Frustum vs sphere tests are significantly faster than frustum vs OOBB. By rejecting objects that fail sphere culling first, we have fewer objects to process in the more expensive OOBB pass.

Why go over all objects brute force instead of using some sort of spatial partition data structure? We like to keep things simple and with the current setup we have yet to encounter a case where we've been bound by the culling. Brute force sphere culling followed by OOBB culling is fast enough for all cases we've encountered so far. That might of course change in the future, but we'll take care of that when it's an actual problem.

The brute force culling is pretty fast, because:

The sphere and the OOBB culling use SIMD and only load the minimum amount of needed data.

The workload is distributed over several threads.

In this post, I we will first look at the single threaded SIMD code and then how the culling is distributed over multiple threads.

I'll use a lot of code to show how it's all done. It's mostly actual code from the engine, but it has been cleaned up to a certain extent. Some stuff has been renamed and/or removed to make it easier to understand what's going on.

Data structures used

If you go back to my previous post about state reflection, http://bitsquid.blogspot.ca/2016/09/state-reflection.html you can read that each object on the main thread is associated with a render thread representation via a render_handle. The render_handle is used to get the object_index which is the index of an object in the _objects array.

For culling MeshObjects and other cullable types are represented by culling::Objects that are used to populate the culling data structures. As can be seen in the code they are _cullable_objects, _cullable_shadow_casters and _occluders and they are all represented by an ObjectSet:

When an object is added to, e.g. _cullable_objects the culling::Object data is added to the ObjectSet. The ObjectSet flattens the data into a structure-of-arrays representation. The arrays are padded to the SIMD lane count to make sure there's valid data to read.

Frustum-sphere culling

The world space positions and sphere radii of objects are represented by the following members of the ObjectSet:

The frustum-sphere intersection code tests one plane against several spheres using SIMD instructions. The ObjectSet data is already laid out in a SIMD friendly way. To test one plane against several spheres, the plane's data is splatted out in the following way:

After the simd_sphere_culling call, the visibility_flag array contains 0 for all objects that failed the test and 0xffffffff for all objects that passed. We chain this together with the OOBB culling by doing a compactness pass over the visibility_flag array and populating an indirection array:

More specifically we use the Method 2: Transform box vertices to clip space, test against clip-space planes that both Fabian and Arseny write about. But we also go with Method 2b: Saving arithmetic ops that Fabian mentions. I won't dwelve into how the culling actually works, to understand that please read their posts.

The code is SIMDified to process several OOBBs at the same time. The same corner of four multiple OOBBs is tested against one frustum plane as a single SIMD operation.

To be able to write the SIMD code in a more intuitive form a few data structures and functions are used:

The final call to remove_not_visible populates the indirection array with the objects that passed both the frustum-sphere and the frustum-OOBB culling. indirection together with n_oobb_visible is all that is needed to know what objects should be rendered.

Distributing the work over several threads

In Stingray, work is distributed by submitting jobs to a pool of worker threads -- conveniently called the ThreadPool. Submitted jobs are put in a thread safe work queue from which the worker threads pop jobs to work on. A task is defined as:

For the purpose of this article, the interesting methods of the ThreadPool are:

class ThreadPool
{
// Adds `count` tasks to the work queue.
void add_tasks(const TaskDefinition *tasks, uint32_t count);
// Tries to pop one task from the queue and do that work. Returns true if any work was done.
bool do_work();
// Will call `do_work` while `signal` == value.
void wait_atomic(std::atomic<uint32_t> *signal, uint32_t value);
};

The ThreadPool doesn't dictate how to synchronize when a job is fully processed, but usually a std::atomic<uint32_t> signal is used for that purpose. The value is 0 while the job is being processed and set to 1 when it's done. wait_atomic() is a convenience method that can be used to wait for such values:

The same pattern is used to multi-thread the frustum-OOBB culling. That is "left as an exercise for the reader" ;)

Conclusion

This type of culling is done for all of the objects that can be rendered, i.e. meshes, particle systems, terrain, etc. We also use it to cull light sources. It is used both when rendering the main scene and for rendering shadows.

I've left out a few details of our solution. One thing we also do is something called contribution culling. In the frustum-OOBB culling step, the extents of the OOBB corners are projected to the near plane and from that the screen space extents are derived. If the object is smaller than a certain threshold in any axis the object is considered as culled. Special care needs to be considered if any of the corners intersect or is behind the near plane so we don't have to deal with "external line segments" caused by the projection. If you don't know what that is see: http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/168577/Indepth_Software_rasterizer_and_triangle_clipping.php. In our case the contribution culling is disabled by expanding the extents to span the entire screen when any corner intersects or is behind the near plane.

For our cascaded shadow maps, the extents are also used to detect if an object is fully enclosed by a cascade. If that is the case, then that object is culled from the later cascades. Let me illustrate with some ASCII:

The squares are the different cascades. The top left square is the first cascades, the top right is the second cascade, bottom left the third and the bottom right is the fourth cascade. In this case the weird triangle shaped object is fully enclosed by the first cascade. What that means is that the object doesn't need to be rendered to any of the later cascades, since the shadow contribution from that object will be fully taken care of from the first cascade.

855 comments:

Nice and interesting article( and so was the previous one)I think there is a typo : in the slightly modified remove_not_visible function, the index var is not used. it's probably meant to replace 'i' in the following if.

Thank you for the post, I love reading about technical stuff like this. I do have one question though:

In the // If needed, do more stuff with `rmo` section the world transform matrix is copied into a culling::Object. This section of code seems to be run from create_object, so would only copy the initial world transform. Does the state reflection system from the last post have other flows for updating the transforms each frame?

Great post! One of my favorites in this blog ever. I wish you could sometime write about how you guys implemented octrees within the DOD paradigm. I never fully understood the best way of setting up a cache-friendly octree that fits well with DOD. Needless to say, it's also hard to find any discussion on that.

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When the HP Envy 4520 printer says offline in windows 10 because printer wireless system is not working properly or there might be computer related issues. Anyone can easily recover from this problem by this most simple step "restarting your Wireless Router and after that restarting your computer." In case still your HP Envy 4520 Printer offline then we have some more steps which you can follow to fix this issue online.hp envy 4520 offline

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