Transcription

1 May G. Williamson The Non-Celtic Place-Names of the Scottish Border Counties Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1942

2 Some Notes on the Late May Williamson s Doctoral Thesis at the University of Edinburgh, 1942 On-line publication through the website of the Scottish Place-Name Society is the first time that May Williamson s thesis on The Non-Celtic Place-Names of the Scottish Border Counties (Berwickshire, Roxburghshire, Selkirkshire and Dumfriesshire but not Peeblesshire) has been published in any form. It is nearly seventy years since May Williamson worked on it. Inevitably, therefore, it contains some information which is incomplete in the light of more recent discoveries, and some conclusions which with the benefit of more information and decades of scholarly debate, for instance on the dating and significance of certain Old English place-name elements, would probably not now be reached. However, it is still an extremely valuable resource which is why the SPNS decided to invest money and effort in making it more widely available and many will appreciate the new ease of access to it, compared to having to consult and make notes from the typed thesis at the Edinburgh University Library in George Square. It remains valuable because the sources for old forms of the place-names are in large part still those available to May Williamson; because it includes the only published and readily available compilation of sources for a large number of place-names of Germanic formation in most of the Border counties; because its explanation of Geography and Dialect on pages ii to vi of the preface is a helpful summary scarcely in need of up-dating; because the elegant, uncluttered style and the often sharp insights make for pleasant reading; but above all because despite the necessary health warning due to its age its commentaries on elements and place-names are still to a great extent valid. The comment on the readability of the thesis inevitably applies more to the discursive historical sections of the preface than to the main text which accommodates the discussion of elements and place-names and lists the sources. At the very beginning of the preface May Williamson notes that she had been constrained by the terms of her scholarship to pursue advanced study or research in Scottish Language and Literature with special reference to dialects on both sides of the border and to such border antiquities and music as bear on the subject. Accordingly, as she continues: In order to satisfy these requirements as far as possible, rather more attention has been given to historical and dialectal notes than is usual or necessary in place-name studies. Between the lines we may read that she found the obligation somewhat irksome, but we may now be grateful for the extra breadth and depth that it gave to her studies. Despite the title s reference to non-celtic place-names, therefore, the preface actually includes much information about Celtic-speaking populations, and discussion of a number of Celtic place-names, in sections on The Roman Period to The Battle of Brunanburh which took place in or about 937. It is these background historical sections that are bound to seem least reliable after decades of scholarly research and reconsideration of the early historical period by historians, archaeologists and linguists. For instance the hoard of luxurious late Roman metalwork found on Traprain Law in East Lothian would now generally be thought to have been deposited by Brittonic-speaking natives, rather than by Germanic raiders; and the favoured location for Brunanburh has tended to gravitate to Bromborough in the Wirral rather than to follow May Williamson s preference for Burnswark in Dumfriesshire. Occasionally her relative unfamiliarity with Celtic languages may show, as in baldly listing the personal name *Branoc among Old English personal names, without giving the possible justification for this classification that a Brittonic name, a diminutive of bran raven, might have been adopted into the name stock of speakers of Old English. Her reliance on 1 inch to 1 mile Ordnance Survey maps is understandable, especially in a period of war-time stringency, but if she could have referred to larger-scale maps, which name more small-scale features of the landscape, she would doubtless have found that the Old Norse topographic elements gil and

3 grein had been adopted widely into what became the Scots tongue and were not necessarily indicators of Scandinavian settlement. As was conventional at the time but is less usual practice now, the element headings use the most ancient Old English forms and do not separately classify later medieval and early modern derivatives of those elements in Scots, where these rather than ancient forms were used to form new place-names. However, such reservations are outweighed by admiration for the continuing validity of much of May Williamson s clear and penetrating thinking. A neat instance of this is her use of a recorded form of the valley name Annandale the river name being well documented from Roman times as Celtic reformulated with a Scandinavian genitive as dale of [man called] Ǫnundr ; from this at first sight inconsequential information she makes the important deduction that the presence of people with a Scandinavian background in that area must have been such that it would seem natural for the name of the district to be attributed to a man bearing a Scandinavian name. The primary structural division of the body of the thesis is by place-name generics rather than by parish as had already become the pattern for county publications of the English Place-Name Society. Thus, had May Williamson s judgements of the attribution of placenames to particular elements been erratic or systematically flawed, the discussion of elements would have been nearly worthless and the usefulness of the whole work to present-day place-name studies would have been largely limited to information about older forms of names; and then only by using the index to locate entries for particular places. On the contrary her concise discussions of how the generics were used, with contrasts and comparisons to usage in England, especially of course in the English border counties, are tightly argued and nearly always still compelling. So are her attributions of particular placenames to elements sometimes not the superficially obvious ones with pertinent and astute observations about local topography and pronunciation as well as comments on the significance of early forms. Such observations are a testament to the thoroughness of her research. Where there may now be disagreement with the thesis about what a name originally denoted, as for instance with Coldingham because of recent thinking that relatively late, northern formations in ingahām may refer to an English-speaking monastic community rather than a pioneer community of secular Anglo-Saxon colonists, it is far more likely to be because of things that May Williamson could not have known in 1942 than any failure to make best use of resources then available. Since most of the place-names dealt with are not as old as Coldingham or the elements as historically and linguistically problematical as -ingahām (which would now be divided into several formations of different origins and meanings), thanks to the quality of the author s scholarship much of the thesis could have been written today. W Patterson The following were involved in preparing and checking the transcript of the thesis:- Typing: Margaret Wilkinson; proof-reading: Peter Drummond, Dr Alison Grant, William Patterson, Dr Margaret Scott, Dr Doreen Waugh. Work on the digitising of the thesis was carried out at the Scottish Place-Name Survey in the University of Edinburgh, by kind permission of Dr Margaret Mackay. Thanks are also due to others unnamed, in the Scottish Place-Name Society, in the University of Edinburgh and elsewhere, who permitted, encouraged, or provided practical assistance and advice, and without whose contributions this on-line publication would not have been achieved.

4 i /i/ PREFACE This thesis has been produced under the conditions of the Gatty (Florence Emily and Charles Tindal) Memorial Scholarship, the holder of which must pursue advanced study or research in Scottish Language and Literature with special reference to dialects on both sides of the border and to such border antiquities and music as bear on the subject. In order to satisfy these requirements as far as possible, rather more attention has been given to historical and dialectal notes than is usual or necessary in place-name studies. The following work is intended as a survey of the Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian place-name material in the Border Counties. I have tried to demonstrate what types of names occur, where they are situated, and roughly to what period they belong. Thus it has been more convenient to group the names under their endings than to arrange them by parishes in the manner of the English Place-Name Society s (EPNS) volumes. It is almost impossible to date Scottish place-names with any certainty since spellings for the majority are not found before the 13 th century, but /ii/ generally they may be classified under three headings:- (a) (b) (c) Old English Middle English Scandinavian, and Middle English of Scandinavian origin Between the first two classes there must be a good deal of overlapping. It is known that names in -ing, -ingahām, -ingtūn and -hām probably ceased to be formed after the Old English (OE) period, but many of the other habitational endings which in England belong to this time must have continued to be formed at a much later date in the North. Similarly many of the names classified as Middle English (ME) may belong to the OE period. It has been my practice to count as an ending the second element of each name if a habitative or topographical term. Thus Torwoodlee is discussed under -wood and Capehope Burn under -hope. Only the main, or original, parts of names are of importance in a survey of this kind, and so where groups occur such as Caverton, Caverton Mains, Caverton Hillhead, Caverton Mill, I have dealt only with the basic name, Caverton. Names which do not appear in the 1-inch Ordnance Survey maps, but which are found in sources before 1600, have been used for purposes of illustration and comparison. In most cases I have not consulted the /iii/ 6-inch maps in attempts to locate these or other minor names. The phonetic symbols used in the transcription of place-name pronunciations are those normally employed by the EPNS.

5 ii /iv/ GEOGRAPHY AND DIALECT The Border area of Scotland divides into three main sections, the lowlands of Berwick and the Tweed-Teviot river basins on the north, a central mass of mountainous country, and the plain of Dumfries in the south. Berwickshire is cut off from Lothian by the Lammermoor Hills, through the western part of which, however, runs the valley of Lauderdale, the main inland route from Lower Tweeddale to the north. The Merse is the continuation of the Northumbrian plain and stretches to the base of the Lammermoors. The parishes of Stichill, Ednam, Smailholm and Makerstoun, although part of this area, belong to Roxburghshire. The dialect of Berwick and Lothian is known as East Mid Scots. The main districts of Roxburgh are the valleys of the Tweed, Teviot and their tributaries. In the south are the Cheviot Hills through which passes lead to England. To the west is the watershed between Roxburgh and Dumfries. At least half the area of the county lies more than 500 feet above sea-level. The parish of Castleton is mainly on the Liddel which /v/ drains to the Solway, and is really a separate dialect area from the rest of Roxburgh, having affinities in speech and in place-name forms with Dumfries and Cumberland (Watson, 6). Selkirkshire, which comprises mainly the valleys of the Ettrick and Yarrow and of a short stretch of the Tweed, is separated from Roxburgh by a watershed, although the parish of Ashkirk is on the Ale which flows into the Teviot. The dialect of the shire belongs to the Southern Scots group which includes Roxburgh, Eskdale and Annandale (SND, Map 2). The place-names show a marked proportion of Gaelic forms which links the area with Peeblesshire, rather than with the other three Border counties in this respect. The greater part of Dumfriesshire belongs geographically to the plain of Cumberland. All the rivers drain to the Solway. To the north are the Lowther Hills which divide Dumfries from Lanark, Peebles, Selkirk and Roxburgh. Nithsdale, at the head of which a pass leads in to Ayrshire, is a separate dialect unit which belongs to the West Mid Scots group. Gaelic influence is very strong in place-names north and west of the Nith. Place-name forms before 1600 do not give much /vi/ indication of dialect distinctions, since these did not occur to any great extent until the end of the MSc period. It is not until the 16 th and 17 th centuries that occasional spellings reveal phonetic variations. Distinctions are more noticeable in vocabulary, in the choice of place-name elements rather than in their form. Differences in pronunciation are found in the modern spoken versions of the names rather than in their present spellings, which have been reduced to a common Scots form. * * * * * Modern Lowland Scots is a development of the Old Northumbrian (ONb) dialect of Old English (OE), through Northern Middle English (NME) and Middle Scots (MSc). Only some half dozen place-names have spellings which go back to the OE period. A few late 11 th century spellings found in the Durham Chartulary may be classed as very late OE or early

6 iii ME. From late 12 th century to mid 14 th century the language of the examples is Northern ME. Middle Scots continues until the late 16 th century. Below are listed some of the developments observable between ONb and ModSc in the placename forms which have been collected: /vii/ 1. ME ă, whether from the OE or ON ă, is frequently fronted to in MSc or early ModSc. ME braken (from ON brakni) becomes brecken in Breckenside (Glc): Brekensyd, 1636, and in the modern forms of Breconrae, Brecken Rig, etc. (No. XXXII). ME Alis is the first element of Ellisland (No. LII). 2. OE āis already fronted to [E:] in NME. In spellings up to 1400 it is still a, but in the MSc period is represented ai, ay. The i, y is used with all vowels in MSc to represent length. That the pronunciation of ai, ay was [E] or [E:] at this period, however, and not yet [e:] is seen by the frequent substitution of ai for the sound [E], for ME, eg Graitnay, 1598; Kailsoo, Blaeu; Fairnilee, 1599; Haitschaw, ME ai and ei interchange to represent ME from OE or ON ei, e.g.: (a) OE gr e-, ONb gr e-denu, ME gr Z-dene: Greidene, ; Grayden, c (b) OE -tun: Eitun, ; Eyton, 1253; Aytone, (c) ON grein: Greynland, 1542; Graines, (d) ON þveit: -thuayt, c 1218; -thweyte, 1304; /viii/ -twayt, 1317; -pheit, In ONb there was no breaking of a before l plus consonant. ModSc haugh, saugh are developments of ONb halh, salh (WS healh, sealh). ONb walh is seen in Wauchope (No LX). Before r plus consonant, a, rarely breaks in this area, e.g. ONb færn, ærn, -wærd (in personal names). 5. In MSc al, ol are vocalised to au, ou. ME halzh > MSc hauzh; ONb ald > MSc auld; ME hol > MSc how. An inverted form of this process frequently appears: cf Falside for ME fāw-side. 6. OE 1 is e in non-west Saxon (WS) dialects. OE str t > NME str te: Derestrete, Leitholm: Letham, , from OE l t, ONb l t. 7. ON au > ME ou, later o in some cases. Copland is Coupland, c 1230 from ON kaupa-. Gowkhall (KF) contains ON gaukr. 8. OE a undergoes smoothing to before -h in ONb. WS h ah, ONb h h > MSc heiz, hei, hie: cf Hielawes, WS l ah, ONb l h > MSc leiz, ley, ModSc -lie. /ix/

8 v 20. Metathesis is a very common feature of MSc, especially with r. Brunt- for burntoccurs frequently in place-names. A few names display elaborate metathesis in early forms, eg Tushielaw, Annelshope. 21. Epenthesis occurs in several cases. In Rumbleton, ml > mbl; in Stantling nl may become ntl; in Standhill nl may become ndl. 16th century spellings of Amisfield as Hempsfeild, etc, show ms > mps (No XIX). 22. Assimilation and dissimilation are frequent. Various examples are noted in the text. 23. Few OE grammatical case-endings are preserved. Four examples of the dative plural in -um occur in Denholm, Whitsome, Hume and Ellem. /xii/ Oblique endings in -an were lost in ONb and do not therefore appear in NME. Spellings for Brunanburh and Degsastan which exhibit weak endings in -an may be due to scribes unfamiliar with northern usage. The MSc present participle in -and is seen only in a spelling for Trottingshaw, as Trottandschaw, MSc past participles in -it appear in Kippitlaw, , and Senegideside, late 13 th century, which may represent sengit-side. PALATALISATION * * * * * * * Although no evidence of vowel diphthongisation after palatal consonants is afforded by the material collected for the Border area, it is plain from mediaeval spellings and modern pronunciation that in most cases initial back consonants were palatalised before front vowels. Initial ċ[ts] is found in the modern form chester, from OE ċæster. The e is not a development of OE ea, but a fronted form of ONb æ, ME a. A similar case, but without 1ME fronting of the vowel, is seen in /xiii/ Chatto, from an OE personal name *Cætt. OE ċiriċe > ME chirche was early replaced by ME kirke (ModSc kirk) from ON kirkja. Spellings in chirche in the 12 th and 13 th centuries might already represent since chwas frequently written for [k] in the Anglo-Norman script (IPN i, 102). Norman influence is practically non-existent in place-name material in this area, however, and it is doubtful whether chi- ever represented anything but [tsi] in our spellings. Forms for Channelkirk show that in one case at any rate ch- was a palatal sound, since in the 12 th century form Childenchirch it is certain that the first ch- represented [ts], and it is therefore unlikely that the other two had a different pronunciation. Initial precedes OE æ in æt and ærd, the ModSc forms of which are yett and yard: cf The Yett, Yetholm, and Ashyards. Present-day names in -gate are either very recent in origin or represent ON gata, a road.

9 vi OE s - becomes MSc sch- [S]. OE s a a gives MSc schaw; OE s anca gives MSc schank. OE *s el > ME shele > MSc schele, scheil > ModSc shiel. Shearington may be from an OE personal name *S ra. Medial and final palatalisation of -, - and /xiv/ -s is also common, although alternative forms with back consonants, due to the influence of cognate Norse terms are more frequent in the modern dialect and in later forms of place-names. OE w c is regularly -wick in S. Scotland and N. England, perhaps due to confusion with ON vík, although there is only one example of the latter in the Border district. ModSc birk and birken have quite replaced OE bir and bir ene, but a spelling Birchinside is recorded in the 12 th century (No XXXII). OE bry is normally brig in ModSc owing to the substitution in ME of a form from ON bryggja: cf Scotsbrig. In Birgham, however, the present pronunciation shows that a metathesised form of OE bry has been retained. In Ashkirk and Ashtrees there has been no attempt to substitute ON ask for OE æsc. Most of the other elements which exhibit a back consonant before or after a front vowel are of Norse origin, eg, kelda, gata, garð, gil, sker, skali, mikill, bekkr, bigging. A few are Celtic: caer, carse, calc, kil. /xv/ THE ROMAN PERIOD With the early Celtic inhabitants of the Borders, and with their temporary conquerors, the Romans, we are not greatly concerned, except in so far as they influenced place-names and affected the course of Anglian history. When the Roman armies finally abandoned their stations on Hadrian s Wall about the year 380AD, the land north of the Cheviots had been exempt from their control for almost two centuries. Only Birrens of all the Roman forts in Scotland had remained long in Roman hands, and recent excavations have shown that it ceased to be occupied before the middle of the fourth century (Birley, 279). The Roman occupation of Scotland, while it lasted, was purely military. The Ordnance Survey Map of Roman Britain indicates several military stations in the Scottish Border area. Permanent forts are marked at Newstead, Cappuck and Birrens, large temporary marching camps at Channelkirk and Torwood Moor, and temporary forts at Raeburnfoot, Gilnockie and Burnswark. Birrens has been identified with Blatobulgium of the Antonine Itinerary. The name has not been /xvi/ preserved in any later source. The first element appears in several Celtic compounds: cf Blatomagus, the 3 rd century form of Blonde, Haute-Vienne (Longnon, 44), and represents OCelt *blat, flower, the source of W blawd, flower, meal, and OIrish bláth, flower (Holder, sv). The terminal represents OCelt *-bulgion, derived from bulga: cf OIrish bolg bag, sack, OBrit bolg (Holder, 630). The meaning of the compound is perhaps flowery hollow, rather than Watson s suggestion of meal-sack place. Blebo, Fife, is the Gaelic form of the same name: Bladebolg, 1144 St And; Blathbolg, , ib.

10 vii It is generally agreed that the Trimontium of Ptolemy, and the Trimuntium of the Ravenna Geographer, apply to the camp at Newstead which lies directly under the triple summits of the Eildon Hills (Curle, 7). The name is purely Latin, denoting the place of the three mountains. The third Roman permanent fort was at Cappuck where Dere Street crosses the Oxnam Water. There is no possibility that the name is Latin. The farm on which the camp is situated was known as Cappuck or Cape Hope (Macdonald, 321). The former may be Gaelic, the latter is certainly English: cf No XX. /xvii/ No Roman names have been preserved for the temporary camps: these are known by the name of the farm or estate on which they lie. Birrens is the only one which has received a name denoting an earthwork. There are several other examples of the use of birren in Dmf, but all apply to Celtic or mediaeval fortifications: Hizzie Birren, White Birren (Wstk) and Birren Knowes (Esk) are noted in AHMC (Dmf). This report claims that the term is applicable only to enclosures or cattle shelters, belonging to the time of the Border reiving, but it has been by no means established that the erections are of so late a date. Birren seems to represent OE byrgen, burial place, tumulus : cf Birrens Hill, No. XXVII. Burren, which is also found in this area (Jam, sv), may be a dialectal variation, or may represent OE burgæsn, (cf PN La, 85), ME burwain, burren, from which the form birren may have arisen with the Southern Scots raising of the ME to ModSc A cognate term, probably Irish in origin, is borran, which appears in NW England (PN CuWe, 135). The usual term for a Roman station in England is chester or caster (OE ceaster, cæster), but of the seventeen names in -chester in Roxburgh and Berwick, /xviii/ not one refers to a Roman site. The form in Cumberland and Westmorland is mainly castle, eg Bewcastle, Papcastle, etc, but most of these names have early forms in - æster. This terminal is also applied to the non-roman sites in one or two cases. Names in -castle in Dumfries denote Celtic or mediaeval fortifications: there are no examples of early spellings in - æster. ROMAN ROADS The most important feature of the Roman occupation of Scotland was the construction of the military roads which linked the districts north and south of the Cheviot Hills. It has been demonstrated how the Roman roads facilitated the earliest Anglo-Saxon settlement of England (Dauncey, 55). Although it cannot be proved that Scotland was colonised by this means, it can still be asserted that the Roman roads were the chief means of north-south and east-west communication until well into the Middle Ages. Much of the strategy of early wars depended upon the Roman roads which provided almost the only known routes through the Cheviots, Lammermoors and Lowther Hills, for the lowland-bred Anglo-Saxons. Two routes led into Scotland from the south, the eastern one a continuation of Ermine Street through Habitancum, Bremenium and the camp at Pennymuir in the Cheviots to Cappuck on the Scottish side of the /xix/ watershed, then across country to Newstead, and up the valley of the Leader to cross into Lothian at Soutra and so perhaps to the station at Inveresk; the western one from Luguvallum running north-west to Birrens and up Annandale to the camp at Clyde Burn, from where the course of the road is indistinct. It may be that unpaved routes used only in emergency ran from there to connect with the station at Lyne on upper Tweedside, and with the western end of the Northern Wall.

11 viii Ermine Street, north of Hadrian s Wall, was known as Dere Street: Deorestrete, c 1050 (12 th ) SD; Dere (16 th ) Dryb; 1206 (c 1320) Kelso; Derestredt, LSMM. This is OE Dera str t, street of the Deirans. The people of Deira are Deiri, c 730 (8 th ) Bede, and Deira is Dearne rice (dat), 634 (12 th ) ASC(E); provincia Deirorum, c 1110 Flo Wig. A Welsh spelling, Dewr, late 6 th (13 th ) Goddodin, shows that the British name of the district was Deivr, Deifr. This was adopted by the Anglians (cf IPN i, 21). The use of a tribal name in the genitive plural with str t is seen in names of other Roman roads, Watling Street and Ermine Street (DEPN, 477; 12 Arrington). These two names are not primary constructions, being taken /xx/ from original place-names, but grammatically they are comparable to Dere Street. BRITONS IN SOUTH SCOTLAND Our knowledge of the pre-english inhabitants is derived from Ptolemy and Tacitus, and from the later writings of Gildas and Nennius. The Brigantes, who gave their name to Bernicia, or derived it from the name of the district (IPN, ib), extended, we are told, from sea to sea, and perhaps occupied most of Northumberland, Berwick, Roxburgh and Cumberland. North of them, and on the east coast were the Votadini, whose name is the Brythonic equivalent of the Goedelic Gododin, Guotodin, employed in the phrase Manau of the Guotodin, applying perhaps to a district on the upper Forth (PN WLth, xvi). On the west were the Selgovae who may have occupied Dumfriesshire. Their name seems to be Goedelic, by its initial s- from OCelt h-, a change which does not occur in Old British. It is likely that the frontiers of several tribes met in the region of Selkirk. In the Yarrow valley a tombstone commemorates two brothers of the Damnonii, a people generally supposed to inhabit an area around Stirling. Ptolemy supplies a list of the cities of the various tribes but since those in South Scotland, with /xxi/ the exception of Trimontium, cannot be identified, they are of interest mainly to the Celtic scholar. All the documentary evidence of the history of the Britons before the 6 th century is gleaned from a few references in Historia Brittonum, Nennius, the Welsh heroic poetry and early Gaelic sources. The information is meagre, inaccurate and often apparently contradictory. That there was a large Celtic population in South Scotland is attested to by the great numbers of hill-forts scattered over the more mountainous districts, and by the persistence of so many Brythonic elements in place-names. It is possible that some of the Arthurian battles were fourght in this area, perhaps against invading Anglo-Saxons, or perhaps against the Picts and Scots. For a discussion on the historicity of Arthur and the sites of the various battles attributed to him by Nennius, v. Antiquity, 1935: Arthur and his Battles, by O.G.S. Crawford, pp At the time of the Anglo-Saxon invasions the whole of South Scotland was occupied by Brythonic Celts. It was not until the 9 th century that Scots began to inhabit Lothian, although no doubt they had been filtering into upper Nithsdale from Ayrshire for some time previously. /xxii/ The survival of a greater number of British place-names and place-name elements in South Scotland than in any other area colonised by the Anglo-Saxons seems to indicate that a

12 ix British population existed side by side with the Anglian one for a considerable period. Mr Myres believes that the earliest English settlers in Bernicia constituted a military aristocracy, which was not sufficiently numerous to drive out the Celts completely, but which was powerful enough to make of them tributary subjects (Myres, 422). The kingdom of Strathclyde remained a British confine until the early 11 th century, so that throughout the period of Northumbrian supremacy over southern Scotland, there was always a large British community within a few days march of central Bernicia. No doubt there was considerable intercourse between Strathclyde and the upland districts of Dumfries, Roxburgh and Selkirk. BRITISH PLACE-NAMES Professor Watson claims 42 OWelsh place-names for Berwick, 52 for Roxburgh, 22 for Selkirk, and some twenty odd for Dumfries. Many of these are hybrids. Less than thirty names throughout the four counties remain in more or less their original British form. A rough summary of some of the more important /xxiii/ elements would not be out of place here, since they are frequently coupled with English terms in later formations. OBrit caer, a fort, which perhaps occurs independently in Keir (CPNS, 368), and is seen in Carfrae (ib, 369) and Carruthers (ib, 368), appears also in Caerlaverock which may be a British-English hybrid: Karlaveroc, (1300) HC; Carlaverok, CDS. The second element seems to be an OE personal name Laferce: cf Wm. Laveroc, or Wm. son of Leveric, c1234 H.C. There is no instance of the OE word for lark used as a personal name unless it occurs in Laverstock, W, and Laverstoke, Ha (DEPN, 276). OCelt *cumba, valley, W cwm, is found in Cumrue (Kkm), which is a parallel form to Cumrew, (Cu) (DEPN, 130). Dinley and Dinlabyre contain OW din, fort, which may also be the first element of Din Fell (Cst) and Din Moss (Lin). Dinmontlair Knowe (Cst) contains the lost name Dinmont, a British-Gaelic hybrid (CPNS, 372). A variant, dinas, may occur in Tinnis (Cst), (ib). Eccles is OBrit *ecl s, a loan from Latin. Ecclefechan, however, is Gael: Egil fechan, 1249 CDS; Egglesfeyan, 1296 ib. /xxiv/ Melrose has been thought to be Gaelic, since Gael ros, promontory, seems to suit the situation of Old Melrose better than W rhos, moor, meadow, but as the first element is OBrit *mail-os, cropped, tonsured, the compound probably means bare moorland (cf CPNS, 496). Early spelling are: Mailros, c700 (late 9 th or early 10 th century), Anon L St C; Mægil-, c 900 (c 1000) A-S Bede; Mal-, 1146 (c1185) C de M. Pen-, from OCelt *pennos, head, occurs as the first element of several names: Penchrise, Penpont, and Pennersaughs are British compounds (CPNS, 354, 356). Johnston s surmise that Penchrise is OW pen crys, height with the girdle round it, may be correct (PNS, 270). Pennygant Hill (Cst) may preserve the name Pennango, LSMM, seen also in Blaeu s Penangushoap, which may be OCelt *penn-ango-s, corner hill. Pen Grain (Esk), Penlaw (H & C), Skelfhill Pen (Tvt) and Ettrick Pen (Ettr) no doubt all contain this element. For Peniel Heugh (Rxb) and Peniestone Knowe (Ettr), v. CPNS, 354. Penmanshiel Moor (Ckb) and Penshiel (Crn) belong to the same class.

13 x Plenderleith (Oxn) and Plendernethy (Duns) appear to have the same first element as Prenderguest (Ayt) but its nature is doubtful. OCelt *prenno, tree, /xxv/ is seen in Printonan (Cdstr) and Primside (Mrb), which are O.W. pren tonnen, tree of the bog, and pren gwyn, white tree (CPNS, 351). OW tref, place, farm, is found in Trabroun (Laud) and Trailtrow (Cum), (ib, 359). The name of the rivers and streams are predominantly Celtic, and only a few can be claimed as British or Norse. The Eden, Ale, Allan, Evan, Esk and Kale are names which have parallels in other parts of Scotland and in England and Wales. The Nith may be comparable to the Nidd, YWR, although Ekwall is inclined to disagree on the grounds that the Dumfries-shire Nith is derived from Ptolemy s Novios, and therefore cannot have the same root as the Nidd. Earliest spellings for the Nith refer to Nithsdale: Stranit c1124, Stradnitt, CDS; Stranith, LSMM; Strathnith, ib; aquam de Nid (acc), (1300) HC. Tweed, Teviot, Leader, Gala, Ettrick, Yarrow, Annan, are all of Celtic origin. Examples of early Anglo-Saxon formations incorporating British elements are not uncommon in this region. Coldingham is formed from Colud, seen in Caer Golud, the Celtic fortress on St. Abb s Head: v. No II. Tynninghame in East Lothian contains a British river-name. The only comparable forms in England are /xxvi/ three -ingas names, probably from pre-english river-names: Avening, Glo (PN -Ing, 70), Ulting, Ess (ib, 50) and Spalding, L (ib, 87). Ednam contains the name of the River Eden and OE h m: cf Alnham Nb (PN NbDu, 4). British-English hybrids have mostly been mentioned already in this chapter. There remain, however, two in both of which a British element precedes OE h h, hill spur, height. Minto is W mynydd, hill, and OE h h, a combination in which the later element explains the earlier. Kelso is W calc, chalk, and OE h h. It may be a translation of the Welsh form Calchuynid, which appears in Taliessin (CPNS, 343), into ONb calc-h h, but the initial back consonant makes it probable that the British element was retained or at least influenced the English pronunciation: v. No XXX. /xxvii/ THE ANGLIAN SETTLEMENT OF BERNICIA The earliest statement about the settlement of Bernicia is the entry for 547 in ASC A : Her Ida feng to rice, onon Norþan hymbra cynecyn onwoc. This is amplified by an 11 th century interpolation to the effect that Ida reigned twelve years and built Bebbanburh which was first enclosed with a fence and afterwards with a wall. From references in Nennius and Welsh sources it is learned that the fortress was earlier a Celtic stronghold named Din Guardi. It was renamed after the wife of Ida s grandson, Bebbe, to whom it was gifted. The Celtic tradition of the settlement is less trustworthy, since it comes from Nennius. It is full of probably fictional details, but the main points are clear. The Historia Brittonum and Nennius both state in passages of equal obscurity as to geographical facts, that Octha, the son or grandson of Hengist, and Ebbisa, first settled Bernicia after ravaging the Orkneys. Mr Hodgkin thinks the story dubious, but concedes that there could have been no better way (than by advancing via the Orkneys) of doing what Hengist had been called in to do (Hodgkin, 152). This tradition cannot safely be ignored, because all /xxviii/ sources are agreed that Hengist was called in by Vortigern to assist him against the Picts and Scots.

14 xi Now Hengist had proved Frisian connections (v. Myres, 346), and much of the Anglo-Saxon pottery which has been discovered in Northumbria shows striking parallels with the pottery of the Frisian Terpen (ib, 350). Although many historians have attempted to discredit the historicity of Hengist s part in the movement, these facts seem to agree very well with Mr Myres theory about the Ambrones, who, he claims, crossed to the Humber area from the coast of Friesland (v. History XX, ). Archaeological evidence supplies us with the most definite information about the first settlements in England. Finds of the pagan period are very few in Bernicia: the OS map of England in the Dark Ages notes only one pagan cemetery and three single burials. Mr Myres, however, in his sketch-map of the early settlements, records three cemeteries, at Galewood, Howick and Hepple, and nine single burials (Myres, facing p. 411). This scarcity of remains in the north has led Professor Baldwin Brown to believe that the area was not settled until after the influence of Christianity had led to the discontinuance of cremation. Mr Hodgkin /xxix/ declares that such a view demands miracles of rapid settlement and propagation (Hodgkin, 152). It is noticeable, nevertheless, that in the districts where Romano-British resistance was greatest, pagan customs disappeared most rapidly (Dauncey, 55). This would certainly apply to Bernicia where British opposition was strong and prolonged. The non-existence of Anglian archaeological material belonging to the earliest period in South Scotland has caused the belief that there could have been no primary settlement north of the Tweed. Whether this is so or not, it is wrong to regard the Tweed as a frontier or boundary, since all we know of the invading tactics of the Anglo-Saxons shows that they used the river-valleys as their main means of access to the lowlands of England, and never as dividing lines between territories belonging to different tribes. The Bernician kingdom was more likely to be continued on the coastal plain to the base of the Lammermoor Hills than to end at the Tweed. The latest theories are that the Anglo-Saxons did not sail up the rivers much beyond the first few miles in the Wash area, but pursued campaigns of conquest along the Roman roads. The Tweed is not navigable by any craft of deeper draught than a canoe more than ten /xxx/ miles from its mouth, but no doubt the invaders followed the river-bottoms as the easiest routes of penetration into the country. At Traprain Law near Dunbar a hoard of silver was unearthed which is believed to have been secreted in the early 5 th century by Saxon pirates. This does not necessarily indicate settlement at this date in the Forth area, but it shows that raiding parties visited the district quite a century before 547. In a pagan grave at Corbridge on the River Tyne, a collection of ornaments was found which included two cruciform fibulae. These were of a type which has also been located on the lower Elbe, and is believed to belong to the earliest kind of Saxon material discovered in Britain. The brooches need not mark anything more than the most scattered settlement, or the passage of travellers across the Roman Wall, but they do determine the presence of Anglo- Saxons in Bernicia almost a century before Ida (v. NCH, x, 12). A tradition is preserved in Symeon of Durham that Ida journeyed north by sea and landed with his followers at Flamborough Head (i, 338). This is a peculiar statement unless it means

15 xii that Ida came to Deira from farther south. If he left Deira for Bernicia he would be more likely to leave from Flamborough Head than to /xxxi/ land there. Nevertheless it seems very probable that Bernicia was colonised from the sea, and not by penetration by land. There is a distinct area to the south of the Tyne, stretching as far as the Tees, in which there are practically no pagan remains. County Durham was in all probability a waste of uninhabitable ground which cut off advance by land from the south: there is a note to that effect in the Vita Sancti Oswaldi (SD i, and Flo Wig, ii, 250). That Ida came from Deira is almost certain; he styled himself Humbrensis. The repetition of the Tribal name Gyrwe in the place-name Jarrow, and of the place-name Lindsey in Lindisfarne (which means the island of the travellers to or from Lindsey ) is further proof of the connection between Deira and Bernicia in the earliest period (v. DEPN, 256, 284). Some further information about the earliest years of the Bernician kingdom may be gleaned from the genealogies of the royal house. The most interesting, although not the most authentic, version is to be found in the continuation of Florence of Worcester (ii, 250), immediately after a transcription of Edward I s letter to the Scottish Claimants bidding them place themselves in his judgment. It forms a preface to a genealogy /xxxii/ of the Scottish royal family and its source is unknown. It begins, Hyring fuit primus rex qui regnavit post Britannos in Northumbria, and then gives Hyring s descendants, who were Wodna, Withglis, Horse, Uppa, Eppa, Ermering and Ida. All are styled rex. The list is followed by a statement: Omnes enim isti reges ab Hyring usque ad Idam regem ab omnibus historiographis vel omissi vel ignorati sunt, et eorum gesta sive in patria combusta, sive extra patriam deleta sunt, which may be merely an attempt to brazen out an imaginary Bernician family tree, but which, coming at this point in the chronicle, may contain some truth, since Edward is suspected of the destruction of documents which he considered unfavourable to his claim of overlordship. John of Eversden, the author of this part of the chronicle, may actually have known of sources which perished in this manner. Obviously, if Hyring was seven generations above Ida, it is unlikely that he ruled in Bernicia, since he must have lived about the year 340. Several generations, however, can be discounted. Wodna must be the god degraded to the status of king; Withglis is plainly the Wilgisl of the Deiran royal house, three generations above Ælle (ASC, A, a 547); Horse may owe the initial consonant and medial -r- to confusion /xxxiii/ with Horsa, and the form may really be the same as Oesa, Esa (ASC, ib, and OET, 170), who was Ida s grandfather; Uppa may be Yffi of Deira, or merely a repetition of Eppa who corresponds to Eoppa, Eobba in the other texts; Ermering is not represented elsewhere. Hyring, by these eliminations, may be considered as only four generations above Ida, which brings him into clearer historical focus. It is notable that the names which remain all alliterate: Ida, Ermering, Eppa, Esa, but that Hyring does not. Anglo-Saxon kings in direct succession usually bore alliterating names, so the probability is that the first four names are those of reigning monarchs. From the other texts of the genealogy some additional matter can be obtained H.B. notes that Ida united Dinguayrdi and Guurth Berneich, which means that he first brought the Celtic fortress at Bamborough under Bernician control. No doubt he subdued the Celtic population in the neighbourhood and made them a tributary people to the Anglians. Nennius adds a note to the Deiran table to the effect that Soemil (the great-grandfather of Ælle), ipse primus separavit Deur o Birneich (MGH, iii, 204). This Soemil does not appear in the ASC genealogy where he is replaced by Westerfalca.

16 xiii /xxxiv/ Oesa, Esa, Ossa, Horse may be the Hussa of the Taliessin poems, who was one of Arthur s antagonists. He may also be Ochtha, who with Ebissa (perhaps Eobba) occupaverunt regiones plurimas ultra mare Frenessicum. That these were Hengist s son and grandson seems incompatible with the fact that they were also Ida s grandfather and father. The Beornec, Beornic of H.B. and OET, Benoc, ASC, may represent an attempt to establish an eponymous ancestor for Bernicia. From the evidence above, it appears almost certain that parts, at any rate, of Bernicia had been settled by Anglo-Saxons before Ida s time. His coming to Bernicia, however, was evidently an important landmark in Northumbrian history, or it would not have been so carefully noted in all sources. It seems probable that he led a large contingent of Deirans into Bernicia with a strong military force which crushed the last Celtic resistance centred in Bamborough, and made a conspicuous Anglian settlement in the area which he had conquered. Lesser kings may have maintained a precarious existence in the district before him, but he was no doubt the first to make the Anglian conquest of Bernicia an established fact. /xxxv/ EARLY TYPES OF PLACE-NAMES AS EVIDENCE OF ANGLIAN SETTLEMENT OE place-names ending in -ingas form the earliest stratum of habitation-names in England, and are to be found in greatest numbers in areas where other evidence of primary settlement has been produced. Names ending in -ing are rare in the North of England, and OE forms in -ingas for these names are non-existent. Some three or four 12 th century spellings in -ing(e)s are the only evidence that original forms in -ingas occurred at all in the northern counties. The only certain example of an -ingas name in the Bernician area is Birling, Nb (PN NbDu, 23). Simprim may be another. Crailing is more than doubtful. Binning Wood, East Lothian, mentioned by Ekwall (PN -Ing, 98) is named from Binning, West Lothian, which is of Gaelic origin (PN WLth, 49). Ekwall attempts to account for the scarcity of -ingas names in Northumbria by Scandinavian influence, and in South Scotland by Gaelic influence. Neither of these excuses is valid, as it has been proved elsewhere that both Scandinavian and Gaelic influences were negligible in this area. It seems plain that the paucity of -ingas names bears out the contention /xxxvi/ that there was little or no primary settlement in Bernicia. Names in ingah m are, however, much more numerous in this area; there are eleven in Northumberland, one in Berwickshire, and two in East Lothian. It has been remarked that -ingah m and -ing(a)t n compounds occur in western counties of England where -ingas names are very rare, from which it has been deduced that these were of later formation than names in -ingas, or at least that they continued to be formed when -ingas names were no longer in living use (PN -Ing, 114 ff). The same conclusion may be drawn in Bernicia. Fresh Anglo-Saxon settlements were being established there at a period when -ingas names were already almost obsolete. Nevertheless, the sources containing some of the -ingah m names for this area are quite as early as those in which -ingas names appear farther south. The

17 xiv Anonymous Life of St Cuthbert was written about 700 which compares favourably with the date of sources for some of the Anglian -ingas names. Ekwall concludes that there seems no reason to ascribe a much later age to the type -ingham than to the type -ingas. Names in -ingas and -ingah m are generally to be found near the coast, in easily accessible river-valleys /xxxvii/ and on Roman roads. Simprim stands on a slight ridge, 200 ft in height, two miles to the north of the Tweed and about twelve miles from its mouth. This position compares well with those of other -ingas names in the Humber area. Not only is Crailing obscure in etymology, but it stands on a tributary of the Teviot, too far inland to be a likely site for earliest settlement. Names in -ingah m are nearer the coast. Coldingham is about a mile from the sea and the original Caer Golud. In East Lothian Tynninghame is on the River Tyne, less than a mile from the shore; and Whittingehame is on the Whittingehame Water about five miles from the coast. All are at elevations of between 50 and 350 feet. The eleven -ingah m names in Northumberland are near the coast, or on the Rivers Aln, Till or Tyne. In Cumberland there are three examples, two on the coast and one inland. Names in -ington are more common in South Scotland, and are almost certainly later than the two previous classes. There are five examples in Berwickshire and one in Dumfriesshire. In East Lothian there are two at least, Bonnington and Haddington. There are twenty-eight examples in Northumberland and five in Cumberland. They are to be found farther inland and often on slightly higher levels than the -ingah m names, /xxxviii/ but always in accessible positions. It is doubtful whether OE -ingat n is represented to any great extent in Northern England and Southern Scotland: an ending with singular -ing plus -t n seems more common. In our area there are no ME spellings in -ingetun to suggest a form in the genitive plural. Names ending in -h m belong also to a very early date. These cover a wider area than the -ing formations. They are mainly in river-valleys bur farther upstream. Their distribution indicates penetration by the Tweed and its larger tributaries. The importance of the rivers in the Border area is underlined by the number of these early names which employ stream-names in their composition, e.g. Tynninghame, Edrington, Edrom, Ednam, Leitholm. It will be noted from the presence of an -ingt n and a -h m name in Dumfriesshire that Anglian settlement of that district took place contemporaneously with, or quite soon after, the colonisation of Berwickshire. Two -ingah m names occur in Galloway: Penninghame in Wigtown, and *Edingham in Kirkcudbright, commemorated in Edingham Loch, (v. Kermack). An examination of the map on which these names are plotted shows the area of earliest Anglo-Saxon settlement. It is plain that colonisation was by sea, /xxxix/ perhaps directly from Deira and the settlements in the Humber area. A few names on the course of Dere Street in Northumberland suggest that it was used in the penetration of Bernicia, but it is clear that the invaders did not follow this route into Scotland over the Cheviots.

18 xv The majority of Northumberland names in -ingas and -ingah m are either near the coast or in the chief river-valleys. It is not necessary to suppose that the Anglo-Saxons sailed up the rivers. To invaders arriving by sea the river-mouths would offer the most suitable access to the interior of the country, since the shores are mainly rocky and inhospitable. In a hilly district the easiest routes invariably lie in the valleys of the rivers. The earliest types of names in the Border area are all within easy reach of the sea, and it was not until the period when names in -ingt n and h m were being formed that settlers ventured deeper into the country. The colonisation of Dumfries and Galloway must either have been from the settlements in Cumberland or from upper Tynedale in Bernicia. The position of the names, which are near the coast or on rivers draining to the Solway, suggests that the Anglo-Saxons crossed the firth from Cumbria, and there is no concentration /xl/ in the most easterly districts to suggest that they came across the Roman Wall. With these names the settlement period comes to an end. The next category is still very early, but the names in it belong to a time when the colonists were beginning to clear and cultivate the land they had annexed. Since agriculture in this area could be pursued with any success only in the alluvial soil of the river-bottoms, the next group of names will be found in much the same area as the earliest examples. To it belong names in -worð, -w c, -burh, -b tl, -t n, -ciri e, -h s, -l ah and -halh, recorded before 1200 and containing an OE grammatical ending, personal name, or topographical term. It will be seen that these are not precisely the same terms which occur first in England. -Cot and -stede are not among the earliest habitative names in South Scotland, nor is -feld so early as -l ah and -halh. Some of the topographical endings, -h h, -d n, -denu, -wudu, -mere, seem to be quite as early as those above, although it is unlikely that they were formed until slightly later. /xli/ THE BATTLE OF DEGASTAN The fullest account of this encounter between the Angles and the Scots is to be found in Bede s Ecclesiastical History, Book I, Chapter 34. From it we learn that Æðelfrið had been ravaging the territory of the Britons. The extent of his campaigns is not stated, but evidently they were extremely thorough for Bede says that the inhabitants of the conquered territories were treated with great brutality. They were either driven out entirely or forced to serve under Anglian rule. No doubt the reference to Saul and the ravening wolf can be discounted, as Bede, like Gildas before him, was not unbiased in his opinions. Nevertheless, Æðelfrið s methods were evidently unusual as we are told that no other English king made more of their lands either tributary to the English nation or habitable by them. The reason of Ædan s rising against Æðelfrið is not stated. It is unlikely that Æðelfrið had penetrated to Scottish territory but no doubt he had advanced sufficiently far into the British area to endanger Scottish integrity. That Ædan received support from Ireland we learn from the Annals of Ulster. Mael-umae, who came to his aid, probably sailed up the /xlii/ Firth of Clyde to meet him, for Ædan s seat was at Aberfoyle (CPNS, 129, 225).

19 xvi The whereabouts of Æðelfrið s army is unknown. Most historians take it for granted that the Anglians had crossed to the West Coast and conquered Dumfriesshire, but there is no proof of this. It is equally likely that they marched up the East Coast and proceeded along the southern shores of the Forth. The battle is as likely to have been fought near Stirling as at the head of Liddesdale. Strategically, of course, a decisive victory in the latter area would drive an effective wedge between the Britons of Cumbria, and those of Strathclyde which would make possible future English penetration into the lowlands of Cumberland and Dumfriesshire. Since evidences of fairly effective Anglian settlement are to be found both in place-names of an early type and in the Anglian monuments of the 7 th and 8 th centuries in these areas, it is obvious that the Celtic population must have given way either of their own free will or to the persuasion of war about this period. A point near the Dawston Burn in Castleton parish is usually accepted as the site of the battle. As a meeting place it is very convenient. The Angles could have come up Tynedale and the Scots up Liddesdale from /xliii/ the shores of the Solway where the Irish had perhaps landed. A stream called Day Sike, running to join the Border at Bell s Burn, may also have taken its name from Dægsa st n. This was according to Bede a famous place, and some kind of obelisk may have marked the limit of British territory, for it is here that the Catrail ends, an ancient earthwork which may have marked the boundary between Anglian and Celtic lands before this decisive battle drove the Britons farther westward. The name is variously spelt: æt Egesan stane, 603 ASC A; æt Dægstane, 10 th century gloss on this text; æt Dægsan stane, 603 ASC E; Degsastan, c730 Bede HE; Flo Wig; Degsa stone, ib. The first element seems to be an OE personal name Dæg(i)sa, an -isa derivative of Dæg-, seen in Dæghræfn, Beowulf, etc. This recalls the unexplained runes on the Ruthwell Cross: ᚫᚷᛁᛋᚷᚫᚠdægisgæf, which seem to contain the same name, which is of a very early type: cf Dickins and Ross, 4 n 4. The association with the Cross strengthens the belief that the battle was fought in Dumfriesshire. /xliv/ THE RUTHWELL CROSS If the date of this monument could be established on purely aesthetic and philological considerations, the period and extent of Anglian supremacy in Dumfriesshire could be more definitely determined. Unfortunately two of the chief authorities on the subject base their final conclusions upon external knowledge of Northumbrian history. In form and manner the Ruthwell Cross is closely associated with the Bewcastle Cross, and belongs to approximately the same period. Mr T D Kendrick dates the latter about the year 700, on the grounds that exact counterparts to certain features are found in the illumination of the Lindisfarne Gospels, and that these forms do not appear in later English work. The parallels are seen in the almost classical scroll, in the intricately-planned interlace work, and in the bold lateral curves in the hollow line manner in one of the panels (Kendrick, 132). Ruthwell must be some years earlier, to judge by the less stylised treatment of the figures, and the rather barbaric technique of certain passages such as Mary Magdalen s arm, and the beasts under Christ s feet, which recall the manner of the Franks Casket (ib, 130). On these /xlv/ grounds the cross can justifiably be dated about 680 AD.

20 xvii The late Professor Baldwin Brown came to the same conclusion, but for slightly different reasons. In the Bewcastle Cross a runic inscription, now much defaced, is reputed to have contained the names of Alhfrið son of Oswy, and of his wife Cuniburga or Cyniburg who was the daughter of Penda. The last link with Alhfrið was cut when his protégé Wilfrid died in 709: Mr Hodgkin points out that a memorial bearing his name was most likely to be erected during Wilfrid s lifetime (Hodgkin, 363). Nevertheless Mr W G Collingwood assigns the Ruthwell Cross to a group of which the Acca Cross at Hexham (c 740) is the prototype, and makes out an elaborate case for dating it at 792, the next occasion upon which a Mercian princess married a Northumbrian king, a hypothesis which Baldwin Brown dismisses as an attractive fairy-tale. The evidence of the runes and lettering on the cross is inconclusive. The Roman characters are similar, with minor alterations, to those used in Lindisfarne, Durrow and Kells: they might belong to any time between 650 and 850. The futhorc corresponds to that in the older inscriptions up to about 700 AD but with certain additional characteristics. The /xlvi/ development of the D from ᛞto corresponds to that on the Hartlepool stones and the Thames Sword and this might point to a later date. The most important difference to be observed between the Ruthwell and Bewcastle Crosses on the one hand and the chief English inscriptions of known date on the other, is the employment of special symbols for velar g and k. The fact, however, that Ruthwell and Bewcastle distinguished between back and front consonants does not necessarily point to a later date than that of inscriptions which do not employ such symbols, but merely to a more exact phonetic consciousness. Linguistic evidence indicates a date between that of the earliest Northumbrian texts and the Lindisfarne Gospels. The language of the Dream of the Rood which appears upon the Ruthwell Cross is slightly less archaic than that of Caedmon s Hymn, Bede s Death-Song, and the Leiden Riddle. The e in men, the back-mutation in haefunæs, and the form of the unstressed vowels in one or two cases are later developments than are found in the earliest poetry. The absence of syncope, however, in heafunæs, the retention of certain primitive forms in unstressed vowels, and the form hiæ, must belong to an earlier period than the language of Lindisfarne, Ritual and Rushworth 2. The first half of the /xlvii/ 8 th century is, on these grounds, the most likely date for the language of the poem (Dickins and Ross, 12-13). A date between 700 and 750 seems to be the most suitable for the erection of the Cross, when all the foregoing evidence is taken into account. At this time the greatest age of Northumbrian Christianity was just passing, but its influence must still have been strong in the more distant parts of the kingdom. At Bede s death in 730 Anglian bishops reigned in Whithorn, and there must have been great missionary activity radiating from that centre. The Celtic church, however, was also active in the west, particularly during the preceding centuries, which is proved by the number of place-names in Dumfries and Galloway incorporating the names of 6 th and 7 th century Celtic saints. Southern Dumfriesshire no doubt proved refractory and the Ruthwell Cross may commemorate some great victory of the Roman over the Celtic faith.

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