The year of the birth of particle physics is often cited as 1932. Near the beginning of that year James Chadwick, working in England at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, discovered the existence of the neutron. This discovery seemed to complete the picture of atomic structure that had begun with Ernest Rutherford’s work at the University of Manchester, England, in 1911, when it became apparent that almost all of the mass of an atom was concentrated in a nucleus. The elementary particles seemed firmly established as the proton, the neutron, and the electron. By the end of 1932, however, Carl Anderson in the United States had discovered the first antiparticle—the positron, or antielectron. Moreover, Patrick Blackett and Giuseppi Occhialini, working, like Chadwick, at the Cavendish Laboratory, had revealed how positrons and electrons are created in pairs when cosmic rays pass through dense matter. It was becoming apparent that the simple pictures provided by electrons, protons, and neutrons were incomplete and that a new theory was needed to explain fully the phenomena of subatomic particles.

The English physicist P.A.M. Dirac had provided the foundations for such a theory in 1927 with his quantum theory of the electromagnetic field. Dirac’s theory treated the electromagnetic field as a “gas” of photons (the quanta of light), and it yielded a correct description of the absorption and emission of radiation by electrons in atoms. It was the first quantum field theory.

A year later Dirac published his relativistic electron theory, which took correct account of Albert Einstein’s theory of special relativity. Dirac’s theory showed that the electron must have a spin quantum number of 12 and a magnetic moment. It also predicted the existence of the positron, although Dirac did not at first realize this and puzzled over what seemed like extra solutions to his equations. Only with Anderson’s discovery of the positron did the picture become clear: radiation, a photon, can produce electrons and positrons in pairs, provided the energy of the photon is greater than the total mass-energy of the two particles—that is, about 1 megaelectron volt (MeV; 106 eV).

Dirac’s quantum field theory was a beginning, but it explained only one aspect of the electromagnetic interactions between radiation and matter. During the following years other theorists began to extend Dirac’s ideas to form a comprehensive theory of quantum electrodynamics (QED) that would account fully for the interactions of charged particles not only with radiation but also with one another. One important step was to describe the electrons in terms of fields, in analogy to the electromagnetic field of the photons. This enabled theorists to describe everything in terms of quantum field theory. It also helped to cast light on Dirac’s positrons.

According to QED, a vacuum is filled with electron-positron fields. Real electron-positron pairs are created when energetic photons, represented by the electromagnetic field, interact with these fields. Virtual electron-positron pairs, however, can also exist for minute durations, as dictated by Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, and this at first led to fundamental difficulties with QED.

During the 1930s it became clear that, as it stood, QED gave the wrong answers for quite simple problems. For example, the theory said that the emission and reabsorption of the same photon would occur with an infinite probability. This led in turn to infinities occurring in many situations; even the mass of a single electron was infinite according to QED because, on the timescales of the uncertainty principle, the electron could continuously emit and absorb virtual photons.

It was not until the late 1940s that a number of theorists working independently resolved the problems with QED. Julian Schwinger and Richard Feynman in the United States and Tomonaga Shin’ichirō in Japan proved that they could rid the theory of its embarrassing infinities by a process known as renormalization. Basically, renormalization acknowledges all possible infinities and then allows the positive infinities to cancel the negative ones; the mass and charge of the electron, which are infinite in theory, are then defined to be their measured values.

Once these steps have been taken, QED works beautifully. It is the most accurate quantum field theory scientists have at their disposal. In recognition of their achievement, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1965; Dirac had been similarly honoured in 1933.

Quantum chromodynamics: Describing the strong force

The nuclear binding force

As early as 1920, when Ernest Rutherford named the proton and accepted it as a fundamental particle, it was clear that the electromagnetic force was not the only force at work within the atom. Something stronger had to be responsible for binding the positively charged protons together and thereby overcoming their natural electrical repulsion. The discovery in 1932 of the neutron showed that there are (at least) two kinds of particles subject to the same force. Later in the same year, Werner Heisenberg in Germany made one of the first attempts to develop a quantum field theory that was analogous to QED but appropriate to the nuclear binding force.

According to quantum field theory, particles can be held together by a “charge-exchange” force, which is carried by charged intermediary particles. Heisenberg’s application of this theory gave birth to the idea that the proton and neutron were charged and neutral versions of the same particle—an idea that seemed to be supported by the fact that the two particles have almost equal masses. Heisenberg proposed that a proton, for example, could emit a positively charged particle that was then absorbed by a neutron; the proton thus became a neutron, and vice versa. The nucleus was no longer viewed as a collection of two kinds of immutable billiard balls but rather as a continuously changing collection of protons and neutrons that were bound together by the exchange particles flitting between them.

Heisenberg believed that the exchange particle involved was an electron (he did not have many particles from which to choose). This electron had to have some rather odd characteristics, however, such as no spin and no magnetic moment, and this made Heisenberg’s theory ultimately unacceptable. Quantum field theory did not seem applicable to the nuclear binding force. Then in 1935 a Japanese theorist, Yukawa Hideki, took a bold step: he invented a new particle as the carrier of the nuclear binding force.

The size of a nucleus shows that the binding force must be short-ranged, confining protons and neutrons within distances of about 10−14 metre. Yukawa argued that, to give this limited range, the force must involve the exchange of particles with mass, unlike the massless photons of QED. According to the uncertainty principle, exchanging a particle with mass sets a limit on the time allowed for the exchange and therefore restricts the range of the resulting force. Yukawa calculated a mass of about 200 times the electron’s mass, or 100 MeV, for the new intermediary. Because the predicted mass of the new particle was between those of the electron and the proton, the particle was named the mesotron, later shortened to meson.

Yukawa’s work was little known outside Japan until 1937, when Carl Anderson and his colleague Seth Neddermeyer announced that, five years after Anderson’s discovery of the positron, they had found a second new particle in cosmic radiation. The new particle seemed to have exactly the mass Yukawa had prescribed and thus was seen as confirmation of Yukawa’s theory by the Americans J. Robert Oppenheimer and Robert Serber, who made Yukawa’s work more widely known in the West.

In the following years, however, it became clear that there were difficulties in reconciling the properties expected for Yukawa’s intermediary particle with those of the new cosmic-ray particle. In particular, as a group of Italian physicists succeeded in demonstrating (while hiding from the occupying German forces during World War II), the cosmic-ray particles penetrate matter far too easily to be related to the nuclear binding force. To resolve this apparent paradox, theorists both in Japan and in the United States had begun to think that there might be two mesons. The two-meson theory proposed that Yukawa’s nuclear meson decays into the penetrating meson observed in the cosmic rays.

In 1947 scientists at Bristol University in England found the first experimental evidence of two mesons in cosmic rays high on the Pic du Midi in France. Using detectors equipped with special photographic emulsion that can record the tracks of charged particles, the physicists at Bristol found the decay of a heavier meson into a lighter one. They called the heavier particle π (or pi), and it has since become known as the pi-meson, or pion. The lighter particle was dubbed μ (or mu) and is now known simply as the muon. (According to the modern definition of a meson as a particle consisting of a quark bound with an antiquark, the muon is not actually a meson. It is classified as a lepton—a relation of the electron.)

Studies of pions produced in cosmic radiation and in the first particle accelerators showed that the pion behaves precisely as expected for Yukawa’s particle. Moreover, experiments confirmed that positive, negative, and neutral varieties of pions exist, as predicted by Nicholas Kemmer in England in 1938. Kemmer regarded the nuclear binding force as symmetrical with respect to the charge of the particles involved. He proposed that the nuclear force between protons and protons or between neutrons and neutrons is the same as the one between protons and neutrons. This symmetry required the existence of a neutral intermediary that did not figure in Yukawa’s original theory. It also established the concept of a new “internal” property of subatomic particles—isospin.

Kemmer’s work followed to some extent the trail Heisenberg had begun in 1932. Close similarities between nuclei containing the same total number of protons and neutrons, but in different combinations, suggest that protons can be exchanged for neutrons and vice versa without altering the net effect of the nuclear binding force. In other words, the force recognizes no difference between protons and neutrons; it is symmetrical under the interchange of protons and neutrons, rather as a square is symmetrical under rotations through 90°, 180°, and so on.

To introduce this symmetry into the theory of the nuclear force, it proved useful to adopt the mathematics describing the spin of particles. In this respect the proton and neutron are seen as different states of a single basic nucleon. These states are differentiated by an internal property that can have two values, +12 and −12, in analogy with the spin of a particle such as the electron. This new property is called isotopic spin, or isospin for short, and the nuclear binding force is said to exhibit isospin symmetry.

Symmetries are important in physics because they simplify the theories needed to describe a range of observations. For example, as far as physicists can tell, all physical laws exhibit translational symmetry. This means that the results of an experiment performed at one location in space and time can be used to predict correctly the outcome of the same experiment in another part of space and time. This symmetry is reflected in the conservation of momentum—the fact that the total momentum of a system remains constant unless it is acted upon by an external force.

Isospin symmetry is an important symmetry in particle physics, although it occurs only in the action of the nuclear binding force—or, in modern terminology, the strong force. The symmetry leads to the conservation of isospin in nuclear interactions that occur via the strong force and thereby determines which reactions can occur.

“Strangeness”

The discovery of the pion in 1947 seemed to restore order to the study of particle physics, but this order did not last long. Later in the year Clifford Butler and George Rochester, two British physicists studying cosmic rays, discovered the first examples of yet another type of new particle. The new particles were heavier than the pion or muon but lighter than the proton, with a mass of about 800 times the electron’s mass. Within the next few years, researchers found copious examples of these particles, as well as other new particles that were heavier even than the proton. The evidence seemed to indicate that these particles were created in strong interactions in nuclear matter, yet the particles lived for a relatively long time without themselves interacting strongly with matter. This strange behaviour in some ways echoed the earlier problem with Yukawa’s supposed meson, but the solution for the new “strange” particles proved to be different.

By 1953 at least four different kinds of strange particles had been observed. In an attempt to bring order into this increasing number of subatomic particles, Murray Gell-Mann in the United States and Nishijima Kazuhiko in Japan independently suggested a new conservation law. They argued that the strange particles must possess some new property, dubbed “strangeness,” that is conserved in the strong nuclear reactions in which the particles are created. In the decay of the particles, however, a different, weaker force is at work, and this weak force does not conserve strangeness—as with isospin symmetry, which is respected only by the strong force.

According to this proposal, particles are assigned a strangeness quantum number, S, which can have only integer values. The pion, proton, and neutron have S = 0. Because the strong force conserves strangeness, it can produce strange particles only in pairs, in which the net value of strangeness is zero. This phenomenon, the importance of which was recognized by both Nishijima and the American physicist Abraham Pais in 1952, is known as associated production.

SU(3) symmetry

With the introduction of strangeness, physicists had several properties with which they could label the various subatomic particles. In particular, values of mass, electric charge, spin, isospin, and strangeness gave physicists a means of classifying the strongly interacting particles—or hadrons—and of establishing a hierarchy of relationships between them. In 1962 Gell-Mann and Yuval Neʾeman, an Israeli scientist, independently showed that a particular type of mathematical symmetry provides the kind of grouping of hadrons that is observed in nature. The name of the mathematical symmetry is SU(3), which stands for “special unitary group in three dimensions.”

SU(3) contains subgroups of objects that are related to each other by symmetrical transformations, rather as a group describing the rotations of a square through 90° contains the four symmetrical positions of the square. Gell-Mann and Neʾeman both realized that the basic subgroups of SU(3) contain either 8 or 10 members and that the observed hadrons can be grouped together in 8s or 10s in the same way. (The classification of the hadron class of subatomic particles into groups on the basis of their symmetry properties is also referred to as the Eightfold Way.) For example, the proton, neutron, and their relations with spin 12 fall into one octet, or group of 8, while the pion and its relations with spin 0 fit into another octet (see the figure). A group of 9 very short-lived resonance particles with spin 32 could be seen to fit into a decuplet, or group of 10, although at the time the classification was introduced, the 10th member of the group, the particle known as the Ω− (or omega-minus), had not yet been observed. Its discovery early in 1964, at the Brookhaven National Laboratory in Upton, New York, confirmed the validity of the SU(3) symmetry of the hadrons.

The development of quark theory

The beauty of the SU(3) symmetry does not, however, explain why it holds true. Gell-Mann and another American physicist, George Zweig, independently decided in 1964 that the answer to that question lies in the fundamental nature of the hadrons. The most basic subgroup of SU(3) contains only three objects, from which the octets and decuplets can be built. The two theorists made the bold suggestion that the hadrons observed at the time were not simple structures but were instead built from three basic particles. Gell-Mann called these particles quarks—the name that remains in use today.

By the time Gell-Mann and Zweig put forward their ideas, the list of known subatomic particles had grown from the three of 1932—electron, proton, and neutron—to include most of the stable hadrons and a growing number of short-lived resonances, as well as the muon and two types of neutrino. That the seemingly ever-increasing number of hadrons could be understood in terms of only three basic building blocks was remarkable indeed. For this to be possible, however, those building blocks—the quarks—had to have some unusual properties.

These properties were so odd that for a number of years it was not clear whether quarks actually existed or were simply a useful mathematical fiction. For example, quarks must have charges of +23e or −13e, which should be very easy to spot in certain kinds of detectors; but intensive searches, both in cosmic rays and using particle accelerators, have never revealed any convincing evidence for fractional charge of this kind. By the mid-1970s, however, 10 years after quarks were first proposed, scientists had compiled a mass of evidence that showed that quarks do exist but are locked within the individual hadrons in such a way that they can never escape as single entities.

This evidence resulted from experiments in which beams of electrons, muons, or neutrinos were fired at the protons and neutrons in such target materials as hydrogen (protons only), deuterium, carbon, and aluminum. The incident particles used were all leptons, particles that do not feel the strong binding force and that were known, even then, to be much smaller than the nuclei they were probing. The scattering of the beam particles caused by interactions within the target clearly demonstrated that protons and neutrons are complex structures that contain structureless, pointlike objects, which were named partons because they are parts of the larger particles. The experiments also showed that the partons can indeed have fractional charges of +23e or −13e and thus confirmed one of the more surprising predictions of the quark model.

Gell-Mann and Zweig required only three quarks to build the particles known in 1964. These quarks are the ones known as up (u), down (d), and strange (s). Since then, experiments have revealed a number of heavy hadrons—both mesons and baryons—which show that there are more than three quarks. Indeed, the SU(3) symmetry is part of a larger mathematical symmetry that incorporates quarks of several “flavours”—the term used to distinguish the different quarks. In addition to the up, down, and strange quarks, there are quarks known as charm (c), bottom (or beauty, b), and top (or truth, t). These quark flavours are all conserved during reactions that occur through the strong force; in other words, charm must be created in association with anticharm, bottom with antibottom, and so on. This implies that the quarks can change from one flavour to another only by way of the weak force, which is responsible for the decay of particles.

The up and down quarks are distinguished mainly by their differing electric charges, while the heavier quarks each carry a unique quantum number related to their flavour. The strange quark has strangeness, S = −1, the charm quark has charm, C = +1, and so on. Thus, three strange quarks together give a particle with an electric charge of −e and a strangeness of −3, just as is required for the omega-minus (Ω−) particle; and the neutral strange particle known as the lambda (Λ) particle contains uds, which gives the correct total charge of 0 and a strangeness of −1. Using this system, the lambda can be viewed as a neutron with one down quark changed to a strange quark; charge and spin remain the same, but the strange quark makes the lambda heavier than the neutron. Thus, the quark model reveals that nature is not arbitrary when it produces particles but is in some sense repeating itself on a more-massive scale.

Colour

The realization in the late 1960s that protons, neutrons, and even Yukawa’s pions are all built from quarks changed the direction of thinking about the nuclear binding force. Although at the level of nuclei Yukawa’s picture remained valid, at the more-minute quark level it could not satisfactorily explain what held the quarks together within the protons and pions or what prevented the quarks from escaping one at a time.

The answer to questions like these seems to lie in the property called colour. Colour was originally introduced to solve a problem raised by the exclusion principle that was formulated by the Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli in 1925. This rule does not allow particles with spin 12, such as quarks, to occupy the same quantum state. However, the omega-minus particle, for example, contains three quarks of the same flavour, sss, and has spin 32, so the quarks must also all be in the same spin state. The omega-minus particle, according to the Pauli exclusion principle, should not exist.

To resolve this paradox, in 1964–65 Oscar Greenberg in the United States and Yoichiro Nambu and colleagues in Japan proposed the existence of a new property with three possible states. In analogy to the three primary colours of light, the new property became known as colour and the three varieties as red, green, and blue.

The three colour states and the three anticolour states (ascribed to antiquarks) are comparable to the two states of electric charge and anticharge (positive and negative), and hadrons are analogous to atoms. Just as atoms contain constituents whose electric charges balance overall to give a neutral atom, hadrons consist of coloured quarks that balance to give a particle with no net colour. Moreover, nuclei can be built from colourless protons and neutrons, rather as molecules form from electrically neutral atoms. Even Yukawa’s pion exchange can be compared to exchange models of chemical bonding.

This analogy between electric charge and colour led to the idea that colour could be the source of the force between quarks, just as electric charge is the source of the electromagnetic force between charged particles. The colour force was seen to be working not between nucleons, as in Yukawa’s theory, but between quarks. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, theorists turned their attention to developing a quantum field theory based on coloured quarks. In such a theory colour would take the role of electric charge in QED.

It was obvious that the field theory for coloured quarks had to be fundamentally different from QED because there are three kinds of colour as opposed to two states of electric charge. To give neutral objects, electric charges combine with an equal number of anticharges, as in atoms where the number of negative electrons equals the number of positive protons. With colour, however, three different charges must add together to give zero. In addition, because SU(3) symmetry (the same type of mathematical symmetry that Gell-Mann and Neʾeman used for three flavours) applies to the three colours, quarks of one colour must be able to transform into another colour. This implies that a quark can emit something—the quantum of the field due to colour—that itself carries colour. And if the field quanta are coloured, then they can interact between themselves, unlike the photons of QED, which are electrically neutral.

Despite these differences, the basic framework for a field theory based on colour already existed by the late 1960s, owing in large part to the work of theorists, particularly Chen Ning Yang and Robert Mills in the United States, who had studied similar theories in the 1950s. The new theory of the strong force was called quantum chromodynamics, or QCD, in analogy to quantum electrodynamics, or QED. In QCD the source of the field is the property of colour, and the field quanta are called gluons. Eight gluons are necessary in all to make the changes between the coloured quarks according to the rules of SU(3).

Asymptotic freedom

In the early 1970s the American physicists David J. Gross and Frank Wilczek (working together) and H. David Politzer (working independently) discovered that the strong force between quarks becomes weaker at smaller distances and that it becomes stronger as the quarks move apart, thus preventing the separation of an individual quark. This is completely unlike the behaviour of the electromagnetic force. The quarks have been compared to prisoners on a chain gang. When they are close together, they can move freely and do not notice the chains binding them. If one quark/prisoner tries to move away, however, the strength of the chains is felt, and escape is prevented. This behaviour has been attributed to the fact that the virtual gluons that flit between the quarks within a hadron are not neutral but carry mixtures of colour and anticolour. The farther away a quark moves, the more gluons appear, each contributing to the net force. When the quarks are close together, they exchange fewer gluons, and the force is weaker. Only at infinitely close distances are quarks free, an effect known as asymptotic freedom. For their discovery of this effect, Gross, Wilczek, and Politzer were awarded the 2004 Nobel Prize for Physics.

The strong coupling between the quarks and gluons makes QCD a difficult theory to study. Mathematical procedures that work in QED cannot be used in QCD. The theory has nevertheless had a number of successes in describing the observed behaviour of particles in experiments, and theorists are confident that it is the correct theory to use for describing the strong force.

Electroweak theory: Describing the weak force

Beta decay

The strong force binds particles together; by binding quarks within protons and neutrons, it indirectly binds protons and neutrons together to form nuclei. Nuclei can, however, break apart, or decay, naturally in the process known as radioactivity. One type of radioactivity, called beta decay, in which a nucleus emits an electron and thereby increases its net positive charge by one unit, has been known since the late 1890s; but it was only with the discovery of the neutron in 1932 that physicists could begin to understand correctly what happens in this radioactive process.

The most basic form of beta decay involves the transmutation of a neutron into a proton, accompanied by the emission of an electron to keep the balance of electric charge. In addition, as Wolfgang Pauli realized in 1930, the neutron emits a neutral particle that shares the energy released by the decay. This neutral particle has little or no mass and is now known to be an antineutrino, the antiparticle of the neutrino. On its own, a neutron will decay in this way after an average lifetime of 15 minutes; only within the confines of certain nuclei does the balance of forces prevent neutrons from decaying and thereby keep the entire nucleus stable.

A universal weak force

The rates of nuclear decay indicate that any force involved in beta decay must be much weaker than the force that binds nuclei together. It may seem counterintuitive to think of a nuclear force that can disrupt the nucleus; however, the transformation of a neutron into a proton that occurs in neutron decay is comparable to the transformations by exchange of pions that Yukawa suggested to explain the nuclear binding force. Indeed, Yukawa’s theory originally tried to explain both kinds of phenomena—weak decay and strong binding—with the exchange of a single type of particle. To give the different strengths, he proposed that the exchange particle couples strongly to the heavy neutrons and protons and weakly to the light electrons and neutrinos.

Yukawa was foreshadowing future developments in unifying the two nuclear forces in this way; however, as is explained below, he had chosen the wrong two forces. He was also bold in incorporating two “new” particles in his theory—the necessary exchange particle and the neutrino predicted by Pauli only five years previously.

Pauli had been hesitant in suggesting that a second particle must be emitted in beta decay, even though that would explain why the electron could leave with a range of energies. Such was the prejudice against the prediction of new particles that theorists as eminent as Danish physicist Niels Bohr preferred to suggest that the law of conservation of energy might break down at subnuclear distances.

By 1935, however, Pauli’s new particle had found a champion in Enrico Fermi. Fermi named the particle the neutrino and incorporated it into his theory for beta decay, published in 1934. Like Yukawa, Fermi drew on an analogy with QED; but Fermi regarded the emission of the neutrino and electron by the neutron as the direct analog of the emission of a photon by a charged particle, and he did not invoke a new exchange particle. Only later did it become clear that, strictly speaking, the neutron emits an antineutrino.

Fermi’s theory, rather than Yukawa’s, proved highly successful in describing nuclear beta decay, and it received added support in the late 1940s with the discovery of the pion and its relationship with the muon (see above Quantum chromodynamics). In particular, the muon decays to an electron, a neutrino, and an antineutrino in a process that has exactly the same basic strength as the neutron’s decay to a proton. The idea of a “universal” weak interaction that, unlike the strong force, acts equally upon light and heavy particles (or leptons and hadrons) was born.

Early theories

The nature of the weak force began to be further revealed in 1956 as the result of work by two Chinese American theorists, Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang. Lee and Yang were trying to resolve some puzzles in the decays of the strange particles. They discovered that they could solve the mystery, provided that the weak force does not respect the symmetry known as parity.

The parity operation is like reflecting something in a mirror; it involves changing the coordinates (x, y, z) of each point to the “mirror” coordinates (−x, −y, −z). Physicists had always assumed that such an operation would make no difference to the laws of physics. Lee and Yang, however, proposed that the weak force is exceptional in this respect, and they suggested ways that parity violation might be observed in weak interactions. Early in 1957, just a few months after Lee and Yang’s theory was published, experiments involving the decays of neutrons, pions, and muons showed that the weak force does indeed violate parity symmetry. Later that year Lee and Yang were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for their work.

Parity violation and the concept of a universal form of weak interaction were combined into one theory in 1958 by the American physicists Murray Gell-Mann and Richard Feynman. They established the mathematical structure of the weak interaction in what is known as V−A, or vector minus axial vector, theory. This theory proved highly successful experimentally, at least at the relatively low energies accessible to particle physicists in the 1960s. It was clear that the theory had the correct kind of mathematical structure to account for parity violation and related effects, but there were strong indications that, in describing particle interactions at higher energies than experiments could at the time access, the theory began to go badly wrong.

The problems with V−A theory were related to a basic requirement of quantum field theory—the existence of a gauge boson, or messenger particle, to carry the force. Yukawa had attempted to describe the weak force in terms of the same intermediary that is responsible for the nuclear binding force, but this approach did not work. A few years after Yukawa published his theory, a Swedish theorist, Oskar Klein, proposed a slightly different kind of carrier for the weak force.

In contrast to Yukawa’s particle, which had spin 0, Klein’s intermediary had spin 1 and therefore would give the correct spins for the antineutrino and the electron emitted in the beta decay of the neutron. Moreover, within the framework of Klein’s concept, the known strength of the weak force in beta decay showed that the mass of the particle must be approximately 100 times the proton’s mass, although the theory could not predict this value. All attempts to introduce such a particle into V−A theory, however, encountered severe difficulties, similar to those that had beset QED during the 1930s and early ’40s. The theory gave infinite probabilities to various interactions, and it defied the renormalization process that had been the salvation of QED.

Hidden symmetry

Throughout the 1950s, theorists tried to construct field theories for the nuclear forces that would exhibit the same kind of gauge symmetry inherent in James Clerk Maxwell’s theory of electrodynamics and in QED. There were two major problems, which were in fact related. One concerned the infinities and the difficulty in renormalizing these theories; the other concerned the mass of the intermediaries. Straightforward gauge theory requires particles of zero mass as carriers, such as the photon of QED, but Klein had shown that the short-ranged weak force requires massive carriers.

In short, physicists had to discover the correct mathematical symmetry group for describing the transformations between different subatomic particles and then identify for the known forces the messenger particles required by fields with the chosen symmetry. Early in the 1960s Sheldon Glashow in the United States and Abdus Salam and John Ward in England decided to work with a combination of two symmetry groups—namely, SU(2) × U(1). Such a symmetry requires four spin-1 messenger particles, two electrically neutral and two charged. One of the neutral particles could be identified with the photon, while the two charged particles could be the messengers responsible for beta decay, in which charge changes hands, as when the neutron decays into a proton. The fourth messenger, a second neutral particle, seemed at the time to have no obvious role; it apparently would permit weak interactions with no change of charge—so-called neutral current interactions—which had not yet been observed.

This theory, however, still required the messengers to be massless, which was all right for the photon but not for the messengers of the weak force. Toward the end of the 1960s, Salam and Steven Weinberg, an American theorist, independently realized how to introduce massive messenger particles into the theory while at the same time preserving its basic gauge symmetry properties. The answer lay in the work of the English theorist Peter Higgs and others, who had discovered the concept of symmetry breaking, or, more descriptively, hidden symmetry.

A physical field can be intrinsically symmetrical, although this may not be apparent in the state of the universe in which experiments are conducted. On the Earth’s surface, for example, gravity seems asymmetrical—it always pulls down. From a distance, however, the symmetry of the gravitational field around the Earth becomes apparent. At a more-fundamental level, the fields associated with the electromagnetic and weak forces are not overtly symmetrical, as is demonstrated by the widely differing strengths of weak and electromagnetic interactions at low energies. Yet, according to Higgs’s ideas, these forces can have an underlying symmetry. It is as if the universe lies at the bottom of a wine bottle; the symmetry of the bottle’s base is clear from the top of the dimple in the centre, but it is hidden from any point in the valley surrounding the central dimple.

Higgs’s mechanism for symmetry breaking provided Salam and Weinberg with a means of explaining the masses of the carriers of the weak force. Their theory, however, also predicted the existence of one or more new “Higgs” particles, which would carry additional fields needed for the symmetry breaking and would have spin 0. With this sole proviso the future of the electroweak theory began to look more promising. In 1971 a young Dutch theorist, Gerardus ’t Hooft, building on work by Martinus Veltmann, proved that the theory is renormalizable (in other words, that all the infinities cancel out). Many particle physicists became convinced that the electroweak theory was, at last, an acceptable theory for the weak force.

Finding the messenger particles

In addition to the Higgs particle, or particles, electroweak theory also predicts the existence of an electrically neutral carrier for the weak force. This neutral carrier, called the Z0, should mediate the neutral current interactions—weak interactions in which electric charge is not transferred between particles. The search for evidence of such reactions, which would confirm the validity of the electroweak theory, began in earnest in the early 1970s.

The first signs of neutral currents came in 1973 from experiments at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) near Geneva. A team of more than 50 physicists from a variety of countries had diligently searched through the photographs taken of tracks produced when a large bubble chamber called Gargamelle was exposed to a beam of muon-antineutrinos. In a neutral current reaction an antineutrino would simply scatter from an electron in the liquid contents of the bubble chamber. The incoming antineutrino, being neutral, would leave no track, nor would it leave a track as it left the chamber after being scattered off an electron. But the effect of the neutral current—the passage of a virtual Z0 between the antineutrino and the electron—would set the electron in motion, and, being electrically charged, the electron would leave a track, which would appear as if from nowhere. Examining approximately 1.4 million pictures, the researchers found three examples of such a neutral current reaction. Although the reactions occurred only rarely, there were enough to set hopes high for the validity of electroweak theory.

In 1979 Glashow, Salam, and Weinberg, the theorists who had done much of the work in developing electroweak theory in the 1960s, were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics; ’t Hooft and Veltmann were similarly rewarded in 1999. By that time, enough information on charged and neutral current interactions had been compiled to predict that the masses of the weak messengers required by electroweak theory should be about 80 gigaelectron volts (GeV; 109 eV) for the charged W+ and W− particles and 90 GeV for the Z0. There was, however, still no sign of the direct production of the weak messengers, because no accelerator was yet capable of producing collisions energetic enough to create real particles of such large masses (nearly 100 times as massive as the proton).

A scheme to find the W and Z particles was under way at CERN, however. The plan was to accelerate protons in one direction around CERN’s largest proton synchrotron (a circular accelerator) and antiprotons in the opposite direction. At an appropriate energy (initially 270 GeV per beam), the two sets of particles would be made to collide head-on. The total energy of the collision would be far greater than anything that could be achieved by directing a single beam at a stationary target, and physicists hoped it would be sufficient to produce a small but significant number of W and Z particles.

In 1983 the researchers at CERN, working on two experiments code-named UA1 and UA2, were rewarded with the discovery of the particles they sought. The Ws and Zs that were produced did not live long enough to leave tracks in the detectors, but they decayed to particles that did leave tracks. The total energy of those decay particles, moreover, equaled the energy corresponding to the masses of the transient W and Z particles, just as predicted by electroweak theory. It was a triumph both for CERN and for electroweak theory. Hundreds of physicists and engineers were involved in the project, and in 1984 the Italian physicist Carlo Rubbia and Dutch engineer Simon van der Meer received the Nobel Prize for Physics for their leading roles in making the discovery of the W and Z particles possible.

The W particles play a crucial role in interactions that turn one flavour of quark or lepton into another, as in the beta decay of a neutron, where a down quark turns into an up quark to form a proton. Such flavour-changing interactions occur only through the weak force and are described by the SU(2) symmetry that underlies electroweak theory along with U(1). The basic representation of this mathematical group is a pair, or doublet, and, according to electroweak theory, the quarks and leptons are each grouped into pairs of increasing mass: (u, d), (c, s), (t, b) and (e, ve), (μ, vμ), (τ, vτ). This underlying symmetry does not, however, indicate how many pairs of quarks and leptons should exist in total. This question was answered in experiments at CERN in 1989, when the colliding-beam storage ring particle accelerator known as the Large Electron-Positron (LEP) collider came into operation.

When LEP started up, it could collide electrons and positrons at total energies of about 90 GeV, producing copious numbers of Z particles. Through accurate measurements of the “width” of the Z—that is, the intrinsic variation in its mass, which is related to the number of ways the particle can decay—researchers at the LEP collider have found that the Z can decay to no more than three types of light neutrino. This in turn implies that there are probably no more than three pairs of leptons and three pairs of quarks.

Current research in particle physics

Experiments

Testing the Standard Model

Electroweak theory, which describes the electromagnetic and weak forces, and quantum chromodynamics, the gauge theory of the strong force, together form what particle physicists call the Standard Model. The Standard Model, which provides an organizing framework for the classification of all known subatomic particles, works well as far as can be measured by means of present technology, but several points still await experimental verification or clarification. Furthermore, the model is still incomplete.

Prior to 1994 one of the main missing ingredients of the Standard Model was the top quark, which was required to complete the set of three pairs of quarks. Searches for this sixth and heaviest quark failed repeatedly until in April 1994 a team working on the Collider Detector Facility (CDF) at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab) in Batavia, Illinois, announced tentative evidence for the top quark. This was confirmed the following year, when not only the CDF team but also an independent team working on a second experiment at Fermilab, code-named DZero, or D0, published more convincing evidence. The results indicated that the top quark has a mass between 170 and 190 gigaelectron volts (GeV; 109 eV). This is almost as heavy as a nucleus of lead, so it was not surprising that previous experiments had failed to find the top quark. The discovery had required the highest-energy particle collisions available—those at Fermilab’s Tevatron, which collides protons with antiprotons at a total energy of 1,800 GeV, or 1.8 teraelectron volts (TeV; 1012 eV).

The discovery of the top quark in a sense completed another chapter in the history of particle physics; it also focused the attention of experimenters on other questions unanswered by the Standard Model. For instance, why are there six quarks and not more or less? It may be that only this number of quarks allows for the subtle difference between particles and antiparticles that occurs in the neutral K mesons (K0 and K̄0), which contain an s quark (or antiquark) bound with a d antiquark (or quark). This asymmetry between particle and antiparticle could in turn be related to the domination of matter over antimatter in the universe (see cosmos: Matter-antimatter asymmetry). Experiments studying neutral B mesons, which contain a b quark or its antiquark, may eventually reveal similar effects and so cast light on this fundamental problem that links particle physics with cosmology and the study of the origin of matter in the universe.

Testing supersymmetry

Much of current research, meanwhile, is centred on important precision tests that may reveal effects that lie outside the Standard Model—in particular, those that are due to supersymmetry (see below). These studies include measurements based on millions of Z particles produced in the LEP collider at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and in the Stanford Linear Collider (SLC) at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) in Menlo Park, California, and on large numbers of W particles produced in the Tevatron synchrotron at Fermilab and later at the LEP collider. The precision of these measurements is such that comparisons with the predictions of the Standard Model constrain the allowed range of values for quantities that are otherwise unknown. The predictions depend, for example, on the mass of the top quark, and in this case comparison with the precision measurements indicates a value in good agreement with the mass measured at Fermilab. This agreement makes another comparison all the more interesting, for the precision data also provide hints as to the mass of the Higgs particle—a major ingredient of the Standard Model that has yet to be discovered.

The Higgs particle is the particle associated with the mechanism that allows the symmetry of the electroweak force to be broken, or hidden, at low energies and that gives the W and Z particles, the carriers of the weak force, their mass. The particle is necessary to electroweak theory because the Higgs mechanism requires a new field to break the symmetry, and, according to quantum field theory, all fields have particles associated with them. Researchers know that the Higgs particle must have spin 0, but that is virtually all that can be definitely predicted. Theory provides a poor guide as to the particle’s mass or even the number of different varieties of Higgs particles involved. However, comparisons with the precision measurements from the LEP collider suggest that the mass of the Higgs particle may be quite light, perhaps less than 200 GeV, although the data do not rule out a much heavier Higgs particle with a mass greater than 1 TeV.

Further new particles are predicted by theories that include supersymmetry. This symmetry relates quarks and leptons, which have spin 12 and are collectively called fermions, with the bosons of the gauge fields, which have spins 1 or 2, and with the Higgs particle, which has spin 0. This symmetry appeals to theorists in particular because it allows them to bring together all the particles—quarks, leptons, and gauge bosons—in theories that unite the various forces (see below Theory). The price to pay is a doubling of the number of fundamental particles, as the new symmetry implies that the known particles all have supersymmetric counterparts with different spin. Thus, the leptons and quarks with spin 12 have supersymmetric partners, dubbed sleptons and squarks, with integer spin; and the photon, W, Z, gluon, and graviton have counterparts with half-integer spins, known as the photino, wino, zino, gluino, and gravitino, respectively.

If they indeed exist, all these new supersymmetric particles must be heavy to have escaped detection so far. Theory suggests that some of the lightest of them could be created in collisions at the particle accelerators with the highest energies—that is, at the Tevatron and at the Hadron-Electron Ring Accelerator (HERA) at the DESY (German Electron Synchrotron) laboratory in Hamburg, Germany. Experiments at HERA and at the Tevatron also hold the promise of revealing any substructure within quarks or electrons. There is still a chance of more discoveries, including that of one or more Higgs particles, at the Large Hadron Colliderplanned to start up , which began test operations at CERN about 2007in 2008. This machine, which will be was built in the same tunnel that housed the LEP collider until 2000, is designed to collide protons at energies of 7 TeV per beam.

Investigating neutrinos

Other hints of physics beyond the present Standard Model concern the neutrinos. In the Standard Model these particles have zero mass, so any measurement of a nonzero mass, however small, would indicate the existence of processes that are outside the Standard Model. Experiments to measure directly the masses of the three neutrinos yield only limits; that is, they give no sign of a mass for the particular neutrino type but do rule out any values above the smallest mass the experiments can measure. Other experiments attempt to measure neutrino mass indirectly by investigating whether neutrinos can change from one type to another. Such neutrino “oscillations”—a quantum phenomenon due to the wavelike nature of the particles—can occur only if there is a difference in mass between the basic neutrino types.

The first indications that neutrinos might oscillate came from experiments to detect solar neutrinos. By the mid-1980s several different types of experiment, such as those conducted by the American physical chemist Raymond Davis, Jr., in a gold mine in South Dakota, had consistently observed only one-third to two-thirds the number of electron-neutrinos arriving at Earth from the Sun, where they are emitted by the nuclear reactions that convert hydrogen to helium in the solar core. A popular explanation was that the electron-neutrinos had changed to another type on their way through the Sun—for example, to muon-neutrinos. Muon-neutrinos would not have been detected by the original experiments, which were designed to capture electron-neutrinos. Then in 2002 the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) in Ontario, Canada, announced the first direct evidence for neutrino oscillations in solar neutrinos. The experiment, which is based on 1,000 tons of heavy water, detects electron-neutrinos through one reaction, but it can also detect all types of neutrinos through another reaction. SNO finds that, while the number of neutrinos detected of any type is consistent with calculations based on the physics of the Sun’s interior, the number of electron-neutrinos observed is about one-third the number expected. This implies that the “missing” electron-neutrinos have changed to one of the other types. According to theory, the amount of oscillation as neutrinos pass through matter (as in the Sun) depends on the difference between the squares of the masses of the basic neutrino types (which are in fact different from the observed electron-, muon-, and tau-neutrino “flavours”). Taking all available solar neutrino data together (as of 2002) and fitting them to a theoretical model based on oscillations between two basic types indicate a difference in the mass-squared of 5 × 10−5 eV2.

Earlier evidence for neutrino oscillations came in 1998 from the Super-Kamiokande detector in the Kamioka Mine, Gifu prefecture, Japan, which was studying neutrinos created in cosmic-ray interactions on the opposite side of the Earth. The detector found fewer muon-neutrinos relative to electron-neutrinos coming up through the Earth than coming down through the atmosphere. This suggested the possibility that, as they travel through the Earth, muon-neutrinos change to tau-neutrinos, which could not be detected in Super-Kamiokande. These efforts won a Nobel Prize for Physics in 2002 for Super-Kamiokande’s director, Koshiba Masatoshi. Davis was awarded a share of the prize for his earlier efforts in South Dakota.

Experiments at particle accelerators and nuclear reactors have found no conclusive evidence for oscillations over much-shorter distance scales, from tens to hundreds of metres. Since 2000 three “long-baseline” experiments have searched over longer distances of a few hundred kilometres for oscillations of muon-neutrinos created at accelerators. The aim is to build up a self-consistent picture that indicates clearly the values of neutrino masses.

Linking to the cosmos

Massive neutrinos and supersymmetric particles both provide possible explanations for the nonluminous, or “dark,” matter that is believed to constitute 90 percent or more of the mass of the universe. This dark matter must exist if the motions of stars and galaxies are to be understood, but it has not been observed through radiation of any kind. It is possible that some, if not all, of the dark matter may be due to normal matter that has failed to ignite as stars, but most theories favour more-exotic explanations, in particular those involving new kinds of particles. Such particles would have to be both massive and very weakly interacting; otherwise, they would already be known. A variety of experiments, set up underground to shield them from other effects, are seeking to detect such “weakly interacting massive particles,” or WIMPs, as the Earth moves through the dark matter that may exist in the Milky Way Galaxy.

Other current research involves the search for a new state of matter called the quark-gluon plasma. This should have existed for only 10 microseconds or so after the birth of the universe in the big bang, when the universe was too hot and energetic for quarks to coalesce into particles such as neutrons and protons. The quarks, and the gluons through which they interact, should have existed freely as a plasma, akin to the more-familiar plasma of ions and electrons that forms when conditions are too energetic for electrons to remain attached to atomic nuclei, as, for example, in the Sun. In experiments at CERN and at the Brookhaven National Laboratory in Upton, New York, physicists collide heavy nuclei at high energies in order to achieve temperatures and densities that may be high enough for the matter in the nuclei to change phase from the normal state, with quarks confined within protons and neutrons, to a plasma of free quarks and gluons. One way that this new state of matter should reveal itself is through the creation of more strange quarks, and hence more strange particles, than in normal collisions. CERN has claimed to have observed hints of quark-gluon plasma, but clear evidence will come only from experiments at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) at Brookhaven and the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. These experiments, together with those that search for particles of dark matter and those that investigate the differences between matter and antimatter, illustrate the growing interdependence between particle physics and cosmology—the sciences of the very small and the very large.

Theory

Limits of quantum chromodynamics and the Standard Model

While electroweak theory allows extremely precise calculations to be made, problems arise with the theory of the strong force, quantum chromodynamics (QCD), despite its similar structure as a gauge theory. As mentioned in the section Asymptotic freedom, at short distances or equivalently high energies, the effects of the strong force become weaker. This means that complex interactions between quarks, involving many gluon exchanges, become highly improbable, and the basic interactions can be calculated from relatively few exchanges, just as in electroweak theory. As the distance between quarks increases, however, the increasing effect of the strong force means that the multiple interactions must be taken into account, and the calculations quickly become intractable. The outcome is that it is difficult to calculate the properties of hadrons, in particular their masses, which depend on the energy tied up in the interactions between the quarks they contain.

Since the 1980s, however, the advent of supercomputers with increased processing power has enabled theorists to make some progress in calculations that are based on a lattice of points in space-time. This is clearly an approximation to the continuously varying space-time of the real gauge theory, but it reduces the amount of calculation required. The greater the number of points in the lattice, the better the approximation. The computation times involved are still long, even for the most powerful computers available, but theorists are beginning to have some success in calculating the masses of hadrons from the underlying interactions between the quarks.

Meanwhile, the Standard Model combining electroweak theory and quantum chromodynamics provides a satisfactory way of understanding most experimental results in particle physics, yet it is far from satisfying as a theory. In addition to the missing Higgs particle, many problems and gaps in the model have been explained in a rather ad hoc manner. Values for such basic properties as the fractional charges of quarks or the masses of quarks and leptons must be inserted “by hand” into the model—that is, they are determined by experiment and observation rather than by theoretical predictions.

Toward a grand unified theory

Many theorists working in particle physics are therefore looking beyond the Standard Model in an attempt to find a more-comprehensive theory. One important approach has been the development of grand unified theories, or GUTs, which seek to unify the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces in the way that electroweak theory does for two of these forces.

Such theories were initially inspired by evidence that the strong force is weaker at shorter distances or, equivalently, at higher energies. This suggests that at a sufficiently high energy the strengths of the weak, electromagnetic, and strong interactions may become the same, revealing an underlying symmetry between the forces that is hidden at lower energies. This symmetry must incorporate the symmetries of both QCD and electroweak theory, which are manifest at lower energies. There are various possibilities, but the simplest and most-studied GUTs are based on the mathematical symmetry group SU(5).

As all GUTs link the strong interactions of quarks with the electroweak interactions between quarks and leptons, they generally bring the quarks and leptons together into the overall symmetry group. This implies that a quark can convert into a lepton (and vice versa), which in turn leads to the conclusion that protons, the lightest stable particles built from quarks, are not in fact stable but can decay to lighter leptons. These interactions between quarks and leptons occur through new gauge bosons, generally called X, which must have masses comparable to the energy scale of grand unification. The mean life for the proton, according to the GUTs, depends on this mass; in the simplest GUTs based on SU(5), the mean life varies as the fourth power of the mass of the X boson.

Experimental results, principally from the LEP collider at CERN, suggest that the strengths of the strong, weak, and electromagnetic interactions should converge at energies of about 1016 GeV. This tremendous mass means that proton decay should occur only rarely, with a mean life of about 1035 years. (This result is fortunate, as protons must be stable on timescales of at least 1017 years; otherwise, all matter would be measurably radioactive.) It might seem that verifying such a lifetime experimentally would be impossible; however, particle lifetimes are only averages. Given a large-enough collection of protons, there is a chance that a few may decay within an observable time. This encouraged physicists in the 1980s to set up a number of proton-decay experiments in which large quantities of inexpensive material—usually water, iron, or concrete—were surrounded by detectors that could spot the particles produced should a proton decay. Such experiments confirmed that the proton lifetime must be greater than 1032 years, but detectors capable of measuring a lifetime of 1035 years have yet to be established.

The experimental results from the LEP collider also provide clues about the nature of a realistic GUT. The detailed extrapolation from the LEP collider’s energies of about 100 GeV to the grand unification energies of about 1016 GeV depends on the particular GUT used in making the extrapolation. It turns out that, for the strengths of the strong, weak, and electromagnetic interactions to converge properly, the GUT must include supersymmetry—the symmetry between fermions (quarks and leptons) and the gauge bosons that mediate their interactions. Supersymmetry, which predicts that every known particle should have a partner with different spin, also has the attraction of relieving difficulties that arise with the masses of particles, particularly in GUTs. The problem in a GUT is that all particles, including the quarks and leptons, tend to acquire masses of about 1016 GeV, the unification energy. The introduction of the additional particles required by supersymmetry helps by canceling out other contributions that lead to the high masses and thus leaves the quarks and leptons with the masses measured in experiment. This important effect has led to the strong conviction among theorists that supersymmetry should be found in nature, although evidence for the supersymmetric particles has yet to be found.

A theory of everything

While GUTs resolve some of the problems with the Standard Model, they remain inadequate in a number of respects. They give no explanation, for example, for the number of pairs of quarks and leptons; they even raise the question of why such an enormous gap exists between the masses of the W and Z bosons of the electroweak force and the X bosons of lepton-quark interactions. Most important, they do not include the fourth force, gravity.

The dream of theorists is to find a totally unified theory—a theory of everything, or TOE. Attempts to derive a quantum field theory containing gravity always ran aground, however, until a remarkable development in 1984 first hinted that a quantum theory that includes gravity might be possible. The new development brought together two ideas that originated in the 1970s. One was supersymmetry, with its abilities to remove nonphysical infinite values from theories; the other was string theory, which regards all particles—quarks, leptons, and bosons—not as points in space, as in conventional field theories, but as extended one-dimensional objects, or “strings.”

The incorporation of supersymmetry with string theory is known as superstring theory, and its importance was recognized in the mid-1980s when an English theorist, Michael Green, and an American theoretical physicist, John Schwarz, showed that in certain cases superstring theory is entirely self-consistent. All potential problems cancel out, despite the fact that the theory requires a massless particle of spin 2—in other words, the gauge boson of gravity, the graviton—and thus automatically contains a quantum description of gravity. It soon seemed, however, that there were many superstring theories that included gravity, and this appeared to undermine the claim that superstrings would yield a single theory of everything. In the late 1980s new ideas emerged concerning two-dimensional membranes or higher-dimensional “branes,” rather than strings, that also encompass supergravity. Among the many efforts to resolve these seemingly disparate treatments of superstring space in a coherent and consistent manner was that of Edward Witten of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. Witten proposed that the existing superstring theories are actually limits of a more-general underlying 11-dimensional “M-theory” that offers the promise of a self-consistent quantum treatment of all particles and forces.