Global Markets Product Risk Book

Transcription

1 Marketing Communication Global Markets Product Risk Book English version This communication was not prepared in accordance with Legal requirements designed to promote the independence of investment research and is not subject to any prohibition on dealing ahead of the dissemination of investment research. Please read important information and warnings at the end of this document.

2 Introduction This Product Risk Book is addressed to Merchant and Commercial Banking clients of BNP Paribas Fortis or any of its subsidiaries, affiliates or branches which are Professional Clients or Retail Clients in the sense of Directive 2004/39/EC on markets in financial instruments ( MiFID ) and which are not consumers (the MCB Clients ). The purpose of this Product Risk Book is to provide MCB Clients with appropriate information on the nature, advantages (disadvantages) and risks of the financial instruments covered therein (the GMK Products ) so as to enable them to make investment decisions on an informed basis. Part A of this Product Risk Book contains the basic principles related to the GMK Products (cash and derivative instruments, description of risks, difference between investment and hedging) and summarises the existing MiFID asset classes. Part B describes the GMK Products and their respective characteristics. This Product Risk Book does not constitute investment advice (nor any other advice of whatever nature) and is not intended as a personal recommendation to invest in the GMK Products. Before making an investment decision, any MCB Client should consider whether such investment is suitable for it in light of its knowledge and experience in the GMK Products, financial situation and investment objectives and, if necessary, seek appropriate professional advice. For further general information, please contact your relationship manager or any relevant BNP Paribas Fortis product specialist.

6 6 Global Markets Product Risk Book A. Basic principles A.1. Cash vs. Derivatives A.1.1. Cash Instruments Cash instruments are financial instruments that imply cash (or cash alike) transfer of a notional amount. Typical examples are spot transactions in currencies, loans, deposits, stocks and bonds. A.1.2. Derivative Instruments A derivative is a financial instrument whose price is dependent upon or derived from one (or more) underlying assets. The derivative itself is merely a contract between two or more parties. Its value is determined by fluctuations in the underlying asset. The most common underlying assets include stocks, bonds, commodities, currencies, interest rates and market indices. In the case of Over-The-Counter (OTC) derivatives, your counterparty will be the bank, whereas listed derivatives are traded on an exchange with the latter as your counterparty (and the bank as your broker). Some derivatives are optional instruments (call, put, cap and floor) and in this case, it is worth mentioning that the seller of options is exposed to unlimited losses as he/she has an obligation towards the buyer. The seller receives a premium for that from the buyer. The buyer of options pays a premium to obtain a right and his/her loss is limited to the premium. Basic components Some of the most common basic components are: a. Call An option contract giving the owner the right (but not the obligation) to buy a specified amount of an underlying at a specified price during/at a predetermined period or moment. To obtain this right, the buyer needs to pay a premium to the seller. b. Put An option contract giving the owner the right (but not the obligation) to sell a specified amount of an underlying at a specified price during/at a predetermined period or moment. To obtain this right, the buyer needs to pay a premium to the seller. c. Swap A swap is a contract between two parties to exchange cash flows related to the underlying financial assets during a predetermined period. d. Cap An option contract giving the owner the right (but not the obligation) to benefit from a maximum interest rate or price level against payment of a premium. To obtain this right, the buyer needs to pay a premium to the seller. e. Floor An option contract giving the owner the right (but not the obligation) to benefit from a minimum interest rate or price level against payment of a premium. To obtain this right, the buyer needs to pay a premium to the seller.

7 Global Markets Product Risk Book 7 f. Forwards/Outright A contract between two parties to buy or sell a financial instrument e.g. a stock, commodity, currency at a specific future date and at a specific price or level. A non-deliverable forward (NDF) is a special type of forward where there is only cash settlement of the difference between the NDF forward price and the fixing of the reference price. g. Futures A standardized, transferable, exchange-traded contract that requires delivery of a commodity, bond, currency, or stock index, at a specified price, on a specified future date. Futures convey an obligation to buy or sell. Futures contracts are forward contracts, meaning they represent a pledge to make a certain transaction at a future date. The exchange of assets occurs on the date specified in the contract. Futures are distinguished from generic forward contracts in that they contain standardized terms, are guaranteed by clearinghouses, are regulated by overseeing agencies, and trade on an exchange. h. Warrant A warrant is an option (call or put) that is usually issued by a company or a financial institution and in some case traded on an exchange. The underlying is usually a company s stock, an index or a commodity. Features and triggers Options with features or triggers are often referred to as exotic options. Some of the most common features and triggers are: a. Knock Out/Reverse Knock Out A knock-out option contract ceases to function as a normal option ( knocks out ) once a certain price level is reached during a certain period or on expiry. Reverse Knock Out: Option is in the money when the event occurs. b. Knock In/Reverse Knock In A latent option contract that begins to function as a normal option ( knocks in ) only once a certain price level is reached during a certain period or on expiry. Reverse Knock In: Option is in the money when the event occurs. c. Asian Option An Asian option is an option whose payoff is based on the average value of an underlying during a specific period. d. Switch A Switch feature gives to the holder of an option the right to switch one contract for another having identical details, but with longer expiry. e. Options exercise style Options are exercised on banking days, never on holidays or weekends. There are 3 ways or styles to exercise an option: European style: the holder/buyer of the option can exercise the option on one specific date in the future (=the exercise date). American style: the holder/buyer of the option can exercise the option on any date during the life time of the option (= until expiry date). Bermudan style: the holder/buyer of the option can exercise the option on a number of specific dates in the future.

8 8 Global Markets Product Risk Book Specific characteristics of derivatives Derivatives have characteristics, which can be different from the underlying instruments. Dealing in derivatives therefore needs special attention. Derivatives have a maturity date and especially the optional instruments could become worthless. The value of a derivative can move exponentially vis-à-vis the value of the underlying. This is called the leverage effect. A price movement of 3% of the underlying could mean for example a 30% value increase/ decrease of the derivative instrument. A derivative construction is a combination of basic components, features and triggers in order to create a certain payoff pattern. The value of this construction could therefore move a) with a higher exponential leverage and b) in the opposite direction vis-à-vis the underlying.

9 Global Markets Product Risk Book 9 A.2. Definition of different types of risks Below you can find a list of the most common risks related to financial transactions: a. Market or Price related The risk that a change in the market price of a financial instrument will negatively affect the client s financial performance. Foreign Exchange Risk: the risk that the change of the value of one currency versus (an)other currenc(y)ies will negatively affect the client s financial performance. Interest Rate Risk: the risk that interest rate movements will negatively affect the client s financial performance. Commodity & Energy Price Risk: the risk that the change of the value of the commodity or energy related financial instrument will negatively affect the client s financial performance. Equity price Risk: the risk that the change of the value of (a) stock(s) will negatively affect the client s financial performance. b. Liquidity Risk The risk from the lack of marketability of a financial instrument that cannot be bought or sold in due time. c. Counterparty Risk: The risk that the counterparty or issuer cannot/will not fulfil its obligations. For example: Settlement Default: the risk that one party will fail to deliver the terms of a contract with another party at the time of settlement. Settlement risk can be the risk associated with default at settlement and any timing differences in settlement between the two parties. Credit Default: the risk that an issuer of debt cannot meet its future debt obligations. Other types of risks to be considered a. Political Risk: The risk of a negative financial impact related to changes in a country s political structure or policies, such as tax laws (e.g. gross up), tariffs, expropriation of assets, or restriction in repatriation of profits. b. Force Majeure: These are risks or circumstances beyond one s control. c. Operational Risk: The risk associated with the potential for systems, human or procedure failure. d. Reinvestment Risk: The risk that the rate of return of a reinvestment in a financial asset at current market conditions is lower than the one of the preceding investment. (Also applicable for hedging) e. Inflation Risk: The risk that inflation has a negative financial impact on the client s financial performance. f. Regulatory / Legal Risk: The risk the changes in laws and regulations have a negative financial impact on the client s financial performance. g. Fraud: The risk that misrepresentation or concealment of information with the intention to mislead or deceive leads to a negative financial impact on the client s financial performance.

10 10 Global Markets Product Risk Book A.3. Investments vs. Hedging Although the financial products used for investments or hedging might be the same, it is essential to understand the difference between their uses as it is directly linked to your risk as a client. A.3.1. Investments An investment in a financial product is the purchase of a financial asset with an expectation to obtain a positive future return. This usually implies a transfer of capital (money or cash alike) in order to obtain the asset. As the value of a financial asset varies over time, the risk of a partial or complete loss of the initial capital or not obtaining a positive return is possible. To make a proper assessment of this risk it is essential to understand its components and other types of risk. Types of risks related to Investments Most common types of risk related to investments are: a. Market or Price related : Foreign Exchange Risk Interest Rate Risk Commodity & Energy Price Risk Equity price Risk Each financial instrument has its own price sensitivity and this is often expressed in terms of volatility. Volatility is the relative rate at which the price of a financial instrument moves up and down and it is found by calculating the annualized standard deviation of daily changes in price. Higher volatility means substantial and/or in shorter time interval changes in the market price, whereas lower volatility would mean that the market price does not change dramatically and the changes happen in a stable pace over a period. b. Liquidity Risk c. Counterparty Risk Settlement Risk Credit Risk Other risk related issues It is also possible to obtain a positive future return by short selling a financial asset. Short selling means selling a financial asset that the client does not own in the hope to buy it back in the future at a lower price, which among others implies price risk and liquidity risk.

11 Global Markets Product Risk Book 11 A.3.2. Hedging Hedging is a technique used to mitigate or offset financial risks that might arise from the financial or commercial activities of clients. These financial risks may be present both on the liability as on the asset side and can affect the financial performance of clients. This technique makes use of a broad range of financial products, especially derivative financial instruments. The so-called hedged item can be an asset, liability, a firm commitment, a highly probable forecast transaction, a net investment in a (foreign) operation, etc The most common types of risk that are hedged are foreign exchange risk, interest rate risk, commodity and energy price risk, equity price risk and credit risk. The client has the possibility of fully, partially or proxy hedging the identified financial risks; or not hedging at all and be fully exposed. The decision whether or not to hedge financial risks is up to the client (although sometimes the bank requires that a certain portion of the position is hedged in order to obtain the underlying) and related to the client s risk profile. Only the client is fully aware of his/her financial situation and risks, therefore the bank will rely upon the instructions of the client regarding the purpose of the financial transaction (hedging or investment). In order to advise the client correctly, the client is kindly requested to notify the bank explicitly if a transaction is meant for investment purposes; in all other cases the bank will, given the nature of the relationship, assume the transaction will be done for hedging purposes. Legal Without wanting to explain how or when to use hedge accounting, reference is made to the IAS 39 International Financial Reporting Standards and its application, as it is a good benchmark to have a better understanding of hedging and its effectiveness. Some major criteria for obtaining hedge accounting are mentioned here below (International Financial Reporting Standards, IAS 39 Achieving hedge accounting in practice, p13, December 2005, PriceWaterhouseCooper): The specific requirements are: The hedging relationship must be formally designated and documented at the inception of the hedge. This must include identifying and documenting the risk management objective, the hedged item, the hedging instrument, the nature of the risk being hedged and how the effectiveness of the hedge will be assessed; The hedge must be expected to be highly effective at the inception of the hedge; The effectiveness of the hedge must be tested regularly throughout its life. Effectiveness must fall within a range of 80%-125% over the life of the hedge. This leaves some scope for small amounts of ineffectiveness, provided that overall effectiveness falls within this range; and In the case of a hedge of a forecast transaction, the forecast transaction must be highly probable. use different underlying interest or equity indices; use commodity prices in different markets; are subject to different counter-party risks; or where the hedging instrument has a fair value other than zero at inception. Hedge effectiveness can often be improved by careful designation of the hedge relationship. In a hedge relationship of a financial asset or financial liability, designating the hedged item as a portion of the asset or liability can improve effectiveness. Excluding the forward points or time value respectively from a hedge relationship using a forward contract or an option can improve effectiveness.

12 12 Global Markets Product Risk Book Possibilities of hedging a. Via Underlying Hedging uses mainly derivative financial instruments but it is also possible to use non-derivative financial instruments. As these non-derivative financial instruments involve most of the time, immediate cash movements and transfer of capital, they are used less frequently. Examples of hedging via cash underlying are the spot purchase of foreign currency to hedge the foreign exchange risk of a scheduled purchase of imported goods or the hedging of the interest and foreign exchange risk of a foreign investment through a borrowing in this foreign currency. b. Via derivatives on the underlying Most important derivative products constructions used in hedging are: With the client s payment of a net premium With the client s payment of a reduced net premium No net premium paid by the client (so-called Zero-cost construction ) Types of related to Hedging Hedging is used to mitigate or offset financial risks and the hedging degree will relate to the clients risk profile. In hedging with financial derivatives, these are the main risks to be considered: a. Market or Price related Although derivatives in hedging are used to offset or reduce the market or price related risks, note that cancelling or unwinding a hedge before the expiry is done at market conditions. This means there might be a risk that the marked-tomarket of the value of the derivative(s) has moved unfavourably for the client. b. Liquidity risk This also might cause higher price volatility. c. Counterparty risk When dealing OTC derivatives against Fortis, the client relies on the solid credit base of Fortis. In case of listed derivatives, the counterparty would be the exchange. Settlement Risk Credit Risk Other risk related issues An over-the-counter (OTC) contract is a contract negotiated between two parties and closed outside of an exchange. They are often tailored to the client s specific needs. This notion goes for derivative contracts between the bank and the client, as opposed to those traded on an exchange. OTC financial products are considered to have a higher degree of risk than those traded on an exchange. A financial derivatives construction could minimize as well as add risks; the latter case will be an important factor to determine the risk profile of the product concerned vis-à-vis the hedging perspective. Elements that could add risks are e.g. A combination of financial derivatives resulting in a net sold option or right. A net sold option leads to unlimited price or market risk. Barrier options with the possibility of reducing the effectiveness of the initial hedge (e.g. to construct zero-cost constructions ). When a construction results in the fact that the client does not know in advance the maximum or minimum price, interest rate and other variables.

14 14 Global Markets Product Risk Book B. Products (description, advantages, disadvantages and risks) B.1. Foreign Exchange Market Instruments B.1.1. Foreign Exchange Spot MiFID Asset Class: Not applicable A foreign exchange spot transaction is a contract between two parties that agree to exchange an amount in one currency against another currency at a certain exchange rate. The settlement takes place two working days after the trade date., disadvantages and risks The foreign exchange market is a very liquid and transparent market. Many currencies are possible. It is appropriate to hedge the exchange rate risk from the moment it occurs. The foreign exchange spot transaction is frequently used in different trading activities. The foreign exchange spot transaction is less appropriate to hedge future cash flows, taking into account that the settlement takes place just two working days after the transaction and therefore prompt cash funding would be needed. For that reason forwards are more appropriate. Market risk: The foreign exchange risk is mainly dependant on the volatility of the currency pair. Liquidity risk: The liquidity risk is limited for the most important currencies (the majors ) such as EUR, USD, JPY, GBP etc but can be higher for currencies of emerging markets. Counterparty risk: For foreign exchange spot transactions there is mainly a settlement risk, meaning that the counterparty cannot/will not meet its obligations.

15 Global Markets Product Risk Book 15 B.1.2. Foreign Exchange Forward/ Outright MiFID Asset Class: Treasury Derivatives A foreign exchange forward/outright is a binding contract between two parties which agree to exchange an amount in one currency for an amount in another currency at a predetermined exchange rate. The settlement takes place on a later date (more than two working days after the trade date). Most common periods are: 1, 2, 3, 6 and 12 months, but periods exceeding one year or broken dates are also possible. Foreign Exchange forwards are tailor-made agreements between the bank and another party. They are not traded on an exchange and therefore are considered as Over-The-Counter (OTC) products., disadvantages and risks The foreign exchange market is a very liquid and transparent market. Many currencies are possible. Foreign exchange forwards fix an exchange rate on a later, but known date. It is a simple and commonly used product. It is a tailor-made product. The most important disadvantage can be the fact that the exchange rate is fixed and that one can therefore not step back and benefit from positive exchange rate movements. The due date and the amount are fixed which makes the transaction less flexible. It is an Over-The-Counter (OTC) product that can not be traded on an exchange. Market risks: The foreign exchange risk is mainly dependant on the volatility of the currency pair. Liquidity risk: The liquidity risk is limited for the most important currencies (the majors ) such as EUR, USD, JPY, GBP etc but can be higher for currencies of emerging markets. Counterparty risk: For the foreign exchange forward, the risk is that the counterparty cannot/will not meet its obligations (settlement risk and credit risk).

16 16 Global Markets Product Risk Book B.1.3. Foreign exchange derivatives Derivatives are financial instruments whose characteristics and value are derived from another financial product on the market (the underlying value ). That underlying value can be a stock, commodity, or in this context a currency pair. Derivatives can be traded on an exchange or not, in which case it is an Over-The-Counter transaction. Currency options provide the possibility to hedge against unfavourable movements of exchange rates with the opportunity to benefit from favourable movements. It is a right to buy a certain currency (call option) or to sell (put option) against the exchange rate fixed with the contract (strike price). The buyer can exercise this right for a certain period (American Option) or on the date of expiry (European Option). The price of an option is a premium and depends on volatility, strike price versus market price, interest rates, time periods, currency Options are financial instruments that can be used for different purposes e.g. to hedge against a risk, earning a return or to speculate on the ups and downs of different assets rates, commodity prices (crude, wheat, metals, gold, ), interest rates, exchange rates, stocks or indices. An option is a contract between a buyer (the holder) and a seller (the issuer). European options can be exercised (redeemed) only on the expiry date. American options can be redeemed at anytime before the expiry. Depending on the strike price in comparison to the price of the underlying asset an option can be: At the money: if the strike price is equal to the price of the underlying asset or very close to it. Out of the money: if the strike price is higher than the price of the underlying asset in the case of a call or lower than the price of the underlying asset in the case of a put. In the money: if the strike price is lower than the price of the underlying asset in the case of a call or higher than the price of the underlying asset in the case of a put. Leverage effect By buying an option e.g. a call option, one can gain the same profit as by buying the underlying itself, but by investing much less money since the value of the derivative is only a fraction of the value of the underlying. For better understanding let s simplify: suppose that a buyer has a right to buy an underlying for a price of 100. In case the underlying quotes at 120 then the obtained right is worth minimum 20 and if the underlying quotes 130 the right is worth at least 30. When the underlying rises from 120 to 130 that is a growth of 8.3%. But, if the price of the option rises from 20 to 30 that is a growth of 50%. This is a leverage effect. Naturally this mechanism functions in both directions. Fixed duration Another essential characteristic of derivatives is that they have an expiry date. That means that when the expected evolution of the underlying asset does not take place before the expiry the derivative loses its full value.

17 Global Markets Product Risk Book 17 B Foreign Exchange Call and Put MiFID Asset Class: Treasury Derivatives A foreign exchange call option gives the holder the right (and not the obligation) during a certain period or on a expiration date to buy a certain amount in one currency against another currency at a predetermined exchange rate (strike price). The counterparty, the seller of the call, is obliged to deliver the agreed amount against the strike price if the holder wants to exercise his/her right. The buyer of the call pays to the seller a premium for the acquired right. A foreign exchange put option gives the holder or the buyer the right (and not the obligation) during a certain period or on an expiry date to sell a certain amount in one currency against another at a predetermined exchange rate (strike price). The counterparty, the seller of the put, is obliged to deliver the agreed amount against the strike price if the holder of the put option wants to exercise his/her right. The buyer of the put pays a premium to the seller for acquiring this right., disadvantages and risks It is used to hedge against an exchange rate risk. It is more flexible than a forward because since one buys a right, he/she can decide to exercise the right or not. In case of a positive rate evolution one can have unlimited benefit. It allows very dynamic management. Due to the leverage effect the buyer can with a reasonably small amount benefit in abundance from: - Rising rates of the underlying asset (when buying a call) - Dropping rates of the underlying (when buying a put) The potential profit is in principle unlimited for the buyer of a call as well as for the buyer of a put. The potential loss is limited to the fully paid premium for the buyer of a call as well as for the buyer of a put. A premium has to be paid by the buyer of an option, but can prove to be a burden for clients wanting to hedge The seller of a foreign exchange option (call or put) receives a premium and becomes obliged to sell if the call is to be exercised and to buy if the put is to be exercised. This is an Over-The-Counter product that cannot be traded on an exchange. Market risk: The foreign exchange risk mainly is dependent on the volatility of the currency pair. Liquidity risk is limited for the most important currencies ( the majors ) like EUR, USD, JPY, GBP etc but can be higher for currencies of emerging markets. Counterparty risk: The risk that the counterparty cannot/will not meet its obligations. Other risk related issues The buyer of an option (call or put) can maximum lose the paid premium. The seller of an option has to fulfil his/her obligations if the holder of the option wants to exercise his/her right. The seller s loss is in principle unlimited.

18 18 Global Markets Product Risk Book B Foreign exchange swap MiFID Asset Class: Treasury Derivatives The English term swap means to exchange. A foreign exchange swap is a combination of a foreign exchange spot and a forward in the opposite direction. These two transactions are simultaneously concluded with the same counterparty and the same reference exchange rate. It is an agreement between the bank and the client whereby the interest and the notional amount in different currencies are exchanged. This is typically an Over-The-Counter product., disadvantages and risks The exchange market is very liquid and transparent. Many currencies are possible. Swaps are possible among any exchangeable currencies. No premium has to be paid. Foreign exchange swaps are used to manage treasuries in different currencies. A temporarily treasury surplus in one currency can be exchanged for a currency for which there is a shortage. In this way one avoids concluding a loan in a currency for which there is a temporarily shortage. Foreign exchange swaps can be used to prolong or advance an earlier concluded forward. One has to take into account the modified interest and exchange rate circumstances and its influence on the cash flows. It is a fixed and definitive obligation concluded between two parties and does not have an optional character. It is an Over-The-Counter product that cannot be traded on an exchange. Market risk: The foreign exchange risk is mainly dependent on the volatility of the currency pair. The interest rate risk should be also taken into consideration. Liquidity risk is limited for the most important currencies ( the majors ) like EUR, USD, JPY, GBP etc but can be higher for currencies of emerging markets. Counterparty risk: In the case of a currency swap it is the risk that the counterparty cannot/will not fulfil its obligations on expiry (settlement risk and credit risk).

19 Global Markets Product Risk Book 19 B Futures MiFID Asset Class: Treasury Derivatives Futures are standardized contracts that are traded on an exchange. It is an obligatory contract for buying/delivering a precisely defined amount in foreign currency against a fixed exchange rate on a predetermined future date. The payment occurs only at the delivery of the underlying asset. The futures can be considered as standardised forwards. As opposed to options that give the right to buy or sell, futures are obligatory (to buy or to sell at a certain point in time). A Future contract is not about the right to buy or sell a given quantity of an asset, but about buying or selling the asset itself. When the contract expires an actual delivery must take place. In practice, however, it seldom takes place (cash settlement). Originally this contract was only associated to goods (commodity futures) like wheat, coffee, cotton, crude oil etc. It was used by traders to protect themselves against possible unfavourable price swings. The liquidity of a Future is steered by strict rules (the scope of the contract, duration, settlement procedures). A margin system on contracts is imposed to the buyers and the sellers serving as a guarantee against potential loss. For every transaction (buying or selling) each party has to pay an amount as a guarantee, in cash or in securities, expressed as a percentage of the value of the bought or sold contracts. At the end of every transaction day contracts are re-evaluated and the account of the investor becomes debited or credited. Positions could be closed in three manners: By taking an opposite position, but with same size before the due date (buying if you have sold and selling if you have bought). Most of the Futures are closed like this. By a cash settlement or on the due date. By rolling the position before the due date: this means e.g. that the buyer of a certain index future sells it before the due date and at the same time against a predetermined price buys a new position with an upcoming due date (calendar spread)., disadvantages and risks The fact that Futures are traded on an organized market means that there is greater liquidity than in the case of forwards. Futures can be simple instruments to protect the value of an underlying asset. Can be used by every investor that wishes to gain profit from his/her expectations of the movements of the underlying value. The underlying asset does not always entirely correspond to the amount, dates, etc that one wants to hedge. Therefore it is a less flexible and less tailor-made contract. The daily adjusted margin scheme causes a heavy administrative burden. Market risk: the foreign exchange risks are mainly dependent on the volatility of the currency pair. The liquidity risk is very limited because futures are traded on an organized market. The counterparty risk is low since the counterparty is an exchange. The insolvency risk is limited due to the margin scheme.

20 20 Global Markets Product Risk Book In principle, the loss can be unlimited for an investor mistaken in his/her expectations. B Currency structures MiFID Asset Class: Treasury Derivatives A currency option structure is a combination of currency options, triggers and features that aim to generate a particular return pattern or to create a tailor-made hedge structure. Triggers and features imply certain (non exhaustive) characteristics of options. Knock Out/Reverse Knock Out A knock-out option contract ceases to function as a normal option ( knocks out ) once a certain price level is reached during a certain period or on expiry. Reverse KO: Option is in the money when the event occurs. Knock In/Reverse Knock In A latent option contract that begins to function as a normal option ( knocks in ) only once a certain price level is reached during a certain period or on expiry. Reverse KI: Option is in the money when the event occurs., disadvantages and risks Can create a tailor-made solution for a specific problem or goal. Provides the possibility of protection against a foreign exchange risk. Greater flexibility than a forward contract and allows very dynamic managing. These structures in certain cases generate better pay-off than a forward contract. The exchange market is very liquid and transparent. Many currencies are possible. There are structures where the client does not pay a net premium. Due to the specific structure, the value of the option structure does not necessary follow the same evolution as the one of the underlying currency pair. In certain market circumstances a lack of liquidity can occur. These are Over-The-Counter products that can not be traded on an exchange. Very often these structures can be very complex. Market risk: The foreign exchange risk is mainly dependant on the volatility of the currency pair. The value of a currency option structure can move in another direction than the one of the underlying currency pair. That means that the value can sometimes exponentionally decrease or increase in respect to the evolution of the underlying currency pair or it can even move in the opposite direction of the value of the underlying. Liquidity risk: There is no organized secondary market to trade these products. They are Over-The-Counter products. The liquidity risk is limited for the most important currencies (the majors ) like EUR, USD, JPY, GBP etc, but can be higher for currencies of emerging markets. Counterparty risk: The risk that the counterparty cannot/will not meet its obligations (settlement risk and credit risk).

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THE EQUITY OPTIONS STRATEGY GUIDE APRIL 2003 Table of Contents Introduction 2 Option Terms and Concepts 4 What is an Option? 4 Long 4 Short 4 Open 4 Close 5 Leverage and Risk 5 In-the-money, At-the-money,

PRODUCT INFORMATION SHEET - BONDS 1. WHAT ARE BONDS? A bond is a debt instrument issued by a borrowing entity (issuer) to investors (lenders) in return for lending their money to the issuer. The issuer

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Last updated July 2, 2015 FOREX RISK DISCLOSURE STATEMENT Forex trading involves significant risk of loss and is not suitable for all investors. Increasing leverage increases risk. Before deciding to trade

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Page 218 The information in this chapter was last updated in 1993. Since the money market evolves very rapidly, recent developments may have superseded some of the content of this chapter. Chapter 15 OPTIONS

STATUTORY BOARD FINANCIAL REPORTING STANDARD SB-FRS 39 Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement This version of the Statutory Board Financial Reporting Standard does not include amendments that