Roman / Celtic Research

The following are in no particular order, but are from my research writing for the mini launch tour for AFTER WHORL: BRAN REBORN, Book 2 of my Celtic Fervour series of historical romantic adventures.(In some part the information has been used in a guest post elsewhere but written entirely by me)

Vespasian and The Flavians

(Plaster cast in Pushkin
Museum –copy from a bust
in the Louvre.http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vespasianus01_pushkin.jpg)

Titus Flavius Vespasianus became emperor of the Roman Empire in July AD 69 at the age of almost 60,
establishing the short-lived dynasty of ‘Flavians’. From relatively humble
origins of equestrian birth, he followed his maternal uncle and brother to
become a senator, the wealth his father accruing as a tax collector elevating
their family to patrician status. In his early thirties, Vespasian served as a
military tribune during the reign of Tiberius, and in AD 40 he went on to
become a praetor during Caligula’s reign.

When Claudius became emperor in AD 41 Vespasian became the
legate of the Legio II Augusta and served in Germania.
When Claudius set to conquer Britannia in AD 43, Vespasian joined the campaign
with his Legio II Augusta. In what is now termed the south of England (east and west) Vespasian
distinguished himself with his use of siege weapons against the heavily
fortified settlements of the indigenous Celtic tribes, capturing and subduing a
good number of these substantial hill forts. He was well lauded on his return
to Rome with
triumphal regalia.

He seems to have come in and out of favour during his career.
In AD 51, he held consular office but then seems to have tactfully retired from
public life till his return as pro-consul of Africa
in AD 63. His lack of greed, and his evasion of the usual corruptive habits, earned
him some contacts and friends - though not much money. Many thought him unwise
not to line his own pockets, but it appears Vespasian’s priorities were
different.

After the death of Nero, in AD 68, came the very turbulent
time when Rome
saw one emperor crowned by another in quick succession. Galba was followed by
Otho, who was in turn succeeded by Vitellius. The supporters of Otho went
looking for someone to follow instead of Vitellius and they settled on
Vespasian who was still in North Africa. The
machinations of how Vespasian eventually, and officially, was declared emperor
can be covered in another blog. His growing fame in northern Africa, as
something out of the natural, and was even of the supernatural, would make a
whole blog post, but what is important for my writing is that he took up the
reins proper as Emperor of the Roman Empire in
AD 69.

The painting here is very intriguing. It represents the
triumph of Vespasian’s son Titus when he captured the (Second) Temple of Jerusalem and made off with Jewish
artefacts. In the chariot are both Vespasian and Titus- though Titus was the
only one present at the siege of Jerusalem,
Vespasian, still in Egypt.

Of his many endeavours, one of Vespasian’s main pieces of archaeological
evidence is in Rome
itself. In AD 70, Vespasian ordered the commencement of the building of the
Colosseum in Rome
– though it was not completed till AD 80, a short while after his death.

(http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Colosseum-view.jpg)

In my first Celtic Britain historical adventure – The Beltane Choice- I chose to set it
in northern Britannia in AD 71. By then, Vespasian had been the emperor and
ultimate decision maker for nearly two years. All of the Roman soldiers,
serving in Britannia at the time covered in my first novel, executed the orders
of their superiors who in turn looked to Vespasian’s top commands.

In The Beltane Choice,
and in my new follow on novels – After
Whorl- the top ranking Romans are the governors of Britannia during the period
AD 71 through to AD 84, and my fictitious Roman soldiers under their command –
in particular my Gaius Livanus Valerius.

When Vespasian became emperor, the governor of Britannia was
Vettius Bolanus who proved to be ineffective, his grip on control in the
province not strong enough for his emperor. Bolanus was replaced in AD 71 by
Quintus Petillius Cerialis- Vespasian’s brother-in-law. Next governor to serve
in Britannia, and who features very briefly, in name only, in my novels is
Sextus Julius Frontinus. Whether or not Frontinus directly followed the orders
of Vespasian lies in the mists of time, but the policies of Frontinus in
northern Britannia are crucial to the events in After Whorl- Bran Reborn.

By AD 78, Vespasian had sent Gnaeus Julius Agricola back to
Britannia as governor of the province. Agricola plays a minor role in my novel,
but his directives are very important to the movements of my Roman Legate,
Gaius Livanus Valerius. The northern campaigns of Agricola seem to have been left
very much to Agricola’s discretion, regarding what was achievable.

Agricola continued with his northern Britannia campaign plans
after the death of Vespasian in AD 79. Titus Flavius Vespasianus – Vespasian’s
elder son – succeeded as emperor but he only lasted for two years and was
followed by his younger brother, Domitian in AD 81. In AD 84, the time at which
I have put my Battle of Mons Graupius, Domitian was emperor, his reign lasting
until AD 96. Tacitus, son-in-law of Agricola, makes claim such a battle
happened though evidence is virtually non-existent.

How much influence Domitian had over what Agricola actually
did ‘on the ground’ during the ‘famed’ battle is unclear, to me, but I’m sure
it would have been such a huge boost to the reputation of Agricola to send
missives to Rome declaring that he had subdued all of the very northern tribes.
The triumphal honours Agricola received on his return to Rome
in late AD 84 bear out that something of merit did actually happen in north
east Scotland
– the large battle quoted having earned those honours.

Having served approximately six years as governor, longer
than most governorship durations, Agricola seems to have fallen foul of
Domitian’s favour. Whether that had something to do with what had happened in
northern Britannia is an interesting conjecture.

What Domitian’s orders were, regarding the Roman soldiers
left in northern Britannia after the‘Battle of Mons Graupius’ from AD 84 and AD 96 I have yet to do more research
on.

But.. I will. I look forward to the challenge. And… I also
look forward writing my next book during that period.

Alma Tadema’s Triumph of Titus: the Flavians

In this canvas, the artist shows Titus returning to Rome in triumph following his capture of Jerusalem in AD 70.

His father, Emperor
Vespasian, clad in a white toga, leads the procession.

Titus comes next,
holding the hand of his daughter, Julia, who turns to address her father's
younger brother and successor, Domitian.

In the background is the Temple
of Jupiter Victor. Among
the spoils from Jerusalem
is a 7-branched candlestick from the temple. Alma-Tadema depicted these events
by drawing on classical sources, like the reliefs on of the Arch of Titus and
on the latest 19th-century scholarship regarding everyday life in Rome.

I think the representations of Vespasian to be all very
similar, making me believe it may have been a good representation of his likeness.

The Triquetra Design (originally published as a post on this blog Dec 2013 which has subsequently been deleted)

I love my new book cover
design so much that I’m writing about it, today. Although I’ve seen versions of
the basic design in many situations, I’ve never taken the time to find out what
it’s all about.

First, though, I’ll say that I love my particular cover
design because it’s so relevant in my forthcoming novel- not due to any
religious significance but merely because there are three main characters - two
men and a woman - who have different interactions with each other.

No, my characters are definitely NOT involved in some kind
of ‘threesome’ in the contemporary sexual usage of that word, but they do
become interlinked at different times in the story.

The three protagonists are therefore the reason for me choosing the brooch
design with three ‘branches’.

It’s, of course, wonderful that my publisher- Crooked Cat-
offered me a few designs to choose from, the one chosen happily agreed on by
all concerned!

So if the number 3 is significant for me, what does my
symbol actually mean?

The triquetra at its simplest results from the Latin tri-
meaning three and quetrus meaning
cornered.

www.123rf.com

In some situations, it has been used to refer to the simplest
of three cornered shapes. In others, the original three cornered shape is
embellished, the lines softened or the lines convoluted to form more complex
triangular interconnections. In northern Europe,
rune stones have been found with examples of triquetra shapes and some very
early Germanic coins also have three cornered designs on them. In Norse
mythology the Valknut, a three cornered shape is a symbol associated with Odin.

How early the shape appeared to be carved on stones and to
be used in metalwork is debatable. Those who believe its symbolism goes back to
a much earlier era before the Christian tradition also tend towards the triune theory- that is triune meaning ‘three in one’- though
which deities are involved may vary depending on the local use of the symbol.
During the earliest times, the mother goddess is a likely constituent: possibly
representing her at different life stages as in maiden, mother and old crone –
similar to how it is used in Neo-Paganism.

The symbol was readily used in Insular Art/ Hiberno-Saxon
Art after the Roman occupation of Britannia (current British
Isles), roughly after the sixth century AD/CE. The insular aspect
meaning of the ‘island’, from the Latin word insula, was coined for the particular style found in what is now Great Britain and Ireland-
a style which differed from that in continental Europe.
That’s not to say the style does not display European influences- because it
can do.

Triquetra patterns are found on metal work and in
illuminated manuscripts – many examples, for instance, are in The Book of
Kells. Celtic crosses, slabs in graveyards and at sites of historical interest
display triquetra patterns- these mainly from the early Christian period. I
find it very interesting that it has been noted that in manuscripts the sign is
rarely depicted on its own. It’s use as a margin/ space filler gives food for
thought – as if the more complex interweaving designs may have been practised
there.Inknotwork panels it is used in conjunction
with many other elements of design.

It has been widely recognised for many decades, even
centuries, as a meaningful symbol by Celtic Christians, Pagan/ Neo- Pagans and
others like Wiccan /Neo Wiccans. As well as representing the triple goddess (maiden,
mother and crone) for some it means earth, sea, sky; perhaps even other
elemental forces as in mind, body and soul; past, present and future. In
popular culture, it has been used to represent many other ‘threesomes’.

Whatever its use and
purpose, it’s a very fascinating symbol. I love it.

The Celtic tribes of Britain
have often been recognised as warlike bands of men whose defence of their territory
was fierce. It definitely seems to be true that, like most nations, they were
very ready to defend their lands by taking up arms, but the Celts of Britannia
were also basically faming communities. Their wealth lay in the land that they
cultivated, and in the other natural resources which they exploited from the
ground.

Wikimedia Commons- denarius Vespasian

Good crop yields meant potentially plenty to barter with since; in
general, the Celts of my period didn’t trade for actual coin. That’s not to say
the Celts never used coin at all. Evidence has been found of coins minted in
the names of Celtic Chiefs around the period of AD 71, but I don’t believe most
tribes used ‘coins’ as collateral in the way we do today. As status symbols,
they would have been important - but I think the Brigante tribes of the north,
who are in my novels, would not have expected regular coin-changing amongst
themselves.

However, any trade with the Roman Empire
could have been lucrative and I’ve used that situation in After Whorl: Bran Reborn where my male
and female protagonists set up regular trade with the nearby Roman forts which
were springing up all over Brigantia. Of course, they’re doing more than just
the trading of leather and wool- it’s a great excuse for allowing them to be
able to do a little lucrative spying as well!

One reason for the Roman Empire’s wish to dominate the Island of Britannia
was that it had very fertile lands in the southern areas – in what we might now
term the southern English counties. Back in AD 71, the Celtic tribes of those
areas may not have grown the varieties of crops that are currently raised
there, but they were pretty successful at growing emmer wheat and similar grain
crops. The grain levies that the Roman Empire demanded of the subdued Celtic
tribes who lived there helped quite a bit to feed the Roman Army troops who
were stationed in areas of mainland Europe where
the growing of grain was poor. Grain was an essential part of the diet of the
Roman soldier- unleavened bread and a sort of porridge – being the staple fare,
so it was crucial for the Empire’s stability to provide the grain rations on a
regular basis. Bag it up and ship it across the channel…seemed to be common
practice for the Roman War Machine.

According to sources, the Roman Empire
made written treaties with the Celts, whereby any surplus the Celts had (in
excess of the Roman requisitioned crops) could be traded for Roman gold. The
exchange of the actual coin was, I believe, a bit slow but was generally
honoured by Governors of Britannia like Gnaeus Julius Agricola.

If the Celtic tribes hadn’t been good farmers, this would not have been a
profitable source for the Roman usurpers. Crop rotation gave the Celts superior
yields to those European farmers who didn’t take the trouble to practise such a
simple idea: allowing the land to have a ‘break’ from one type of product was
effective. From archaeological evidence, it seems the Celtic farmers were also
more sophisticated than was first credited. Using an iron ploughshare was a
huge advance on previous soil breaking techniques and the use of iron rimmed
wheels made transportation of yields easier.

I’ve read that the Celts also began the practice of shoeing horses but
need to see more evidence of that to be convinced how readily it happened in
Britannia. Equally, I’d like to find more corroborating evidence that their
flour milling techniques were superior to other races of the era - though what
I’ve read, I don’t dispute. The use of the simple quern stone to mill grain was
a very lengthy and repetitive process but quite effective. Larger scale
production of this would be reasonable to imagine with some other animal
providing the energy for turning the wheel like an oxen or a small Celtic horse
- rather than the human hand (woman).

Where I live in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, there are many field areas which
are demarcated by low granite walls, dry-stane dyked, which it’s thought might
easily have foundations which were laid back in Celtic times. In many cases the
walls are very, very old and they separate the typical strip field patterns of
Celtic farmers. The Celtic farm strips were not randomly laid out- they were
practical and sized according to what was reasonable for a small number of
people to work during the growing and cropping season- locally set to a good
day’s ploughing. Those Celtic farmers weren’t stupid!

I like to think that I’ve included historically accurate information in
my Celtic Fervour series – at least
that’s my intention and I sincerely hope you enjoy reading them!

Tribunes

Roman Military tribunes… Is the male protagonist in After Whorl- Bran Reborn a hunky Roman tribune? Well…actually no. Nevertheless, there is a Roman tribune, who is quite a
character. In both After Whorl -Bran
Reborn and in book 3, After Whorl: Donning Double Cloaks (spring 2014), Gaius Livanus Valerius is a very important secondary character.

Gaius may not be originally from top-notch senatorial class, but
his background is of good equestrian stock. This meant his father could
purchase a commission for him to enter the ranks of the officer class in the
army. Normally that might be done around the age of eighteen, but Gaius entered militay service a little earlier, his father having packed him off to non-officer ranks for a short while due to a misdemeanour which banished him from the family environs. He has learned to live with the lower ranks till old enough to be elevated to a junior clerk post.

Has that early entry to military life made any difference?
Absolutely! Gaius is much more toughened by having had to work with the rank
and file. My Celtic heroine, Ineda, may not call him exactly hunky but she does
- eventually - consider that he is a very fit and good looking soldier. When
Ineda gets to know Gaius she learns he is much older than the usual Tribune
Angusticlavius. That seems odd because the Roman Army structure seems to be so regular. In her typically inquisitve way, she ferrets out enough information for her to understand why this has happened to a soldier who seems so competent. Simplified she realises that the Roman Army structure from top to bottom is this: The head of the legion was
the Legatus Legionis – the Legate. Below him, at second in command, is the Tribune Laticlavius. The
next tier down in the ranking are five Tribune Angusticlacivii – the
men of Gaius’ rank. Those men are around 25 years of age, yet Gaius is nearing thirty winters.

Since Gaius had reasons for prolonging his stay in
Britannia, and did not wanting to return to Rome, Ineda finds he has accepted a second term of office at the rank of Tribune Angusticlavius, the reason that he is some four years older than his companion tribunes. Ineda finds out that as well as still being in charge of a
large number of soldiers, Gaius has been singled out by the Roman Governor
of Britannia to do some extra special duties. A very well regarded and
experienced soldier is Gaius Livanus Valerius!

Gaius has already done duty in Britannia as part of a ala – a mounted regiment where he was heavily involved with the Demetae and the Ordovices. They are troublesome tribes of the area we would
now call North and West Wales. ~This means Gaius has
already sharpened his teeth on some warring Celts before he gets involved with the Brigantes of Garrigill, of northern England.

The man in this image is too old for my Gaius but the uniform
might be somewhat similar.

If anyone remembers the deep sexy tones of
rugged-faced Richard Burton, a young Richard played a
Roman tribune who ends up with the robe of Jesus. Not quite the same uniform as
my Gaius but replace the younger Richard Burton’s face into the uniform on the
wiki image and that would be just about okay for Gaius!

Day to day, I imagine Gaius to be wearing some sort of
armour when he is stationed in the fortress at Viroconium Cornoviorum
(Wroxeter/Shropshire/England) though I don’t expect it would always have to be
a full copper breastplate – perhaps more of a lighter weight simpler-styled
cuirass, and just enough for everyone to note his rank as he goes about his
business. Acknowledging ones rank in the Roman encampment would have been every
bit as important as it is in any modern army. However, I certainly expect him to be wearing
full armour when he is visiting the newly built small forts in Brigantia and at
all times when out of the fort.

In full armour I see him wearing the type of chest plate ‘muscled’
cuirass with the six-pack on show (or maybe even 8 pack). This would be worn
over a cloth, leather or padded vest under which would be a light wool tunic. Showing
below the bottom edge of the cuirass, would have been a series of one or more rows
of long tongue- shaped leather straps called lappets (pteruges) which were
formed into a skirt, probably to protect the groin area. The red cloak
(paludamentum) pinned on the right shoulder with a fibula clasp pin had a
ceremonial function as well a practical one. When the legion was ready to
launch into war the paludamentum was worn as a signal of being ready to act.
It’s my personal opinion, but I think that in hostile territory it would have
been worn as a signal of being prepared for battle if combat was likely, or
even a possibility. It’s thought the colour of the cloak that was worn by
tribunes was red and the long rectangular piece of material could be wrapped
around the lower arm to give extra protection.

My Gaius would have worn his plumed engraved helmet to
declare his rank, but also because in hostile territory in Britannia attack
could happen at any time outside the Roman barracks.

Why conquer Britannia?

During the Flavian period, the military concept of
conquering the then known world –Britannia being the westernmost large land
mass – is easy to believe. I can see the attraction for the Roman Emperor in
literally putting his foot on every part of Britannia’s soil, to the very last
bastion to be conquered. Keeping the warring Celtic tribes at peace with each
other was another very good reason, but how could that add to the Roman
hoard?

Apart from the merely military and political clout of that
conquering, there had to be some other reason for subduing the local
Celtic peoples and claiming their land. Was it resources – natural and man made
that Rome
sought to acquire? What would the Roman Empire
expect to glean from newly conquered terrain?

Natural and man made resources? They became an important focus in After Whorl-Bran
Reborn, and are even more important in the third book in my series After Whorl-Donning Double Cloaks.

The current southern counties of England
were highly prized by The Roman Empire for their substantial grain production, and supplies shipped to mainland Europe helped to feed the troops of Rome in areas
where local grain produce was limited. There was a lot of calculated sense in
acquiring fruitful, fertile land but what of the other less hospitable areas of
the island of Britannia? What can be produced in
southern England is not necessarily
replicated in the hilly lands of northern Brigantia (present day Cumbria and Northumberland), and in parts of
modern day Scotland.
So if grain production in the northern climes wasn’t going to be a good
addition to the coffers of the Roman Empire –
what was?

The northern Celts were sheep farmers, among
other things, whose main breed was probably similar to the Soay Sheep still
farmed on some Scottish islands, and Welsh hillsides. Would wool production be
lucrative enough to make the Emperor
Vespasian subdue the tribes of the north, gleaning profits to add to the
Roman coffers? Perhaps, to a limited extent, but there had
to be other profitable resources.

Major sea trading wasn't established between
Britannia and mainland Europe till after AD 71-84. Did that mean that most of the resources purloined by
the Roman Empire in the AD 70s andAD
80s were consumed by the Roman Army stationed on Britannia’s soil? Seasonal crops
and farmed livestock were perishable so that seemed an economically sound
notion.

What other commodities did the Roman Army in Britannia need?
What about leather for their tents, liquid flasks and storage pouches? Leather
armour and strapping for both men and beasts might have been shipped across
from the Iberian Peninsula, modern day Spain
and Portugal
being excellent sources. Some leather would likely have been
appropriated from the Brigantes.

Metals? The Roman
Army used a lot of metal in and around their soldiers:
metal worn by the legionary or auxiliary soldier, and the
weapons carried and fought with. That had to amount to a lot of steel and
other metal alloys which are very heavy to transport. In the building of their
forts and fortresses, there was a large quantity of metal needed for the
connecting nails. In more developed forts, they would have needed lead supplies
for their advanced plumbing systems. Where would those metal goods have been sourced? Britannia did have sufficient of these, making it a
worthwhile process in subduing the locals.

Roman fort building, leather and wool feature quite a lot in
After Whorl-Bran Reborn. Fort
building and the movement of metal in northern Britannia features a lot more in
book number three After Whorl-Donning
Double Cloaks where the action moves north from Brigantia into the Celtic
tribes who occupied present day Scotland.
Trade is an important part of the plots, but the political and strategic
acquisition of the supplies has equal prominence. Local tribal resistance to
the domination of Rome
during that time has not been forgotten either, and remains a core part of the
fervour in my novels.

In my writing I'm attempting to write about more than just the physical battles that
went on between the local Celtic population of northern Britannia and the Roman
Empire – though, I will give sufficient advance notice to say that I was overjoyed
to take the action in my third novel all the way north to the Battle of Mons
Graupius which I have set in my own home area of Aberdeenshire.

Etain ... or Epona by another name

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Epona.jpg

It seems odd, to me, to write my Celtic Fervour novels without a mention of some of the gods and
goddesses that my characters might favour and worship. In The Beltane Choice, Nara
appeals to her goddess Rhianna quite a few times; and Taranis is called upon by
Lorcan to intercede in the trying circumstances he finds himself in. That first
novel of the series is written predominantly from a Celtic perspective, the
protagonists from the Selgovae and Brigante tribes, so it naturally follows
that Celtic gods and goddesses are featured.

In After Whorl- Bran
Reborn, the second novel of the series, my main characters are two Celtic
Brigantes and one Roman tribune. Having a Roman as a main character has allowed
me to focus on Gaius Livanus Valerius’ favoured goddess – Etain. Now, for anyone familiar with god and goddesses of Celtic
and Roman religions, that might make some hairs stir since Etain Echraidhe is generally thought to be a Celtic, rather than a
Roman, deity. Why did he not worship a Roman goddess like Diana the huntress?
Alternatively, why was my Roman tribune not favouring the goddess Epona who admittedly had Gaulish Celtic
origins, yet also found many Roman supporters?

The Celtic horse goddess, Epona, is immortalised in stone as well as metal. She is sometimes
shown riding side-saddle accompanied by a pair of fine mares. In other images,
she’s accompanied by a mare and a foal and is revered as a fertility goddess. In
other images, she tends to only one horse. However, in addition to being
worshipped as a fertility goddess, Epona was also given the reputation of being
a protector to all who had dealings with horses: those who rode them, and those
who groomed or bred them.

I remember reading a story a long time ago about Celtic horse-handlers
who only caught and removed young foals from the forests, to tame them, this
practice allowing the adult horses to continue to breed. It seems natural to
find out that those who trained those young colts and fillies were devotees of
Epona, and gained protection from her. I’m no horse person myself, as I believe
you are, but I know that the breaking in of a foal demands much patience, the
young animal needing constant reassurance from the handlers. Getting used to
the bridle and reins, and bearing a rider takes great expertise from any horse-handler
and as such Celtic horsemen and horsewomen had a good position in the hierarchy
of the tribe. A horse shying away, panicking, or not responding to commands
while pulling a chariot, or bearing a warrior during a battle would have been
of little use to any Celt. Therefore, being a horse handler was a very good job
since the horse stock was a very important part of a tribe’s wealth. Worshipping
Epona because you worked with horses must have had a lot of kudos, I think, in
Celtic society.

Epona appeared to ensure such success among Celtic warriors
that when the Roman Army infiltrated Celtic Europe many of the Roman soldiers
took on the Gaulish Epona as their own goddess. Epona then became the revered
goddess of many of the alae units – that
is of the mounted Roman cavalry.

wikimedia commons

In After Whorl- Bran
Reborn, my Roman Tribune Angusticlavius - Gaius Livanus Valerius - comes
from an elevated equestrian background, and has spent time as a junior officer
of a mounted ala in Roman Britain. He’s
had plenty of time to come to know the customs of Britannia; he’s learned more
of the language of the Celts and has adopted some of their worship.

In particular, he worships Etain – an alternative name for Epona in some Celtic areas of
Britannia.

Exactly when Gaius made the transfer from Epona to Etain is
not divulged, neither in book two, nor in book three After Whorl-Donning Double Cloaks (due sometime around Spring 2014),
but it most likely happened when he was stationed with an ala in the area we now call north Wales, with the Legio XX.

Ineda, my main Celtic female character in After Whorl- Bran Reborn, learns
exactly how important worshipping Etain is to Gaius.

I love researching gods and goddesses of ancient
civilisations and hope this little taster has brought you something new today.

Quintus Petilius Cerialis Caesius Rufus

Some names are mentioned
in my Celtic Fervour
series of novels that are a crucial part of the action and yet as
characters they never appear at all, or are only mentioned in a limited
role. My friend 'Petty’ is one of those names.

Cerialis-Wikimedia Commons

In the The
Beltane Choiceand After Whorl: Bran Reborn - the Roman governor of
Britannia plays a ‘behind the scenes’ role. If it were not for the policies of Quintus Petilius Cerialis Caesius Rufusmy
Brigantes, and the other tribes of the north, would be peaceably
farming their lands and only indulging in little bouts of warfare with
their
neighbours. Governor Cerialis (the name he’s usually referred by),
however, is under orders from the Roman Emperor Vespasian. When a
campaign of military advance creeps northwards towards mid- Brigantia,
my characters are involved in what I've called the Battle of Whorl in The Beltane Choice. 'Petty's’troops triumph at Whorl, though the personal fortunes of the
Governor were not always so rosy, since the career of Cerialis had many ups and downs. Another notable name – Gnaeus Julius
Agricola - also plays a backstage role in my novels.

Agricola-Wikimedia Commons

Book 2 of my Celtic Fervour series begins with the battle at
Whorl. At this point 'Petty’ is still the Roman Governor of Britannia
and his orders still prevail. ‘Petty’ was
the Governor of Britannia from approximately A.D.70 to A.D.73/74. Books
1& 2 are during this time period. ‘Petty’ was then probably
around the age of 40, this approximation based on the fact that a Roman
had to
have served in a number of roles before earning such a high status job
as
Governor of a province. What had 'Petty' done to earn such a prestigious
job back in AD70?

Before becoming a provincial Governor a man tended to have served as
commander of a legion - a legate. Before becoming a legate it was generally necessary to
have served first as a praetor. A
praetor was sometimes someone who had practical experience as a ‘commander in
the field’, during times of heavy campaigns. Or, a praetor may have been
elevated to the role of a public administrator over a large province, though the
number of these operating across the Roman Empire
varied according to who was emperor. To achieve the position of praetor there
was a minimum age of thirty. In the absence of actual documented dating, for the
life of someone like Cerialis, the position a man achieved in serving the Roman
Empire stands as a good indicator of his minimum age.

Before becoming the Governor of Britannia‘Petty’ had been legate of the Legio IX
Hispania, stationed in southern Britain,
in AD 60. He therefore had a lot of knowledge of the machinations of the tribes
of Britannia. The retreat, and subsequent humiliation, his forces had to make
during the uprisings of Queen Boudicca of the Iceni got him no public honour,
and he departed for the European mainland when his term of office was
over.However, it seems that he
conducted himself well enough in AD 69, with the Legio XIV Roman troops
in Germany,
sufficient to have the Emperor Vespasian confer the role of Governor of
Britannia on him in AD 70. Military honours got you a better job like a
Governor but the writings available for the time indicate that Cerialis
became a very good General and became a sound military tactitian.

‘Petty’returned to Britannia. One of his first tasks was to suppress the insurgence of
Venutius, the former husband of Queen Cartimandua, a Queen of the Brigantes
federation of tribes. This part of history has become the particular focus of The
Beltane Choiceand ofAfter Whorl: Bran Reborn.

‘Petty’ is documented as …“having at once struck terror into their hearts by invading the
commonwealth of the Brigantes, which is said to be the most numerous tribe of
the whole province: many battles were fought, sometimes bloody battles, and by
permanent conquest or by forays he annexed a large portion of the Brigantes.”
(Tacitus)

‘Petty’ mainly settled during AD 70 -74 at the garrison at
Eboracum (York), which it’s thought he constructed, or that he made
improvements to an earlier Roman fort on the site. ‘Petty’ also
constructed other encampments in the north of England which
evolved into forts that, in some way, have survived to the present day.
Dendrochronological evidence is now pointing to Cerialis having
established a lot more forts and fortlets in present day Scotland but
just how far north he marched with his troops is hard to be sure of.

The plot for After Whorl: Bran Reborn includes
the building of some of these Roman forts.