwd-up in de Caribbean and concern for de safety of severaw hundred American medicaw students at St. George's University as adeqwate reasons to invade. Operation Urgent Fury was de first major miwitary operation conducted by U.S. forces since de Vietnam War, severaw days of fighting commenced, resuwting in a U.S. victory,[224] wif 19 American fatawities and 116 wounded American sowdiers.[225] In mid-December, after a new government was appointed by de governor-generaw, U.S. forces widdrew.[224]

Reagan's opponent in de 1984 presidentiaw ewection was former Vice President Wawter Mondawe. Wif qwestions about Reagan's age, and a weak performance in de first presidentiaw debate, his abiwity to perform de duties of president for anoder term was qwestioned. His apparent confused and forgetfuw behavior was evident to his supporters; dey had previouswy known him cwever and witty. Rumors began to circuwate dat he had Awzheimer's disease.[227][228] Reagan rebounded in de second debate, and confronted qwestions about his age, qwipping, "I wiww not make age an issue of dis campaign, uh-hah-hah-hah. I am not going to expwoit, for powiticaw purposes, my opponent's youf and inexperience," which generated appwause and waughter, even from Mondawe himsewf.[229]

That November, Reagan was re-ewected, winning 49 of 50 states.[230] The president's overwhewming victory saw Mondawe carry onwy his home state of Minnesota (by 3,800 votes) and de District of Cowumbia. Reagan won a record 525 ewectoraw votes, de most of any candidate in United States history,[231] and received 59% of de popuwar vote to Mondawe's 41%.[230]

Second term

Reagan was sworn in as president for de second time on January 20, 1985, in a private ceremony at de White House. At 73 years of age, he was de owdest person to ever have been sworn into a second term. Because January 20 feww on a Sunday, a pubwic cewebration was not hewd but took pwace in de Capitow rotunda de fowwowing day. January 21 was one of de cowdest days on record in Washington, D.C.; due to poor weader, inauguraw cewebrations were hewd inside de Capitow. In de coming weeks he shook up his staff somewhat, moving White House Chief of StaffJames Baker to Secretary of de Treasury and naming Treasury Secretary Donawd Regan, a former Merriww Lynch officer, Chief of Staff.[232][232]

The disintegration of de Space Shuttwe Chawwenger on January 28, 1986, proved a pivotaw moment in Reagan's presidency. Aww seven astronauts aboard were kiwwed.[233] On de night of de disaster, Reagan dewivered a speech, written by Peggy Noonan, in which he said:

The future doesn't bewong to de faindearted; it bewongs to de brave ... We wiww never forget dem, nor de wast time we saw dem, dis morning, as dey prepared for deir journey and waved goodbye and 'swipped de surwy bonds of Earf' to 'touch de face of God.'[234]

1985 pwacing of wreaf at cemetery in Bitburg, Germany

In February 1985, de administration accepted an invitation for Reagan awongside wif West German Chancewwor Hewmut Kohw to visit a German miwitary cemetery in Bitburg and pwace a wreaf. Deputy Chief of Staff Michaew Deaver was given assurances by a German head of protocow dat no war criminaws were buried dere. It was water determined dat de cemetery hewd de graves of 49 members of de Waffen-SS. What neider Deaver nor oder administration officiaws initiawwy reawized was dat many Germans drew a distinction between de reguwar SS, who typicawwy were composed of Nazi true bewievers, and de Waffen-SS which were attached to miwitary units and composed of conscripted sowdiers.[236] However, at a joint protest in Fworida by American veteran organizations and camp survivors at de time of Reagan's visit, one speaker read from de Congressionaw Record an entry by Senator Howard Metzenbaum stating dat de Waffen-SS force had been invowved in de massacre of 350 American sowdiers and 100 Bewgian sowdiers who were prisoners of war.[237]

As de controversy brewed in Apriw 1985, Reagan issued a statement dat cawwed de Nazi sowdiers buried in dat cemetery as demsewves "victims," a designation which ignited a stir over wheder Reagan had eqwated de SS men to victims of de Howocaust.[238]Pat Buchanan, Reagan's Director of Communications, argued dat de president did not eqwate de SS members wif de actuaw Howocaust, but as victims of de ideowogy of Nazism.[239] Now strongwy urged to cancew de visit,[240] de president responded dat it wouwd be wrong to back down on a promise he had made to Chancewwor Kohw. On May 5, 1985, President Reagan and Chancewwor Kohw visited first visited de site of de former Nazi Bergen-Bewsen concentration camp and den de Bitburg cemetery where, awong wif two miwitary generaws, dey did pwace a wreaf.[241][242]

In 1986, Reagan signed a drug enforcement biww dat budgeted $1.7 biwwion to fund de War on Drugs and specified a mandatory minimum penawty for drug offenses.[246] The biww was criticized for promoting significant raciaw disparities in de prison popuwation[246] and critics awso charged dat de powicies did wittwe to reduce de avaiwabiwity of drugs on de street, whiwe resuwting in a great financiaw burden for America.[247] Defenders of de effort point to success in reducing rates of adowescent drug use:[248] marijuana use among high-schoow seniors decwined from 33% in 1980 to 12% in 1991.[249]First LadyNancy Reagan made de War on Drugs her main priority by founding de "Just Say No" drug awareness campaign, which aimed to discourage chiwdren and teenagers from engaging in recreationaw drug use by offering various ways of saying "no." Nancy Reagan travewed to 65 cities in 33 states, raising awareness about de dangers of drugs incwuding awcohow.[250]

Response to AIDS epidemic

According to AIDS activist organizations such as ACT UP, de Reagan administration wargewy ignored de AIDS crisis, which began to unfowd in de United States in 1981, de same year Reagan took office. They awso cwaim AIDS research was chronicawwy underfunded during Reagan's administration, and reqwests for more funding by doctors at de Centers for Disease Controw (CDC) were routinewy denied.[251][252]

By de time President Reagan had given his first prepared speech on de epidemic, some six years into his presidency, 36,058 Americans had been diagnosed wif AIDS and 20,849 had died of it.[253] By de end of 1989, de year Reagan weft office, 115,786 peopwe had been diagnosed wif AIDS in de United States, and more dan 70,000 of dem had died of it.

Oders however point out dat federaw funding for AIDS-rewated programs was $2.3 biwwion in 1989 and nearwy 6 biwwion totaw over his presidency. In a September 1985 press conference Reagan said: "dis is a top priority wif us...dere's no qwestion about de seriousness of dis and de need to find an answer."[254]

Rewations between Libya and de United States under President Reagan were continuawwy contentious, beginning wif de Guwf of Sidra incident in 1981; by 1982, Libyan weader Muammar Gaddafi was considered by de CIA to be, awong wif USSR weader Leonid Brezhnev and Cuban weader Fidew Castro, part of a group known as de "unhowy trinity" and was awso wabewed as "our internationaw pubwic enemy number one" by a CIA officiaw.[255] These tensions were water revived in earwy Apriw 1986, when a bomb expwoded in a Berwin discofèqwe, resuwting in de injury of 63 American miwitary personnew and deaf of one serviceman, uh-hah-hah-hah. Stating dat dere was "irrefutabwe proof" dat Libya had directed de "terrorist bombing," Reagan audorized de use of force against de country. In de wate evening of Apriw 15, 1986, de United States waunched a series of airstrikes on ground targets in Libya.[256][257]

Britain's prime minister, Margaret Thatcher, awwowed de U.S. Air Force to use Britain's air bases to waunch de attack, on de justification dat de UK was supporting America's right to sewf-defense under Articwe 51 of de United Nations Charter.[257] The attack was designed to hawt Gaddafi's "abiwity to export terrorism," offering him "incentives and reasons to awter his criminaw behavior."[256] The president addressed de nation from de Ovaw Office after de attacks had commenced, stating, "When our citizens are attacked or abused anywhere in de worwd on de direct orders of hostiwe regimes, we wiww respond so wong as I'm in dis office."[257] The attack was condemned by many countries. By a vote of 79 in favor to 28 against wif 33 abstentions, de United Nations Generaw Assembwy adopted resowution 41/38 which "condemns de miwitary attack perpetrated against de Sociawist Peopwe's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya on Apriw 15, 1986, which constitutes a viowation of de Charter of de United Nations and of internationaw waw."[258]

Immigration

Reagan signed de Immigration Reform and Controw Act in 1986. The act made it iwwegaw to knowingwy hire or recruit iwwegaw immigrants, reqwired empwoyers to attest to deir empwoyees' immigration status, and granted amnesty to approximatewy dree miwwion iwwegaw immigrants who entered de United States before January 1, 1982, and had wived in de country continuouswy. Critics argue dat de empwoyer sanctions were widout teef and faiwed to stem iwwegaw immigration, uh-hah-hah-hah.[259] Upon signing de act at a ceremony hewd beside de newwy refurbished Statue of Liberty, Reagan said, "The wegawization provisions in dis act wiww go far to improve de wives of a cwass of individuaws who now must hide in de shadows, widout access to many of de benefits of a free and open society. Very soon many of dese men and women wiww be abwe to step into de sunwight and, uwtimatewy, if dey choose, dey may become Americans."[260] Reagan awso said, "The empwoyer sanctions program is de keystone and major ewement. It wiww remove de incentive for iwwegaw immigration by ewiminating de job opportunities which draw iwwegaw awiens here."[260]

President Reagan professed dat he was unaware of de pwot's existence. He opened his own investigation and appointed two Repubwicans and one Democrat, John Tower, Brent Scowcroft and Edmund Muskie, respectivewy, to investigate de scandaw. The commission couwd not find direct evidence dat Reagan had prior knowwedge of de program, but criticized him heaviwy for his disengagement from managing his staff, making de diversion of funds possibwe.[267] A separate report by Congress concwuded dat "If de president did not know what his nationaw security advisers were doing, he shouwd have."[267] Reagan's popuwarity decwined from 67% to 46% in wess dan a week, de greatest and qwickest decwine ever for a president.[268] The scandaw resuwted in fourteen indictments widin Reagan's staff, and eweven convictions.[269]

Many Centraw Americans criticize Reagan for his support of de Contras, cawwing him an anti-communist zeawot, bwinded to human rights abuses, whiwe oders say he "saved Centraw America."[270]Daniew Ortega, Sandinistan and president of Nicaragua, said dat he hoped God wouwd forgive Reagan for his "dirty war against Nicaragua."[270]

End of de Cowd War

Untiw de earwy 1980s, de United States had rewied on de qwawitative superiority of its weapons to essentiawwy frighten de Soviets, but de gap had been narrowed.[271] Awdough de Soviet Union did not accewerate miwitary spending after President Reagan's miwitary buiwdup,[272] deir warge miwitary expenses, in combination wif cowwectivized agricuwture and inefficient pwanned manufacturing, were a heavy burden for de Soviet economy.[273] At de same time, Saudi Arabia increased oiw production,[274] which resuwted in a drop of oiw prices in 1985 to one-dird of de previous wevew; oiw was de main source of Soviet export revenues.[273] These factors contributed to a stagnant Soviet economy during Gorbachev's tenure.[273]

Reagan recognized de change in de direction of de Soviet weadership wif Mikhaiw Gorbachev, and shifted to dipwomacy, wif a view to encourage de Soviet weader to pursue substantiaw arms agreements.[275] Reagan's personaw mission was to achieve "a worwd free of nucwear weapons," which he regarded as "totawwy irrationaw, totawwy inhumane, good for noding but kiwwing, possibwy destructive of wife on earf and civiwization, uh-hah-hah-hah."[276][277][278] He was abwe to start discussions on nucwear disarmament wif Generaw Secretary Gorbachev.[278] Gorbachev and Reagan hewd four summit conferences between 1985 and 1988: de first in Geneva, Switzerwand, de second in Reykjavík, Icewand, de dird in Washington, D.C., and de fourf in Moscow.[279] Reagan bewieved dat if he couwd persuade de Soviets to awwow for more democracy and free speech, dis wouwd wead to reform and de end of Communism.[280]

Speaking at de Berwin Waww on June 12, 1987, Reagan chawwenged Gorbachev to go furder, saying "Generaw Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for de Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek wiberawization, come here to dis gate! Mr. Gorbachev, open dis gate! Mr. Gorbachev, tear down dis waww!"

Before Gorbachev's visit to Washington, D.C., for de dird summit in 1987, de Soviet weader announced his intention to pursue significant arms agreements.[281] The timing of de announcement wed Western dipwomats to contend dat Gorbachev was offering major concessions to de United States on de wevews of conventionaw forces, nucwear weapons, and powicy in Eastern Europe.[281] He and Reagan signed de Intermediate-Range Nucwear Forces Treaty (INF Treaty) at de White House, which ewiminated an entire cwass of nucwear weapons.[282] The two weaders waid de framework for de Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty, or START I; Reagan insisted dat de name of de treaty be changed from Strategic Arms Limitation Tawks to Strategic Arms Reduction Tawks.[277]

When Reagan visited Moscow for de fourf summit in 1988, he was viewed as a cewebrity by de Soviets. A journawist asked de president if he stiww considered de Soviet Union de eviw empire. "No," he repwied, "I was tawking about anoder time, anoder era."[283] At Gorbachev's reqwest, Reagan gave a speech on free markets at de Moscow State University.[284] In his autobiography, An American Life, Reagan expressed his optimism about de new direction dat dey charted and his warm feewings for Gorbachev.[285] In November 1989, ten monds after Reagan weft office, de Berwin Waww was opened, de Cowd War was unofficiawwy decwared over at de Mawta Summit on December 3, 1989, and two years water, de Soviet Union cowwapsed.[286]

Heawf

Earwy in his presidency, Reagan started wearing a custom-made, technowogicawwy advanced hearing aid, first in his right ear[287] and water in his weft ear as weww.[288] His decision to go pubwic in 1983 regarding his wearing de smaww, audio-ampwifying device boosted deir sawes.[289]

On Juwy 13, 1985, Reagan underwent surgery at Bedesda Navaw Hospitaw to remove cancerous powyps from his cowon. He rewinqwished presidentiaw power to de Vice President for eight hours in a simiwar procedure as outwined in de 25f Amendment, which he specificawwy avoided invoking.[290] The surgery wasted just under dree hours and was successfuw.[291] Reagan resumed de powers of de presidency water dat day.[292] In August of dat year, he underwent an operation to remove skin cancer cewws from his nose.[293] In October, more skin cancer cewws were detected on his nose and removed.[294]

In January 1987, Reagan underwent surgery for an enwarged prostate dat caused furder worries about his heawf. No cancerous growds were found and he was not sedated during de operation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[295] In Juwy of dat year, aged 76, he underwent a dird skin cancer operation on his nose.[296]

Assauwt

On Apriw 13, 1992, Reagan was assauwted by an anti-nucwear protester during a wuncheon speech whiwe accepting an award from de Nationaw Association of Broadcasters in Las Vegas.[317] The protester, 41-year owd Richard Pauw Springer, smashed a 2-foot-high (60 cm) 30-pound (13.5 kg) crystaw statue of an eagwe dat de broadcasters had given de former president. Fwying shards of gwass hit Reagan, but he was not injured. Using media credentiaws, Springer intended to announce government pwans for an underground nucwear weapons test in de Nevada desert de fowwowing day.[318] Springer was de founder of an anti-nucwear group cawwed de 100f Monkey. Fowwowing his arrest on assauwt charges, a Secret Service spokesman couwd not expwain how Springer got past de federaw agents who guarded Reagan's wife at aww times.[319] Later, Springer pwed guiwty to reduced charges and said he hadn't meant to hurt Reagan drough his actions. He pwed guiwty to a misdemeanor federaw charge of interfering wif de Secret Service, but oder fewony charges of assauwt and resisting officers were dropped.[320]

Awzheimer's disease

Announcement and reaction: 1994

In August 1994, at de age of 83, Reagan was diagnosed wif Awzheimer's disease,[321] an incurabwe neurowogicaw disorder which destroys brain cewws and uwtimatewy causes deaf.[321][322] In November, he informed de nation drough a handwritten wetter,[321] writing in part:

I have recentwy been towd dat I am one of de miwwions of Americans who wiww be affwicted wif Awzheimer's Disease ... At de moment I feew just fine. I intend to wive de remainder of de years God gives me on dis earf doing de dings I have awways done ... I now begin de journey dat wiww wead me into de sunset of my wife. I know dat for America dere wiww awways be a bright dawn ahead. Thank you, my friends. May God awways bwess you.[323]

After his diagnosis, wetters of support from weww-wishers poured into his Cawifornia home.[324]

But dere was awso specuwation over how wong Reagan had demonstrated symptoms of mentaw degeneration, uh-hah-hah-hah.[325] Not wong after de attempted assassination of Ronawd Reagan, at a reception for mayors, Reagan greeted his Secretary of Housing and Urban DevewopmentSamuew Pierce in 1981 by saying "How are you, Mr Mayor? How are dings in your city?",[326][327] awdough he water reawized his mistake.[328] Former CBSWhite House correspondentLeswey Stahw recounted dat, in her finaw meeting wif de president in 1986, Reagan did not seem to know who Stahw was, and dat she came cwose to reporting dat Reagan was seniwe, but at de end of de meeting, Reagan had regained his awertness.[329] However, Dr. Lawrence K. Awtman, a physician empwoyed as a reporter for The New York Times, noted dat "de wine between mere forgetfuwness and de beginning of Awzheimer's can be fuzzy,"[330] and aww four of Reagan's White House doctors said dat dey saw no evidence of Awzheimer's whiwe he was president.[330] Dr. John E. Hutton, Reagan's primary physician from 1984 to 1989, said de president "absowutewy" did not "show any signs of dementia or Awzheimer's."[330] His former Chief of Staff James Baker considered "wudicrous" de idea dat Reagan swept during cabinet meetings.[331] Oder staff members, former aides, and friends said dey saw no indication of Awzheimer's whiwe he was president.[330] Reagan did experience occasionaw memory wapses, dough, especiawwy wif names.[330] Reagan's doctors say dat he onwy began exhibiting overt symptoms of de iwwness in wate 1992[332] or 1993,[330] severaw years after he had weft office. For exampwe, Reagan repeated a toast to Margaret Thatcher, wif identicaw words and gestures, at his 82nd-birdday party on February 6, 1993.[333]

Compwicating de picture, Reagan suffered an episode of head trauma in Juwy 1989, five years before his diagnosis. After being drown from a horse in Mexico, a subduraw hematoma was found and surgicawwy treated water in de year.[321][322] Nancy Reagan, citing what doctors towd her, asserted dat her husband's 1989 faww hastened de onset of Awzheimer's disease,[322] awdough acute brain injury has not been concwusivewy proven to accewerate Awzheimer's or dementia.[334][335] Reagan's one-time physician Daniew Ruge has said it is possibwe, but not certain, dat de horse accident affected de course of Reagan's memory.[332]

Progression: 1994–2004

As de years went on, de disease swowwy destroyed Reagan's mentaw capacity.[330] He was onwy abwe to recognize a few peopwe, incwuding his wife, Nancy.[330] He remained active, however; he took wawks drough parks near his home and on beaches, pwayed gowf reguwarwy, and untiw 1999 he often went to his office in nearby Century City.[330]

Reagan suffered a faww at his Bew Air home on January 13, 2001, resuwting in a broken hip.[336] The fracture was repaired de fowwowing day[337] and de 89-year-owd Reagan returned home water dat week, awdough he faced difficuwt physicaw derapy at home.[338] On February 6, 2001, Reagan reached de age of 90, becoming de dird former president to do so (de oder two being John Adams and Herbert Hoover, wif Gerawd Ford, George H. W. Bush and Jimmy Carter water reaching 90).[339] Reagan's pubwic appearances became much wess freqwent wif de progression of de disease, and as a resuwt, his famiwy decided dat he wouwd wive in qwiet semi-isowation wif his wife Nancy. Nancy Reagan towd CNN's Larry King in 2001 dat very few visitors were awwowed to see her husband because she fewt dat "Ronnie wouwd want peopwe to remember him as he was."[340] After her husband's diagnosis and deaf, Nancy Reagan became a stem-ceww research advocate, urging Congress and President George W. Bush to support federaw funding for embryonic stem-ceww research, someding Bush opposed. In 2009, she praised President Barack Obama for wifting restrictions on such research.[341] Nancy Reagan said dat she bewieved it couwd wead to a cure for Awzheimer's.[342]

After de funeraw, de Reagan entourage was fwown back to de Ronawd W. Reagan Presidentiaw Library in Simi Vawwey, Cawifornia, where anoder service was hewd, and President Reagan was interred.[352] At de time of his deaf, Reagan was de wongest-wived president in U.S. history, having wived 93 years and 120 days (2 years, 8 monds, and 23 days wonger dan John Adams, whose record he surpassed). He was de first U.S. president to die in de 21st century, and his was de first state funeraw in de United States since dat of President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1973.

His buriaw site is inscribed wif de words he dewivered at de opening of de Ronawd Reagan Presidentiaw Library: "I know in my heart dat man is good, dat what is right wiww awways eventuawwy triumph and dat dere is purpose and worf to each and every wife."[353]

Legacy

Since Reagan weft office in 1989, substantiaw debate has occurred among schowars, historians, and de generaw pubwic surrounding his wegacy.[354] Supporters have pointed to a more efficient and prosperous economy as a resuwt of Reagan's economic powicies,[355] foreign powicy triumphs incwuding a peacefuw end to de Cowd War,[356] and a restoration of American pride and morawe.[121] Proponents say dat he had an unabated and passionate wove for de United States which restored faif in de American Dream,[357] after a decwine in American confidence and sewf-respect under Jimmy Carter's perceived weak weadership, particuwarwy during de Iran hostage crisis, as weww as his gwoomy, dreary outwook for de future of de United States during de 1980 ewection, uh-hah-hah-hah.[358] Critics point out dat Reagan's economic powicies resuwted in rising budget deficits,[157] a wider gap in weawf, and an increase in homewessness[166] and dat de Iran–Contra affair wowered American credibiwity.[359]

Opinions of Reagan's wegacy among de country's weading powicy makers and journawists differ as weww. Edwin Feuwner, president of The Heritage Foundation, said dat Reagan "hewped create a safer, freer worwd" and said of his economic powicies: "He took an America suffering from 'mawaise'... and made its citizens bewieve again in deir destiny."[360] However, Mark Weisbrot, co-Director of de Center for Economic and Powicy Research, contended dat Reagan's "economic powicies were mostwy a faiwure"[361] whiwe Howard Kurtz of The Washington Post opined dat Reagan was "a far more controversiaw figure in his time dan de wargewy gushing obits on tewevision wouwd suggest."[362]

Despite de continuing debate surrounding his wegacy, many conservative and wiberaw schowars agree dat Reagan has been de most infwuentiaw president since Frankwin D. Roosevewt, weaving his imprint on American powitics, dipwomacy, cuwture, and economics drough his effective communication and pragmatic compromising.[363] Since he weft office, historians have reached a consensus,[364] as summarized by British historian M. J. Heawe, who finds dat schowars now concur dat Reagan rehabiwitated conservatism, turned de nation to de right, practiced a considerabwy pragmatic conservatism dat bawanced ideowogy and de constraints of powitics, revived faif in de presidency and in American exceptionawism, and contributed to victory in de Cowd War.[365]

Cowd War

The Cowd War was a major powiticaw, economic and miwitary endeavor for over four decades, but de confrontation between de two superpowers had decreased dramaticawwy by de end of Reagan's presidency.[366] The significance of Reagan's rowe in ending de Cowd War has spurred contentious and opinionated debate.[367][368][369] That Reagan pwayed a rowe in contributing to de downfaww of de Soviet Union is agreed, but de extent of dis rowe is continuouswy debated,[275] wif many bewieving dat Reagan's defense powicies, economic powicies, miwitary powicies and hard wine rhetoric against de Soviet Union and Communism, as weww as summits wif Generaw Secretary Gorbachev pwayed a significant part in ending de Cowd War.[165][275]

He was first among post–Worwd War II presidents to put into practice de concept dat de Soviet Union couwd be defeated rader dan simpwy negotiated wif, a post-Détente strategy,[275] a conviction dat was vindicated by Gennadi Gerasimov, de Foreign Ministry spokesman under Gorbachev, who said dat de Strategic Defense Initiative was "very successfuw bwackmaiw. ...The Soviet economy couwdn't endure such competition, uh-hah-hah-hah."[370] Reagan's aggressive rhetoric toward de USSR had mixed effects; Jeffery W. Knopf observes dat being wabewed "eviw" probabwy made no difference to de Soviets but gave encouragement to de East-European citizens opposed to communism.[275]

Generaw Secretary Gorbachev said of his former rivaw's Cowd War rowe: "[He was] a man who was instrumentaw in bringing about de end of de Cowd War,"[371] and deemed him "a great president."[371] Gorbachev does not acknowwedge a win or woss in de war, but rader a peacefuw end; he said he was not intimidated by Reagan's harsh rhetoric.[372] Margaret Thatcher, former Prime Minister of de United Kingdom, said of Reagan, "he warned dat de Soviet Union had an insatiabwe drive for miwitary power... but he awso sensed it was being eaten away by systemic faiwures impossibwe to reform."[373] She water said, "Ronawd Reagan had a higher cwaim dan any oder weader to have won de Cowd War for wiberty and he did it widout a shot being fired."[374] Said Brian Muwroney, former Prime Minister of Canada: "He enters history as a strong and dramatic pwayer [in de Cowd War]."[375] Former President Lech Wałęsa of Powand acknowwedged, "Reagan was one of de worwd weaders who made a major contribution to communism's cowwapse."[376] That Reagan had wittwe or no effect in ending de Cowd War is argued wif eqwaw weight; dat Communism's internaw weakness had become apparent, and de Soviet Union wouwd have cowwapsed in de end regardwess of who was in power.[275] President Harry S. Truman's powicy of containment is awso regarded as a force behind de faww of de USSR, and de Soviet invasion of Afghanistan undermined de Soviet system itsewf.[368]

Domestic and powiticaw wegacy

Reagan reshaped de Repubwican party, wed de modern conservative movement, and awtered de powiticaw dynamic of de United States.[377] More men voted Repubwican under Reagan, and Reagan tapped into rewigious voters.[377] The so-cawwed "Reagan Democrats" were a resuwt of his presidency.[377]

After weaving office, Reagan became an iconic infwuence widin de Repubwican party.[378] His powicies and bewiefs have been freqwentwy invoked by Repubwican presidentiaw candidates since 1988.[24] The 2008 Repubwican presidentiaw candidates were no exception, for dey aimed to wiken demsewves to him during de primary debates, even imitating his campaign strategies.[379] Repubwican nominee John McCain freqwentwy said dat he came to office as "a foot sowdier in de Reagan Revowution, uh-hah-hah-hah."[380] Reagan's most famous statement regarding de rowe of smawwer government was dat "Government is not a sowution to our probwem, government is de probwem."[381]

Reagan has become an iconic figure in de Repubwican Party. Praise for his accompwishments were part of de standard GOP rhetoric a qwarter century after his retirement. Washington Post reporter Carwos Lozada noted how de main Repubwican contenders in de 2016 presidentiaw race adopted "standard GOP Gipper worship." The contenders incwuded even Donawd Trump, who had previouswy been skepticaw.[382]

The period of American history most dominated by Reagan and his powicies dat concerned taxes, wewfare, defense, de federaw judiciary and de Cowd War is known today as de Reagan Era. This time period emphasized dat de conservative "Reagan Revowution," wed by Reagan, had a permanent impact on de United States in domestic and foreign powicy. The Biww Cwinton administration is often treated as an extension of de Reagan Era, as is de George W. Bush administration.[383] Historian Eric Foner noted dat de Obama candidacy in 2008 "aroused a great deaw of wishfuw dinking among dose yearning for a change after nearwy dirty years of Reaganism."[384]

Cuwturaw and powiticaw image

According to cowumnist Chuck Raasch, "Reagan transformed de American presidency in ways dat onwy a few have been abwe to."[385] He redefined de powiticaw agenda of de times, advocating wower taxes, a conservative economic phiwosophy, and a stronger miwitary.[386] His rowe in de Cowd War furder enhanced his image as a different kind of weader.[387][388] Reagan's "avuncuwar stywe, optimism, and pwain-fowks demeanor" awso hewped him turn "government-bashing into an art form."[166]

As a sitting president, Reagan did not have de highest approvaw ratings,[391] but his popuwarity has increased since 1989. Gawwup powws in 2001 and 2007 ranked him number one or number two when correspondents were asked for de greatest president in history. Reagan ranked dird of post–Worwd War II presidents in a 2007 Rasmussen Reports poww, fiff in an ABC 2000 poww, ninf in anoder 2007 Rasmussen poww, and eighf in a wate 2008 poww by British newspaper The Times.[392][393][394] In a Siena Cowwege survey of over 200 historians, however, Reagan ranked sixteenf out of 42.[395][396] Whiwe de debate about Reagan's wegacy is ongoing, de 2009 Annuaw C-SPAN Survey of Presidentiaw Leaders ranked Reagan de 10f greatest president. The survey of weading historians rated Reagan number 11 in 2000.[397]

In 2011, de Institute for de Study of de Americas reweased de first ever British academic survey to rate U.S. presidents. This poww of British speciawists in U.S. history and powitics pwaced Reagan as de eighf greatest U.S. president.[398]

Reagan's abiwity to connect wif Americans[399] earned him de waudatory moniker "The Great Communicator."[400] Of it, Reagan said, "I won de nickname de great communicator. But I never dought it was my stywe dat made a difference—it was de content. I wasn't a great communicator, but I communicated great dings."[401] His age and soft-spoken speech gave him a warm grandfaderwy image.[402][403][404]

Reagan awso earned de nickname "de Tefwon President," in dat pubwic perceptions of him were not tarnished by de controversies dat arose during his administration, uh-hah-hah-hah.[405] According to Coworado congresswoman Patricia Schroeder, who coined de phrase, and reporter Howard Kurtz, de epidet referred to Reagan's abiwity to "do awmost anyding wrong[405] and not get bwamed for it."[399][406]

Pubwic reaction to Reagan was awways mixed. He was de owdest president up to dat time and was supported by young voters, who began an awwiance dat shifted many of dem to de Repubwican party.[407] Reagan did not fare weww wif minority groups, especiawwy African-Americans.[231] This was wargewy due to his opposition to affirmative action powicies.[408] However, his support of Israew droughout his presidency earned him support from many Jews.[409] He emphasized famiwy vawues in his campaigns and during his presidency, awdough he was de first president to have been divorced.[410] The combination of Reagan's speaking stywe, unabashed patriotism, negotiation skiwws, as weww as his savvy use of de media, pwayed an important rowe in defining de 1980s and his future wegacy.[411]

Reagan was known to joke freqwentwy during his wifetime, dispwayed humor droughout his presidency,[412] and was famous for his storytewwing.[413] His numerous jokes and one-winers have been wabewed "cwassic qwips" and "wegendary."[414] Among de most notabwe of his jokes was one regarding de Cowd War. As a microphone test in preparation for his weekwy radio address in August 1984, Reagan made de fowwowing joke: "My fewwow Americans, I'm pweased to teww you today dat I've signed wegiswation dat wiww outwaw Russia forever. We begin bombing in five minutes."[415] Former aide David Gergen commented, "It was dat humor... dat I dink endeared peopwe to Reagan, uh-hah-hah-hah."[211]

In 1981, Reagan was inducted as a Laureate of The Lincown Academy of Iwwinois and awarded de Order of Lincown (de state's highest honor) by de Governor of Iwwinois in de area of Government.[418] In 1983, he received de highest distinction of de Scout Association of Japan, de Gowden Pheasant Award.[419] In 1989, Reagan was made an Honorary Knight Grand Cross of de Order of de Baf, one of de highest British orders (dis entitwed him to de use of de post-nominaw wetters "GCB" but, as a foreign nationaw, not to be known as "Sir Ronawd Reagan"); onwy two U.S. presidents have received dis honor since attaining office, Reagan and George H. W. Bush.,[420] whiwe Dwight D. Eisenhower received his before becoming President in his capacity as a generaw after Worwd War II. Reagan was awso named an honorary Fewwow of Kebwe Cowwege, Oxford. Japan awarded him de Grand Cordon of de Order of de Chrysandemum in 1989; he was de second U.S. president to receive de order and de first to have it given to him for personaw reasons (Dwight D. Eisenhower received it as a commemoration of U.S.-Japanese rewations).[421] In 1990, Reagan was awarded de WPPAC's Top Honor Prize because he signed de Intermediate-Range Nucwear Forces Treaty wif H.E. Mikhaiw Sergeyevich Gorbachev (den President of Russia), ending de cowd war.[422][423]

On January 18, 1993, Reagan received de Presidentiaw Medaw of Freedom (awarded wif distinction), de highest honor dat de United States can bestow, from President George H. W. Bush, his Vice President and successor.[424] Reagan was awso awarded de Repubwican Senatoriaw Medaw of Freedom, de highest honor bestowed by Repubwican members of de Senate.[425]

In 1998 de U.S. Navy Memoriaw Foundation awarded Reagan its Navaw Heritage award for his support of de U.S. Navy and miwitary in bof his fiwm career and whiwe he served as president.[428]

Congress audorized de creation of de Ronawd Reagan Boyhood Home in Dixon, Iwwinois in 2002, pending federaw purchase of de property.[429] On May 16 of dat year, Nancy Reagan accepted de Congressionaw Gowd Medaw, de highest civiwian honor bestowed by Congress, on behawf of de president and hersewf.[430]

In 2007, Powish President Lech Kaczyński posdumouswy conferred on Reagan de highest Powish distinction, de Order of de White Eagwe, saying dat Reagan had inspired de Powish peopwe to work for change and hewped to unseat de repressive communist regime; Kaczyński said it "wouwd not have been possibwe if it was not for de tough-mindedness, determination, and feewing of mission of President Ronawd Reagan, uh-hah-hah-hah."[438] Reagan backed de nation of Powand droughout his presidency, supporting de anti-communist Sowidarity movement, awong wif Pope John Pauw II;[439] de Ronawd Reagan Park, a pubwic faciwity in Gdańsk, was named in his honor.

On June 3, 2009, Nancy Reagan unveiwed a statue of her wate husband in de United States Capitow rotunda. The statue represents de state of Cawifornia in de Nationaw Statuary Haww Cowwection. After Reagan's deaf, bof major American powiticaw parties agreed to erect a statue of Reagan in de pwace of dat of Thomas Starr King.[440] The day before, President Obama signed de Ronawd Reagan Centenniaw Commission Act into waw, estabwishing a commission to pwan activities to mark de upcoming centenary of Reagan's birf.[441]

Independence Day 2011 saw de unveiwing of anoder statue to Reagan—dis time in de British capitaw of London, outside de U.S. embassy in Grosvenor Sqware. The unveiwing was supposed to be attended by Reagan's wife Nancy, but she did not attend; former Secretary of State Condoweezza Rice took her pwace and read a statement on her behawf; furder to de former First Lady's absence, President Reagan's friend and British prime minister during his presidency, Baroness Thatcher, was awso unabwe to attend due to fraiw heawf.[442]

^"Biography of Gerawd R. Ford". The White House. Archived from de originaw on Apriw 11, 2007. Retrieved March 29, 2007. Ford considered himsewf as "a moderate in domestic affairs, a conservative in fiscaw affairs, and a dyed-in-de-woow internationawist in foreign affairs."

^"Interview: Dr. Herbert Kweber". PBS. Retrieved June 12, 2007. The powitics of de Reagan years and de Bush years probabwy made it somewhat harder to get treatment expanded, but at de same time, it probabwy had a good effect in terms of decreasing initiation and use. For exampwe, marijuana went from dirty-dree percent of high-schoow seniors in 1980 to twewve percent in 1991.